Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual - HVAC Section

38 1. Introduction to Psychrometrics . . . . . . . . . . .
Psychrometrics
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38-1 Subscripts
2. Properties of Atmospheric Air . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-1 a dry air
3. Vapor Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-2 db dry-bulb
4. Energy Content of Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-3 dp dew-point
5. The Psychrometric Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-4 fg vaporization
6. Enthalpy Corrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-4 l latent
7. Basis of Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-5 s sensible
sat saturation
8. Lever Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-5
t total
9. Adiabatic Mixing of Two Air Streams . . . . . 38-6 unsat unsaturated
10. Air Conditioning Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-6 v vapor
11. Sensible Heat Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-7 w water
12. Straight Humidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-7 wb wet-bulb
13. Bypass Factor and Coil Efficiency . . . . . . . . 38-7
14. Sensible Cooling and Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-8
1. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHROMETRICS
15. Cooling with Coil Dehumidification . . . . . . . 38-8 . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
16. Adiabatic Saturation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . 38-10 Atmospheric air contains small amounts of moisture
17. Air Washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-10 and can be considered to be a mixture of two ideal
18. Cooling with Humidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-10 gasesdry air and water vapor. All of the thermody-
19. Cooling with Spray Dehumidification . . . . . 38-11 namic rules relating to the behavior of nonreacting gas
20. Heating with Humidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-11 mixtures apply to atmospheric air. From Daltons law,
21. Heating and Dehumidification . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-12 for example, the total atmospheric pressure is the sum of
the dry air partial pressure and the water vapor
Nomenclature pressure.1
! !
ADP apparatus dew point F C
HVAC
B volumetric fraction p pa pw 38:1
BF bypass factor
C cycles of concentration ppm mg/L
CF contact factor The study of the properties and behavior of atmospheric
cp specific heat Btu/lbm- ! F kJ/kg" ! C air is known as psychrometrics. Properties of atmo-
G gravimetric fraction spheric air are seldom evaluated, however, from theoret-
h enthalpy Btu/lbm kJ/kg ical thermodynamic principles. Rather, specialized
m mass lbm kg techniques and charts have been developed for that
n number of moles purpose.
p pressure lbf/ft2 kPa
PF performance factor
q heat Btu/lbm J/kg
Q volumetric flow rate gal/min L/s 2. PROPERTIES OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR
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R specific gas constant ft-lbf/lbm- ! R kJ/kg"K
RF rating factor At first, psychrometrics seems complicated by three
SHR sensible heat ratio different definitions of temperature. These three terms
! !
T temperature F C are not interchangeable.
TDS total dissolved solids ppm mg/L
TU tower units . dry-bulb temperature, Tdb: This is the equilibrium
V volume ft3 m3 temperature that a regular thermometer measures
x mole fraction if exposed to atmospheric air.
. wet-bulb temperature, Twb: This is the temperature
Symbols of air that has gone through an adiabatic saturation
! efficiency process. (See Sec. 38.13.)
" degree of saturation
# mass density lbm/ft3 kg/m3
$ specific volume ft3/lbm m3/kg 1
Equation 38.1 points out a problem in semantics. The term air means
% relative humidity dry air. The term atmosphere refers to the combination of dry air and
! humidity ratio lbm/lbm kg/kg water vapor. It is common to refer to the atmosphere as moist air.
P P I * w w w . p p i 2 p a s s . c o m
38-2 M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G R E F E R E N C E M A N U A L
. dew-point temperature, Tdp: This is the dry-bulb From the equation of state for an ideal gas, m = pV/RT.
temperature at which water starts to condense out Since V w V a and T w T a , the humidity ratio can be
when moist air is cooled in a constant pressure written in one additional form.
process.
" #
Ra pw 53:35pw p
For every temperature, there is a unique vapor pressure, ! 0:622 w 38:7
psat, which represents the maximum pressure the water Rw pa 85:78pa pa
vapor can exert. The actual vapor pressure, pw, can be
less than or equal to, but not greater than, the satura- The degree of saturation, " (also known as the satura-
tion value. The saturation pressure is found from steam tion ratio and the percentage humidity), is the ratio of
tables as the pressure corresponding to the dry-bulb the actual humidity ratio to the saturated humidity
temperature of the atmospheric air. ratio at the same temperature and pressure.
pw % psat 38:2 !
" 38:8
!sat
If the vapor pressure equals the saturation pressure, the
air is said to be saturated.2 Saturated air is a mixture of A third index of moisture content is the relative humid-
dry air and saturated water vapor. When the air is itythe partial pressure of the water vapor divided by
saturated, all three temperatures are equal. the saturation pressure.
! pw
! % 38:9
T db T wb T dp ! 38:3 psat
!
sat
From the equation of state for an ideal gas, # = p/RT,
Unsaturated air is a mixture of dry air and superheated so the relative humidity can be written as
water vapor.3 When the air is unsaturated, the dew-
point temperature will be less than the wet-bulb tem- #w
perature. The wet-bulb depression is the difference % 38:10
#sat
between the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures.
! Combining the definitions of specific and relative
! humidities,
T dp < T wb < T db ! 38:4
!
unsat " #
p
HVAC
% 1:608! a 38:11
The amount of water vapor in atmospheric air is spec- psat
ified by three different parameters. The humidity ratio,
! (also known as the specific humidity), is the mass ratio
of water vapor to dry air. If both masses are expressed in 3. VAPOR PRESSURE
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
pounds (kilograms), the units of humidity ratio are
lbm/lbm (kg/kg). However, since there is so little water There are at least six ways of determining the partial
vapor, the water vapor mass is often reported in grains pressure, pw , of the water vapor in the air. The first
of water. (There are 7000 grains per pound.) Accord- method, derived from Eq. 38.9, is to multiply the rela-
ingly, the humidity ratio will have the units of grains per tive humidity, %, by the waters saturation pressure.
pound. The saturation pressure, in turn, is obtained from steam
tables as the pressure corresponding to the airs dry-
mw bulb temperature.
! 38:5
ma
pw %psat;db 38:12
Since m = #V, and since V w V a , the humidity ratio
can be written as A more direct method is to read the saturation pressure
(from the steam tables) corresponding to the airs dew-
#w point temperature.
! 38:6
#a
pw psat;dp 38:13
2
Actually, the water vapor is saturated, not the air. However, this
particular inconsistency in terms is characteristic of psychrometrics. The third method can be used if waters mole (volu-
3
As strange as it sounds, atmospheric water vapor is almost always
superheated. This can be shown by drawing an isotherm passing
metric) fraction is known.
through the vapor dome on a p-V diagram. The only place where the
water vapor pressure is less than the saturation pressure is in the pw x w pt B w pt 38:14
superheated region.
P S Y C H R O M E T R I C S 38-3
The fourth method is to calculate the actual vapor Customary U.S. Solution
pressure from the empirical Carrier equation, valid for
customary U.S. units only.4 method 1: From the steam tables, the saturation pres-
sure corresponding to 60 ! F is 0.2564 lbf/in2. The partial
pressure of the vapor is
pt & psat;wb T db & T wb
pw psat;wb & " #
2830 & 1:44T wb lbf
pw %psat 0:50 0:2564 2
U:S: only* 38:15 in
0:128 lbf=in2
The fifth method is based on the humidity ratio.
method 2: The dew-point temperature (reading straight
pt ! across the psychrometric chart) is approximately 41 ! F.
pw 38:16
0:622 ! The saturation pressure from the steam table cor-
responding to 41 ! F is approximately 0.127 lbf/in2.
The sixth (and easiest) method is to read the water method 3: Use the Carrier equation. The wet-bulb tem-
vapor pressure from a psychrometric chart. Some, but perature of the air is approximately 50 ! F. From the
not all, psychrometric charts have water vapor scales. steam tables, the saturation pressure corresponding to
that temperature is 0.1780 lbf/in2.
Example 38.1
pt & psat;wb T db & T wb
Use the methods described in the previous section to pw psat;wb &
determine the partial pressure of water vapor in stan- 2830 & 1:44T wb
dard atmospheric air at 60! F (16! C) dry-bulb and 50% " #
lbf lbf
relative humidity. 14:7 2 & 0:1780 2
in in
SI Solution lbf + 60! F & 50! F
0:1780 &
in2 2830 & 1:4450! F
method 1: From the steam tables, the saturation pres-
sure corresponding to 16 ! C is 0.01819 bars. The partial 0:125 lbf=in2
pressure of the vapor is
pw %psat 4. ENERGY CONTENT OF AIR

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$ %
kPa Since moist air is a mixture of dry air and water vapor,
0:500:01819 bars 100
HVAC
bar its total enthalpy, h (i.e., energy content), takes both
0:910 kPa components into consideration. Total enthalpy is con-
veniently shown on the diagonal scales of the psychro-
method 2: The dew-point temperature (reading straight metric chart, but it can also be calculated. As Eq. 38.18
across on the psychrometric chart) is approximately indicates, the reference temperature (i.e., the tempera-
5 ! C. The saturation pressure from the steam table ture that corresponds to a zero enthalpy) for the
corresponding to 5 ! C is approximately 0.0087 bars enthalpy of dry air is 0 ! F (0 ! C). Steam properties cor-
(0.87 kPa). respond to a low-pressure superheated vapor at room
temperature.
method 3: The humidity ratio is 0.0056 kg/kg. From
Eq. 38.16, ht h a !h w 38:17
" #
kJ
pt ! h a cp;air T , 1:005 T !C SI* 38:18a
pw kg"! C
0:622 !
" # $ %
kg Btu
101:3 kPa 0:0056 h a cp;air T , 0:240 !
T !F U:S:* 38:18b
kg lbm- F

kg
0:622 0:0056 hw cp;water vapor T hf g
kg " #
0:904 kPa kJ kJ
, 1:805 T ! C 2501 SI* 38:19a
kg"! C kg
hw cp;water vapor T h f g
$ %
Btu Btu
4
Equation 38.15 uses updated constants and is more accurate than the , 0:444 T ! F 1061 U:S:* 38:19b
equation originally published by Carrier.
lbm-! F lbm
5. THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

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(b) Use Eq. 38.17 and Eq. 38.18.
It is possible to develop mathematical relationships for " #

kJ
enthalpy and specific volume (the two most useful ther- ha cp;air T , 1:005 T !C
modynamic properties) for atmospheric air. However, kg"! C
these relationships are almost never used. Rather, psy- " #
kJ
chrometric properties can be read directly from psychro- 1:005 10! C
kg"! C
metric charts (psych charts, as they are usually
referred to), as illustrated in App. 38.A and App. 38.B. 10 kJ=kg
There are different psychrometric charts for low,
medium, and high temperature ranges, as well as charts
hw cp;water vapor T hf g
for different atmospheric pressures (i.e., elevations).
" #
kJ kJ
The usage of several scales varies somewhat from chart , 1:805 T ! C 2501
kg"! C kg
to chart. In particular, the use of the enthalpy scale " #
depends on the chart used. Furthermore, not all psy- kJ kJ
1:805 10! C 2501
chrometric charts contain all scales. kg"! C kg
2519 kJ=kg
A psychrometric chart is easy to use, despite the multi-
plicity of scales. The thermodynamic state (i.e., the h t h a !h w
position on the chart) is defined by specifying the values
" #" #
of any two parameters on intersecting scales (e.g., dry- kJ kg kJ
bulb and wet-bulb temperature, or dry-bulb tempera- 10 0:006 2519
kg kg kg
ture and relative humidity). Once the state point has
been located on the chart, all other properties can be 25:1 kJ=kg
read directly.
(c) The psychrometric chart does not go up to 60 ! C.

Therefore, the energy difference must be calculated
mathematically. Although the initial enthalpy could be
6. ENTHALPY CORRECTIONS subtracted from the calculated final enthalpy, it is
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equivalent merely to calculate the difference based on
Some psychrometric charts have separate lines or the variable terms.
HVAC
scales for wet-bulb temperature and enthalpy. How-

ever, the deviation between lines of constant wet-bulb q ht;2 & ht;1 cp;air !cp;water vapor T 2 & T 1
temperature and lines of constant enthalpy is small.
Therefore, other psychrometric charts use only one "" # " #" ##
kJ kg kJ
set of diagonal lines for both scales. The error intro- 1:005 0:006 1:805
duced is smallseldom greater than 0.10.2 Btu/lbm kg"! C kg kg"! C
(0.230.46 kJ/kg). When extreme precision is needed, + 60! C & 10! C
correction factors from the psychrometric chart can be
used. 50:8 kJ=kg
Example 38.2 Customary U.S. Solution

! !
Air at 50 F (10 C) dry bulb has a humidity ratio of (a) Use the moisture content and dry-bulb temperature
0.006 lbm/lbm (0.006 kg/kg). (a) Use the psychrometric scales to locate the point corresponding to the original
chart to determine the enthalpy of the air. (b) Calculate conditions. From the psychrometric chart, the enthalpy
the enthalpy of the air directly. (c) How much heat is is approximately 18.5 Btu/lbm.
needed to heat one unit mass of the air from 50 ! F to
140 ! F (10 ! C to 60 ! C) without changing the moisture (b) Use Eq. 38.17 and Eq. 38.18.
content?
$ %
Btu
ha cp;air T , 0:240 !
T !F
SI Solution lbm- F
$ %
Btu
(a) Use the moisture content and dry-bulb temperature 0:240 50! F
scales to locate the point corresponding to the original lbm-! F
conditions. From the psychrometric chart, the enthalpy 12 Btu=lbm
is approximately 25 kJ/kg.
hw cp;water vapor T hf g Solution

$ %
Btu Btu Locate the point where the 75 ! F vertical line intersects
, 0:444 T ! F 1065
lbm-! F lbm the curved 50% humidity line. Read all other values
$ % directly from the chart.
Btu Btu
0:444 50! F 1065
lbm-! F lbm (a) Follow the diagonal line up to the left until it inter-
1087:2 Btu=lbm sects the wet-bulb temperature scale. Read T wb 62.6! F.
(b) Follow the horizontal line to the right until it
h t h a !h w intersects the humidity ratio scale. Read ! 64:8 gr
$ %$ % (0.0093 lbm) of moisture per pound of dry air.
Btu lbm Btu
12 0:006 1087:2
lbm lbm lbm (c) Finding the enthalpy is different on different charts.
18:5 Btu=lbm Some charts use the same diagonal lines for wet-bulb
temperature and humidity. Corrections are required in
such cases. Other charts employ two alignment scales to
(c) Psychrometric charts for room temperature do not use in conjunction with a straightedge. Read 28.1 Btu
go up to 140! F. (Appendix 38.D could be used.) There- per pound of dry air.
fore, the energy difference must be calculated mathe-
(d) Interpolate between diagonal specific volume lines.
matically. Although the initial enthalpy could be
Read $ = 13.68 cubic feet per pound of dry air.
subtracted from the calculated final enthalpy, it is
equivalent merely to calculate the difference based on (e) Follow the horizontal line to the left until it inter-
the variable terms. sects the dew-point scale. Read T dp 55:1! F.
(f) From the steam tables, the saturation pressure cor-
q h t;2 & ht;1 responding to a dry-bulb temperature of 75! F is approxi-
cp;air !cp;water vapor T 2 & T 1 mately 0.43 psia. From Eq. 38.9, the water vapor
0 $ %1 pressure is
Btu lbm
0:240 !
0:006
B lbm- F lbm C
@ $ % A pw %psat 0:500:43 psia 0:215 psia
Btu
+ 0:444
lbm-! F
! !
+ 140 F & 50 F
(g) The humidity ratio at 75 ! F saturated is 131.5 gr
HVAC
21:84 Btu=lbm (0.0188 lbm) per pound. From Eq. 38.8, the degree of
saturation is
7. BASIS OF PROPERTIES
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gr
64:8
! lbm
Several of the properties read from the psychrometric " 0:49
!sat 131:5 gr
chart (specific volume, enthalpy, etc.) are given per lbm
pound of dry air. This basis does not mean that the
water vapors contribution is absent. For example, if the
enthalpy of atmospheric air is 28.0 Btu per pound of dry
air, the energy content of the water vapor has been
included. However, to get the energy of a mass of moist 8. LEVER RULE
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
air, the enthalpy of 28 Btu=lbm would be multiplied by
the mass of the dry air (m a ) only, not by the combined With few exceptions (e.g., relative humidity and
air and water masses. enthalpy correction), the scales on a psychrometric
chart are linear. Because they are linear, any one prop-
erty can be used as the basis for interpolation or extrap-
ht ma hchart 38:20 olation for another property on an intersecting linear
scale. This applies regardless of orientation of the scales.
The scales do not have to be orthogonal.
Example 38.3
Furthermore, since psychrometric properties are exten-
During the summer, air in a room reaches 75 ! F and 50% sive properties (i.e., they depend on the quantity of air
relative humidity. Find the airs (a) wet-bulb tempera- present), the mass of air can be used as the basis for
ture, (b) humidity ratio, (c) enthalpy, (d) specific vol- interpolation or extrapolation. This principle, known as
ume, (e) dew-point temperature, (f) actual vapor the lever rule or inverse lever rule, is used when deter-
pressure, and (g) degree of saturation. mining the properties of a mixture. (See Sec. 38.9.)
9. ADIABATIC MIXING OF TWO AIR can be used to determine a more precise value mixture
STREAMS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
temperature. The more precise approach is used in the
customary U.S. solution.)
Figure 38.1 shows the mixing of two moist air streams.
The state of the mixture can be determined if the flow
V_ A T A V_ B T B
rates and psychrometric properties of the two compo- T mixture ,
nent streams are known. V_ A V_ B
" # " #
m3 ! m3
Figure 38.1 Mixing of Two Air Streams 2:36 4 C 7:08 24! C
s s

m3 m3
2:36 7:08
mA s s
19! C
mixture ! mA " mB
Customary U.S. Solution
mB mA B
Locate the two points on the psychrometric chart, and
draw a line between them. Estimate the specific
mB volumes.
re
xtu
mi
"
mB $A 12:65 ft3 =lbm
mA
A $B 13:68 ft3 =lbm
Calculate the dry air masses.
The two input states are located on the psychrometric ft3

V_ A 5000
chart and a straight line is drawn between them. The min
_A
m
state of the mixture air will be on the straight line. The $A ft3
lever rule based on air masses is used to locate the 12:65
lbm
mixture point. (Since the water vapor adds little to the
mixture mass, the ratio of moist air masses can be 395 lbm=min
approximated by the ratio of dry air masses, which, in ft3
15;000
HVAC
turn, can be approximated by the ratio of air flow V_

_B B
m min
volumes.)
$B ft3
The lever rule can be used to find the mixture properties 13:68
lbm
algebraically. Density changes can generally be disre- 1096 lbm=min
garded, allowing volumetric flow rates to be used in
place of mass flow rates. For the dry-bulb temperature Use Eq. 38.21.
(or any other property with a linear scale), the mixture
temperature is # "
m_B
" # T mixture T A T B & T A
_B
m _Am
m _B
T mixture T A T B & T A 0 1
_Am
m _B lbm
! 1096
B min C
V_ B 40! F @ A
, TA T B & T A 38:21 lbm lbm
V_ A V_ B 1096 395
min min
+ 75! F & 40! F
Example 38.4 65:7! F
5000 ft3/min (2.36 m3/s) of air at 40 ! F (4 ! C) dry-bulb
and 35 ! F (2 ! C) wet-bulb are mixed with 15,000 ft3/min
(7.08 m3/s) of air at 75 ! F (24 ! C) dry-bulb and 50% rel- 10. AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
ative humidity. Find the mixture dry-bulb temperature.

The psychrometric chart is particularly useful in analyz-
SI Solution ing air conditioning processes because the paths of many
processes are straight lines. Sensible heating and cooling
An approximate mixture temperature can be found by processes, for example, follow horizontal straight lines.
disregarding the change in density and taking a vol- Adiabatic saturation processes follow lines of constant
umetrically weighted average. (The psychrometric chart enthalpy (essentially parallel to lines of constant wet-bulb
temperature). The paths of pure humidification and dehu- Example 38.5

midification follow vertical paths. Figure 38.2 summarizes
the directions of these paths. During the summer, air from a conditioner enters an
occupied space at 55! F 13! C dry-bulb and 30% rela-
tive humidity. The ratio of sensible to total loads in the
Figure 38.2 Common Psychrometric Processes space is 0.45:1. The humidity ratio of the air leaving the
room is 60 gr=lbm 8:6 g=kg. What is the dry-bulb
a humidification temperature of the leaving air?
b heating and humidifying
c sensible heating
d chemical dehumidifying
SI Solution
e dehumidifying
f cooling and dehumidification
The sensible heat ratio is 0.45. Use the psychrometric
a chart (see App. 38.B) to determine the slope cor-
g sensible cooling
h b responding to this ratio. Draw a temporary line from
h evaporative cooling
the center of the protractor to the 0.45 mark on the
g c sensible heat factor (inside) scale.
Locate 13! C dry-bulb and 30% relative humidity on the
f d
e
psychrometric chart. Draw a line through this point
parallel to the temporary line, which is drawn with a
slope of 0.45. The intersection of this line and the hori-
zontal line corresponding to 8:6 g=kg determines the
condition of the leaving air. The dry-bulb temperature
is approximately 25:2! C.
11. SENSIBLE HEAT RATIO
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .

In general, the slope of any process line on the psychro-
metric chart is determined from the sensible heat ratio, The sensible heat ratio is 0.45. Use the psychrometric
also known as the sensible heat factor, SHF, and sensible- chart (see App. 38.A) to determine the slope cor-
total ratio, S=T, scale on the chart. In an air conditioning responding to this ratio. Draw a temporary line from
process, the sensible heat ratio, SHR, is the ratio of the center of the protractor to 0.45 on the sensible heat
sensible heat added (or removed) to total heat added factor (inside) scale.
(or removed). (The use of such scales varies from chart
to chart. The process slope is determined from the sen- Locate 55! F dry-bulb and 30% relative humidity on the
sible heat factor protractor and then translated (i.e., psychrometric chart. Draw a line through this point
HVAC
moved) to the appropriate point on the chart.) parallel to the temporary line, which is drawn with a
slope of 0.45. The intersection of this line and the hori-
zontal line corresponding to 60 gr=lbm determines the
qs qs condition of the leaving air. The dry-bulb temperature is
SHR 38:22
qt qs ql approximately 76! F.
The sensible heat ratio is always the slope of the line 12. STRAIGHT HUMIDIFICATION
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
representing the change from the beginning point to the
ending point on the psychrometric chart. Different des- Straight (pure) humidification increases the water con-
ignations are given to the sensible heat ratio, however, tent of the air without changing the dry-bulb tempera-
depending on where the changes occur. ture. This is represented by a vertical condition line on
If the sensible and latent energies change as the air the psychrometric chart. The humidification load is the
passes through an occupied room, the term room sensi- mass of water added to the air per unit time (usually per
ble heat ratio, RSHR, is used. If the changes occur as the hour).
air passes through an air conditioning coil (apparatus),
the term coil (or apparatus) sensible heat ratio is used,
CSHR. Since the air conditioning apparatus usually 13. BYPASS FACTOR AND COIL EFFICIENCY
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
removes heat and moisture from both the conditioned

room and from outside makeup air, the term grand Conditioning of air is accomplished by passing it
sensible heat ratio, GSHR, can be used in place of the through cooling or heating coils. Ideally, all of the air
coil sensible heat ratio. The effective sensible heat ratio, will come into contact with the coil for a long enough
ESHR, is the slope of the line between the apparatus time and will leave at the coil temperature. In reality,
dew point on the saturation line and the design condi- this does not occur, and the air does not reach the coil
tions of the conditioned space. temperature. The bypass factor can be thought of as the
percentage of the air that is not cooled (or heated) by
The sensible heat ratio is a psychrometric slope; it is not the coil. Under this interpretation, the remaining air
a geometric slope. (which is cooled or heated by the coil) is assumed to
reach the coil temperature. The bypass factor expressed and the curved saturation line on the psychrometric
in decimal form is chart. The apparatus dew point is the temperature to
which the air would be cooled if 100% of it contacted the
T db;out & T coil coil. (The term apparatus dew point is generally only
BF 38:23 used with cooling-dehumidification processes.)
T db;in & T coil
The mass of condensing water will be
Bypass factors depend largely on the type of coil used.
Bypass factors for large commercial units (such as those m w ma !1 & !2 38:26
used in department stores) are smallaround 10%. For
small residential units, they are approximately 35%. The total energy removed from the air includes both
sensible and latent components. The latent heat is cal-
The coil efficiency is the complement of the bypass culated from the heat of vaporization evaluated at the
factor. pressure of the water vapor.
!coil 1:0 & BF 38:24 q t q s q l m a h1 & h 2 38:27
q l ma !1 & !2 hf g 38:28
14. SENSIBLE COOLING AND HEATING
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
Referring to Fig. 38.4, it is convenient to think of air
There is no change in the dew point or moisture content experiencing sensible cooling from point 1 to point 3,
of the air with sensible heating and cooling. Since the after which the air follows the saturation line down from
moisture content is constant, these processes are repre- point 3 to point 4 (the apparatus dew point). Water
sented by horizontal condition lines on the psychro- condenses out between points 3 and 4. For convenience,
metric chart (moving right for heating and left for the condition line is drawn as a straight line between
cooling). (See Fig. 38.3.) points 1 and 4. The slope of the ADP-2-1 line corre-
sponds to the sensible heat ratio. (See Sec. 38.11.) Since
Figure 38.3 Sensible Cooling some of the air does not contact the coil at all, the final
condition of the air will actually be at point 2 on the
condition line.
Figure 38.4 Cooling and Dehumidification

condition
2 line 1
HVAC
3 1
4
condition
ADP 2 line
Tcoil T2 T1
The energy change during the process can be calculated

from enthalpies read directly from the psychrometric TADP T2 T1
chart or approximated from the dry-bulb temperatures.
In Eq. 38.25, cp;air is usually taken as 0.240 Btu/lbm- ! F
(1.005 kJ/kg" ! C), and cp;moisture is taken as approxi- In practice, point 1 is usually known and either point 2
mately 0.444 Btu/lbm- ! F (1.805 kJ/kg" ! C). or point 4 are unknown. If point 2 is known, point 4 (the
apparatus dew point) can be found graphically by
q ma h2 & h 1 extending the condition line over to the saturation line.
ma cp;air !cp;moisture T 2 & T 1 38:25
(In some cases, the sensible heat ratio must be used to
locate the apparatus dew point.) If point 4 is known,
point 2 can be found from the bypass factor. The con-
tact factor, CF, is essentially a dehumidification effi-
15. COOLING WITH COIL ciency, calculated as the complement of the bypass
DEHUMIDIFICATION
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . factor.
If the cooling coils temperature is below the airs dew
T 2;db & ADP
point (as is usually the case), moisture will condense on CF 1 & BF 1 & 38:29
the coil. The effective coil temperature in this instance is T 1;db & ADP
referred to as the apparatus dew point, ADP (also known
as the coil apparatus dew point), and is determined from Water condenses out over the entire temperature range
the intersection of the condition line (i.e., coil load line) from point 3 to point 4. The temperature of the water
being removed is assumed to be the dew-point temper- (c) The sensible heat ratio is
ature at point 2.
kJ
Example 38.6 13:9
qs kg
SHR
A coil has a bypass factor of 20% and an apparatus dew q t 19:6 kJ
point of 55! F 13! C. Air enters the coil at 85! F 29! C kg
dry-bulb and 69! F 21! C wet-bulb. What are the 0:71
(a) latent heat loss, (b) sensible heat loss, and (c) sen-
sible heat ratio?
SI Solution (a) Locate the point corresponding to the entering air
(a) Locate the point corresponding to the entering air on the psychrometric chart. The enthalpy and humidity
on the psychrometric chart. The enthalpy and humidity ratio are approximately
ratio are approximately
h1 33:1 Btu=lbm
h1 60:4 kJ=kg !1 0:0116 lbm=lbm
!1 0:0123 kg=kg
Use Eq. 38.29 to calculate the dry-bulb temperature of
Use Eq. 38.29 to calculate the dry-bulb temperature of the air leaving the coil.
the air leaving the coil.
T 2;db ADP BFT 1;db & ADP
T 2;db ADP BFT 1;db & ADP
55! F 0:2085! F & 55! F
! ! !
13 C 0:2029 C & 13 C
61! F
16:2! C
Draw a condition line between the entering air and
Draw a condition line between the entering air and the apparatus dew point on the psychrometric chart. Locate
apparatus dew point on the psychrometric chart. Locate the point corresponding to 61! F dry-bulb on the condi-
the point corresponding to 16:2! C dry-bulb on the con- tion line. The leaving enthalpy and humidity ratio are
dition line. The leaving enthalpy and humidity ratio are approximately
approximately
h2 25:1 Btu=lbm
HVAC
h2 40:8 kJ=kg
!2 0:0097 lbm=lbm
!2 0:0100 kg=kg
The total energy loss per pound is
The total energy loss per kilogram is
Btu Btu
kJ kJ q t h1 & h 2 33:1 & 25:1
q t h 1 & h2 60:4 & 40:8 lbm lbm
kg kg
8:0 Btu=lbm of dry air
19:6 kJ=kg of dry air
Since the partial pressure of the water vapor is not
Since the partial pressure of the water vapor is known, estimate hf g ' 1060 Btu=lbm.
unknown, estimate hf g ' 2501 kJ=kg.
From Eq. 38.28, on a pound basis,
From Eq. 38.28, on a kilogram basis,
q l !1 & !2 hf g
q l !1 & !2 h f g # $# $
! "! " lbm lbm Btu
kg kg kJ 0:0116 & 0:0097 1060
0:0123 & 0:0100 2501 lbm lbm lbm
kg kg kg 2:01 Btu=lbm of dry air
(b) The sensible heat loss is
(b) The sensible heat loss is
Btu Btu
q s q t & q l 8:0 & 2:0
kJ kJ lbm lbm
q s q t & q l 19:6 & 5:75
kg kg 6:0 Btu=lbm of dry air
(c) The sensible heat ratio is 17. AIR WASHERS

. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
An air washer is a device that passes air through a dense

Btu spray of recirculating water. The water is used to change
q s 6:0 lbm the properties of the air. Air washers are used in air
SHR
q t 8:0 Btu purifying and cleaning processes (i.e., removal of solids,
lbm liquids, gases, vapors, and odors), as well as for evapora-
0:75 tive cooling and dew-point control.5
The difference between a spray humidifier and spray

dehumidifier is the temperature of the spray water. In
16. ADIABATIC SATURATION PROCESSES
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . an adiabatic air washer, the spray water is recirculated
without being heated or cooled. After equilibrium is
To measure the wet-bulb temperature, air must experi- reached, the water temperature will be equal to the airs
ence an adiabatic saturation process, also known as entering wet-bulb temperature. The air will be cooled
evaporative cooling. Adiabatic saturation processes and humidified, leaving partially or completely sat-
occur in cooling towers, air washers, and evaporative urated at its entering wet-bulb temperature. However,
coolers (swamp coolers). To become saturated, the if the spray water is chilled, the air will be cooled and
air must pick up the maximum amount of moisture it dehumidified. And, if the spray water is heated, the air
can hold at that temperature. This moisture comes from will be humidified and (possibly) heated.
the vaporization of liquid water. For the process to be
adiabatic, there can be no external source of energy to An air washers saturation efficiency, typically 90% to
vaporize the liquid water needed to saturate the air. 95%, is measured by the drop in dry-bulb temperature
At first analysis, the terms adiabatic and saturation relative to the entering wet-bulb depression.
seem contradictory. Adiabatic saturation is possible,
however, if the latent heat of vaporization comes from T in;db & T out;db
the air itself. If the air gives up sensible heat, that !sat 38:31
T in;db & T in;wb
energy can be used to vaporize liquid water. Of course,
the air temperature decreases when sensible heat is
given up. That is the reason that the wet-bulb temper- Air velocity through washers is approximately 500 ft/min
ature is generally less than the dry-bulb temperature. (2.6 m/s). Velocities outside the range of 300 ft/min to
Only when the air is saturated will the two temperatures 750 ft/min (1.5 m/s to 3.8 m/s) are probably faulty. The
be equal. water pressure is typically 20 psig to 40 psig (140 kPa to
HVAC
280 kPa). The spray quantity per bank of nozzles is in the

An adiabatic saturation process can be produced with a range of 1.5 gal/min to 5 gal/min per 1000 ft3 (3.3 L/s to
sling psychrometer, which is essentially a regular ther- 11 L/s per 1000 m3) of air. Screens, louvers, and mist
mometer with its bulb wrapped in wet cotton or gauze. eliminator plates will generate a static pressure drop of
Rapidly twirling the thermometer through the air at the approximately 0.2 in wg to 0.5 in wg (50 kPa to 125 kPa)
end of a cord will cause the water in the gauze to at 500 ft/min (2.6 m/s). Other operating parameters
evaporate. The latent heat needed to vaporize the water used to describe air washer performance include air mass
will come from the sensible heat of the air, and the flow rate per unit area (lbm/hr-ft2 or kg/m2"s), air and
thermometer will measure the wet-bulb temperature. liquid heat transfer coefficients per volume of chamber
Since the increase in the water vapors latent heat con- (Btu/hr-! F-ft3 or kW/ ! C"m3), and the spray ratio (the
tent equals the decrease in the airs sensible heat, the mass of water sprayed to the mass of air passing through
total enthalpies before and after adiabatic saturation the washer per unit time).
are the same. Therefore, an adiabatic saturation process
follows a line of constant enthalpy on the psychrometric 18. COOLING WITH HUMIDIFICATION
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
chart. These lines are, for approximation purposes, par-
allel to lines of constant wet-bulb temperature. When air passes through a water spray (as in an air
The bypass factor concept is not used with adiabatic washer), an adiabatic saturation process known as eva-
saturation processes. Instead, the saturation efficiency porative cooling occurs.6 (See Sec. 38.16.) The air leaves
(humidification efficiency) is used. The saturation effi- with a lower temperature and a higher moisture con-
ciency of large commercial air washers is typically 90% tent. This is represented on the psychrometric chart by
to 95%. The wet bulb temperature does not change
5
during the saturation process. Air washers are generally not used for removing carbonaceous or
greasy particles.
6
An air washer is basically a spray chamber through which air passes.
T db;air;in & T db;air;out When supplied with chilled water from a refrigeration source, the air
!sat 38:30 washer can cool, dehumidify, or humidify the air. Air washers can be
T db;air;in & T w used without refrigeration to cool and humidify the air through an
evaporative cooling process.
a condition line parallel to the lines of constant enthalpy 19. COOLING WITH SPRAY
(essentially constant wet-bulb temperature). DEHUMIDIFICATION
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
Adiabatic saturation is a constant-enthalpy process, If air passes through a water spray whose temperature is
since any evaporation of the water requires heat to be less than the entering airs wet-bulb temperature, both
drawn from the air. Since the removed heat goes into the the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures will decrease.7
remaining water, the water temperature increases. If the leaving water temperature is below the entering
When the water spray is continuously recirculated, the airs dew point, dehumidification will occur. As with any
water temperature gradually increases to the wet-bulb evaporative cooling, the air will give up thermal energy
temperature of the incoming air. The minimum leaving to the water. The final water temperature will depend
air temperature will be the water temperature (i.e., the on the thermal energy pickup and water flow rate. All
wet-bulb temperature of the incoming air). air temperatures decrease, and some moisture con-
denses. The performance factor is defined as
During steady-state operation, the temperature of the
water spray will normally be stable at the airs wet-bulb T air;wb;out & T w;out
PF 1 & 38:32
temperature. However, the water temperature can also T air;wb;in & T w;in
be artificially maintained by refrigeration at less than
the wet-bulb temperature (but more than the dew-point
20. HEATING WITH HUMIDIFICATION
temperature). Line 13 in Fig. 38.5 illustrates such a . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
process. If air is humidified by injecting steam (steam humidifi-

cation) or by passing the air through a hot water spray,
the dry-bulb temperature and enthalpy of the air will
Figure 38.5 Cooling with Humidification (adiabatic saturation) increase.8 The final air enthalpy and/or the required
steam enthalpy can be determined from a conservation
of energy equation. In Eq. 38.33, the mass of the air used
co is the dry air mass, which does not change. ha , though
en nstan
tha t expressed per pound of dry air, includes the energy of all
lpy
vaporized water.
2
m a ha;in m w hw ma ha;out 38:33
3 1
From a conservation of mass for the water,
m a !in mw ma !out 38:34
HVAC
Tw Ta,out Ta,in
Figure 38.6 illustrates that the condition line will be
above the line of constant enthalpy that radiates from
the point corresponding to the incoming air. However,
even though heat is added to the water, the air temper-
To prevent ice buildup, the cooled air temperature ature can either decrease (as in the 12 process shown)
should be kept from dropping below the freezing point or increase (as in the 13 process shown).
of water. The entering wet-bulb temperature should be
kept above 35! F 1:7! C. Figure 38.6 Heating with Steam Humidification
Example 38.7
3
Air at 90! F 32! C dry-bulb and 65! F 18! C wet-bulb
enters an evaporative cooler. The air leaves at 90%
2
relative humidity. The continuously recirculated spray
water is stable at 65! F 18! C. What is the dry-bulb
temperature of the leaving air? cons
enth tant
alpy 1
Solution
Since the spray water is the same temperature as the
wet-bulb temperature of the entering air, the cooler has
reached its steady-state operating conditions. Locate
the entering point on the psychrometric chart and draw 7
a line of constant enthalpy (or constant 65! F 18! C This can unintentionally occur during the start-up of an air washer
used for humidification, or the water can be kept intentionally chilled.
wet-bulb temperature) up to the 90% relative humidity 8
When a spray of hot water is used, the water must be continually
curve. Read the dry-bulb temperature as approximately heated. Unlike a cold water spray, a natural equilibrium water tem-
67! F 19! C. perature is not achieved.
21. HEATING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
Figure 38.7 Heating and Dehumidification
Air passing through a solid or liquid adsorbent bed, such
as silica gel or activated alumina, will decrease in
humidity. This is sometimes referred to as chemical co
dehumidification, chemical dehydration, or absorbent en nsta
tha nt
dehumidification.9 If only latent heat was involved, this lpy
process would be the reverse of an adiabatic saturation
process. However, as moisture is removed, exothermic 1
chemical energy is generated in addition to the heat of
vaporization liberated. Since thermal energy is gener- 2
ated, this is not an adiabatic process. (See Fig. 38.7.)
HVAC
9
The correct term for a substance that collects water on its surface is
an adsorbent. By virtue of their great porosities, adsorbent particles
have large surface areas. The attractive forces on the surfaces of these
solids cause a thin layer of condensed water to form. Adsorbents are
reactivated by heating.
39 Cooling Towers and
Fluid Coolers
. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . ... . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .
1. Wet Cooling Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-1 During countercurrent operation, warm water is intro-
2. Cooling Tower Blowdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-2 duced at the top of the tower and is distributed by
3. Dry Cooling Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-3 troughs or spray nozzles. The water passes over stag-
gered slats or interior fill (also known as packing).2 Air
Nomenclature flows upward, contacting the water on its downward
C cycles of concentration ppm mg/L
path. A portion of the water evaporates, cooling the
cp specific heat Btu/lbm- ! F kJ/kg" ! C
remainder of the water. The water temperature cannot
h enthalpy Btu/lbm kJ/kg
decrease below the wet-bulb temperature. The actual
m mass lbm kg
final water temperature depends on a number of factors,
p pressure lbf/ft2 kPa
including the state of the incoming air, the heat load,
q heat load Btu/lbm J/kg
and the design (and efficiency) of the cooling tower. (See
Q volumetric flow rate gal/min L/s
Fig. 39.1.)
RF rating factor There are several environmental issues associated with
! !
T temperature F C wet cooling towers. Makeup water, though relatively
TDS total dissolved solids ppm mg/L little is needed, may be difficult to obtain. Moist plume
TU tower units discharges cause shadowing of adjacent areas and fog-
ging and icing on nearby highways. Disposal of blow-
Symbols down wastewater is also problematic.
! efficiency
! humidity ratio lbm/lbm kg/kg Equation 39.1 is a per-unit energy balance that can be
used to evaluate cooling tower performance. Each term,
Subscripts including the circulating water flow rate, is per unit
mass (e.g., pound or kilogram) of dry air. Since the
a dry air
energy contribution of the makeup water is small, that
w water
term can be omitted for a first approximation.
wb wet-bulb
1. WET COOLING TOWERS

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
m w;in hw;in ha;in !a;out % !a;in hmakeup
Conventional wet cooling towers cool warm water by mw;out hw;out ha;out
exposing it to colder air.1 They are usually used to mw;in !a;in % !a;out h w;out h a;out 39:1
provide cold water to power plant and large refrigera-
HVAC
tion condensers. The air is used to change the properties
of the water, which leaves cooler. As it leaves, the sat- If operation is at standard pressure, a psychrometric
urated (or nearly saturated) warmed air takes sensible chart can be used to obtain the air enthalpies. For
and latent heat from the water. operation at different altitudes (i.e., different atmo-
spheric pressures), the mathematical psychrometric
Cooling towers are generally counterflow, crossflow, or a
relationships in Sec. 38.4 can be used to calculate the
combination. Though natural-draft and atmospheric
enthalpy. From Eq. 38.16, the humidity ratio is
towers exist, limited space usually requires that cooling
towers operate with mechanical draft. Fans are located
at the base of forced draft towers and blow air into the 0:622pwater vapor
water cascading down. With induced mechanical draft, ! 39:2
ptotal % pwater vapor
fans are located at the top of the tower, drawing air
upward. Some portion of the exhaust air might reenter
the cooling tower. This is known as recycle air (recircu- 2
Modern filled towers use corrugated cellular fill to maximize the air-
lation air). Recycle air decreases the efficiency of the water contact area. Standard polyvinyl chloride (PVC) fill is useful up
tower. to about 125! F (52! C). From 125! F to 140! F (52! C to 60! C), chlori-
nated PVC fill is recommended. Polypropylene fill should be used
1
Though larger in size, a cooling tower is similar in operation to an air above 140! F (60! C). Fill-less towers, where the sprayed water merely
washer. In fact, an air washer can be used to cool water. Since air falls through oncoming air, are used in some industries (food, steel, and
washer operation is not countercurrent, however, larger air flows are paper processes) where a high-product carryover can lead to coating or
required to obtain the same cooling effect. buildup on the fill material.
Figure 39.1 Counterflow Wet Cooling Tower temperatures.3 Cooling efficiency is typically 50% to
70%.4 Natural draft towers can cool the water to within
10! F to 12! F (5.5 ! C to 6.7 ! C) of the wet-bulb temper-
ature. Forced draft towers can cool the water to within
5! F to 6! F (2.8 ! C to 3.3 ! C).
induced-draft fan
range T w;in % T w;out
!w 39:3
approach range T w;in % T air;wb;in
drift eliminators As Eq. 39.3 indicates, the actual wet-bulb temperature

of the cooling air is particularly important in determin-
water distributors ing cooling tower performance. The higher the wet-bulb
temperature, the lower the efficiency. (This is because
when the denominator in Eq. 39.3 decreases, the
numerator decreases even more.) In rating their cooling
towers, most manufacturers have adopted the practice
fill
of using wet-bulb temperatures that will be exceeded
only 2.5% of the time or less.
Performance of a cooling tower also depends on the
relative humidity of the air. High relative humidities
decrease the water evaporation rate, decreasing the
efficiency.
The heat load (tower load or cooling duty) is calculated
louvered
from the range and the water mass flow rate.
air
air flow air flow
entry
(radial)
q mw cp T w;in % T w;out m w hw;in % h w;out 39:4
cold-water basin Cooling towers are sometimes rated in tower units,

which are essentially proportional to the tower cost.
The number of tower units, TU, is equal to a rating
factor multiplied by the flow rate. Rating factors define
the relative difficulty in cooling, essentially the relative
amount of contact area or fill volume required. Manu-
When a cooling tower is used to provide cold water for facturers provide charts showing the relationship
the condenser of a refrigeration system, the water circu- between rating factor, approach, range, and wet-bulb
lation will be approximately 3 gal/min per ton temperature.
(0.19 L/s) of refrigeration. Approximately 2 gal/min to
4 gal/min of water are distributed per square foot
HVAC
(1.4 L/s to 2.7 L/s per square meter) of tower, and the TU RF ( Q gpm 39:5
air velocity should be approximately 700 ft/min
(3.6 m/s) through the net free area. Coolants for con-
densers in reciprocating refrigeration systems usually 2. COOLING TOWER BLOWDOWN
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
call for an 85! F to 90! F (29! C to 32! C) water temper-
ature. (This corresponds to a condensing temperature of Water losses occur from evaporation, windage, and blow-
approximately 100! F to 110! F (38! C to 43! C).) Various down. Evaporation loss can be calculated from the
valves, mixing, louvers, and dampers are used to main- humidity ratio increase and is approximately 0.1% per ! F
tain a constant output water temperature. (0.18% per ! C) decrease in water temperature.5 Windage
loss, also known as drift, is water lost in small droplets
The lowest temperature to which water can be cooled by and carried away by the air flow. Windage loss is typi-
purely evaporative means is the wet-bulb temperature cally in the 0.1% to 0.3% range for mechanical draft
of the entering air. The cooling efficiency, !w , is based towers. Since windage droplets are a mechanical mixture
on the water temperature. The water range (cooling
range or range) is defined as the actual difference 3
Thus, approach for a cooling tower is analogous to the terminal
between the entering and leaving water temperatures. temperature difference in the surface condenser.
4
(For water-cooled refrigeration condensers, this is equal The term thermal efficiency is sometimes used here inappropri-
ately.
to the waters temperature increase in the condenser.) 5
This value is approximate and is reported in various ways. Some
The approach is defined as the difference between the authorities state 0.1% per degree Fahrenheit; others say 1% per
leaving water temperature and the entering air wet-bulb 10! F; and yet others, 1% per 10! F to 13! F.
C O O L I N G T O W E R S A N D F L U I D C O O L E R S 39-3
(not a thermodynamic solution of two gases), they are Figure 39.2 Dry Cooling Towers
not adequately accounted for by the humidity ratio.
steam transfer duct
Makeup water must be provided to replace all water steam
steam in air
losses. As more and more water enters the system, total air flow
dissolved solids, TDS (e.g., chlorides), will build up over turbine out out
time. Water can be treated to prevent deposit, and a
portion of the water can be periodically or continuously
bled off. Cycles of concentration (ratio of concentra-
tion), C, is the ratio of total dissolved solids in the air in
recirculating water to the total dissolved solids in the condensate
makeup water.6 pump
TDSrecirculating (a) direct

C
TDSmakeup
air out
m evaporation mblowdown m windage
39:6
m blowdown mwindage steam in
turbine
Though windage removes some of the solids, most must
be removed by bleeding some of the water off. This is cold
known as blowdown or bleed-off. If the maximum cycles water
steam
of concentration are known, the blowdown is
surface condenser air in
m evaporation 1 % C max mwindage
m blowdown 39:7 hot water
C max % 1
Additives should be used to prevent specific problems

encountered, such as scale buildup, corrosion, biological condensate
growth, foaming, and discoloration. pump
(b) indirect
3. DRY COOLING TOWERS

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
Dry cooling is used when environmental protection and

water conservation are issues. It is used primarily by
nonutility generators (e.g., waste-to-energy and cogen-
eration plants).
There are two types of dry cooling towers. Both use
finned-tube heat exchangers. In a direct-condensing
tower, steam travels through large-diameter trunks
HVAC
to a crossflow heat exchanger where it is condensed
and cooled by the cooler air.7 In an indirect-
condensing dry cooling tower, steam is condensed by
cold water jets (surface or jet condenser) and is subse-
quently cooled by air. The hot condensate is then
pumped to crossflow heat exchangers where it is sen-
sibly cooled (no condensation) by the air. Air flow may
be mechanical or natural draft. Most U.S. installations
are direct-condensing. Worldwide, natural-draft indi-
rect systems are more predominant, particularly for
power plants with capacities in excess of 100 MW.
(See Fig. 39.2.)
6
Multiply grains/gallon (gr/gal) by 17.1 to obtain parts per million
(ppm) or milligrams per liter (mg/L).
7
The term direct contact does not mean that the air and steam are
combined in a single vessel.
40 1. Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ventilation
. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . ... . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .
40-1 Ra rate per unit area ft3/min-ft2 L/s!m2

2. Ventilation Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-2 Rp rate per person ft3/min-person L/s!person
3. ASHRAE Ventilation Rate: Single Zone . . . 40-2 s sheltering coefficient
4. ASHRAE Ventilation Rate: Multizone . . . . 40-4 SG specific gravity
5. Special ASHRAE Ventilation t time hr h
"
Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-5 T temperature F or " R "
C or K
6. Infiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-5 TLV threshold limit value various various
7. Infiltration in Tall Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-6 v velocity mi/hr km/h
8. Indoor Design Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-6 V volume ft3 m3
9. Humidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-7 V_ flow rate ft3/min m3/min
10. Oxygen Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-7 y elevation ft m
11. Carbon Dioxide Buildup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-7
12. Odor Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-7
13. Sensible and Latent Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-8 Symbols
14. Ventilation for Heat Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-8 ! efficiency
15. Ventilation for Mold Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-8 " density lbm/ft3 kg/m3
16. Fume Exhaust Hoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-9 ! humidity ratio lbm/lbm kg/kg
17. Dilution Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-10
18. Recirculation of Cleaned Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-11 Subscripts
19. Clean Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-11 a area
20. Ventilation and Pressurization in abs absolute
Laboratories and Clean Rooms . . . . . . . . . 40-11 ADP apparatus dew point
21. Closed Recirculating Atmospheres . . . . . . . . 40-11 bz breathing zone
fg vaporization
Nomenclature id indoor design
A area ft2 m2 in entering the room
ACH number of air changes 1/hr 1/h l latent
per hour NPL neutral pressure level
B crack coefficient ft3/ft-min m3/m!min o neutral or reference
cp specific heat Btu/lbm- " F kJ/kg! " C ot outdoor total
C concentration lbm/ft3 kg/m3 ou outdoor uncorrected
HVAC
Cd coefficient of discharge oz outdoor zone
Cp coefficient of pressure p people or primary
D occupancy diversity pz primary zonal
E efficiency s sensible or system
g gravitational acceleration, ft/sec2 m/s2 v ventilation
32.2 (9.81) w wind
gc gravitational constant, ft-lbm/lbf-sec2 n.a. z zone
32.2
h elevation (height) ft m
h enthalpy Btu/lbm kJ/kg 1. VENTILATION
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
K mixing factor
L length ft m
Ventilation primarily refers to air that is necessary to
m _ mass flow rate lbm/min kg/min
satisfy the needs of occupants.1 The term may mean the
MW molecular weight lbm/lbmol kg/kmol
air that is introduced into an occupied space, or it may
n exponent
refer to the new air that is deliberately drawn in from
p pressure lbf/in2 Pa
the outside and mixed with return air. Ventilation,
P population persons persons
however, does not normally include unintentional infil-
q_ heat transfer rate Btu/min W
tration through cracks and openings.
R contaminant lbm/min kg/min 1
The term process air is the most common designation given to
generation rate ventilation needed for manufacturing processes.
Ventilation air is provided to the occupied space primar- has been incorporated into NFPA 5000 and LEED
ily to remove heat and moisture generated in the space. green building qualifications. ASHRAE Standard 62.2
Heat and moisture can both be generated metabolically specifies voluntary minimum standards for single-
as well as by equipment and processes. To a lesser extent, family houses and multifamily dwellings three stories
ventilation is also used to remove odors, provide oxygen, or less in height. The ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamen-
prevent carbon dioxide buildup, and remove noxious tals volume also provides useful design guidance.
fumes. Generally, however, all of the other needs will be
met if removal of body heat is accomplished. Compliance with Energy Standard for Buildings Except
Low-Rise Residential Buildings (ASHRAE Stan-
dard 90.1), along with state and federal regulations
2. VENTILATION STANDARDS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
intended to minimize environmental impact and energy
loss (e.g., Californias Energy Efficiency Standards for
Few ventilation codes have the force of law, but there Residential and Nonresidential Buildings, California
are several recommended standards. The U.S. Occupa- Energy Code, Title 24, Part 6 of the California Code
tional Safety and Health Act (OSHA) contains a hand- of Regulations), may also be required.
ful of mandatory standards, including 29 CFR 1910.146,
dealing with minimum oxygen percentage in confined Minimum ventilation requirements are given by local
spaces, and 29 CFR 1910.94, dealing primarily with building codes, local ordinances, health regulations, and
local exhaust systems. Almost all cities, counties, states, construction specifications. A common minimum design
and municipalities have building codes, a few of which standard (as specified by ASHRAE Standard 62.1) is
have their own ventilation requirements. Most building 20 ft3/min (0.57 m3/min; 9.4 L/s) of new, outside air
codes now incorporate provisions of the International per person. In interior areas that permit heavy smoking
Mechanical Code (IMC), published by the International (e.g., casinos and smoking lounges), 30 ft3/min to
Code Council (ICC). The American National Standards 60 ft3/min (0.84 m3/min to 1.68 m3/min; 14.1 L/s to
Institute (ANSI) has joined forces with the American 28.2 L/s) per person is required. Some nonsmoking areas
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning may require more than 20 ft3/min (0.57 m3/min; 9.4 L/s)
Engineers (ASHRAE) in publishing indoor air quality anyway to avoid the sick building syndrome (as when
standards, but it has several specialized standards of its formaldehyde-emitting furniture and building materials
own, primarily ANSI Z9. ANSI Z9 is published in con- are present).
junction with the American Industrial Hygiene Associa- Some ventilation requirements are specified by the num-
tion (AIHA) and covers, for example, ventilation of ber of air changes (i.e., room volumes or cubical con-
laboratories, paint spray booths, and grinding stations. tents without allowance for room contents) required
The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and per hour, ACH. This is known as the air change method.
Health (NIOSH) has a few standards covering foundry A typical minimum value for toilet rooms, for example,
ventilation, recirculation, and push-pull hoods. The is four air changes per hour. For other uses (automotive,
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has stan- boiler rooms, engine rooms, etc.) the number of air
dards that cover some specialized ventilation require- changes can be significantly higher (e.g., 25 to 100 per
ments such as NFPA 45, which covers lab fume hoods. hour).
The ASTM International ASTM D6245 describes how
carbon dioxide can be used as an index of ventilation
rate and objectionable body odor. The Air Movement 3. ASHRAE VENTILATION RATE: SINGLE
and Control Association (AMCA) and the Sheet Metal ZONE
HVAC
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association
(SMACNA) cover ventilation peripherally in their fan ASHRAE Standard 62.1 prescribes two methods for
and duct publications, such as AMCA 201, but they do determining the amount of outdoor ventilation air: a
not recommend ventilation rates. ventilation rate procedure (VRP) and an indoor air
quality procedure (IAQP). Since it is not practical to
Perhaps the most authoritative and comprehensive monitor all air contaminants in all locations, and since
ventilation requirements are published by American some contaminants (e.g., mold and fungi spores) cannot
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists be monitored in real time, using the IAQP is associated
(ACGIH) and ASHRAE. The ACGIH Industrial Ven- with significant risk. Due to a multiplicity of air con-
tilation Committee publishes Industrial Ventilation: A taminants that (a) are not monitored, (b) are not
Manual of Recommended Practice for Design, which is detected, and (c) do not even have definite limits, and
used throughout the world. ASHRAE publishes, in con- since the straightforward VRP is so much simpler, the
junction with ANSI, the most complete guidance, in rate-based methodology is preferred.
particular, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Qual-
ity (ASHRAE Standard 62.1) and Ventilation and Modern rate-based ventilation standards, including
Acceptable Indoor Air Quality in Low-Rise Residential ASHRAE Standard 62.1, specify the required breath-
Buildings (ASHRAE Standard 62.2). ASHRAE Stan- ing zone outdoor air (i.e., the outdoor ventilation air
dard 62.1 sets voluntary minimum standards for new in the breathing zone), V_ bz , as a function of both zone
and substantially renovated commercial buildings. occupancy, Pz, and zone floor area, Az. The first term
ASHRAE Standard 62.1 is a consensus standard that accounts for contaminants produced by occupants,
V E N T I L A T I O N 40-3
Table 40.1 Representative Minimum Ventilation Rates in Breathing Zonea,b
people outdoor air rate, area outdoor air rate, default values
Rp Ra occupant density, combined outdoor air rate
occupancy people per 1000 ft2 cfm/
category cfm/person L/s!person cfm/ft2 L/s!m2 (100 m2) person L/s!person cfm/ft2
educational:
classrooms 10 5 0.12 0.6 35 13 6.7 0.46
(age 9 and up)
science 10 5 0.18 0.9 25 17 8.6 0.43
laboratories
general:
conference 5 2.5 0.06 0.3 50 6 3.1 0.30
and meeting
hotel:
bedrooms and 5 2.5 0.06 0.3 10 11 5.5 0.11
living rooms
office building:
main lobbies 5 2.5 0.06 0.3 10 11 5.5 0.11
offices 5 2.5 0.06 0.3 5 17 8.5 0.09
miscellaneous:
bank vaults 5 2.5 0.06 0.3 5 17 8.5 0.09
public assembly:
auditorium 5 2.5 0.06 0.3 150 5 2.7 0.75
seating areas
retail:
sales areas 7.5 3.8 0.12 0.6 15 16 7.8 0.24
sports and
entertainment:
spectator areas 7.5 3.8 0.06 0.3 150 8 4.0 1.2
(Multiply cfm by 0.02832 to obtain m3 /min.)

(Multiply cfm by 0.4719 to obtain L/s.)
(Multiply cfm/ft2 by 5.08 to obtain L/s!m2 .)
(Multiply people/1000 ft2 by 0.929 to obtain people/100 m2 .)
(Multiply cfm/ft2 by 0.3048 to obtain m3/min!m2 .)
a
This table applies to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS)-free areas only. Refer to ASHRAE Standard 62.1 Sec. 5.17 for requirements for buildings
containing ETS areas and ETS-free areas.
b
Rates are based on an air density of 0.075 lbm/ft3 (1.2 kg/m3).
From ASHRAE Standard 62.1, Table 6.1, copyright 2010, by American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Reproduced with permission.
HVAC
while the second term accounts for contaminants pro- Table 40.1 contains representative values of Rp and Ra,
duced by the building. The maximum number of occu- although local codes, federal regulations, and contract
pants expected in the zone during typical usage is requirements take precedence. The default columns are
normally used rather than a value based on building used only if the actual occupant density is unknown.
code classification occupancy densities. However, dif-
ferent short-term time-averaging methods prescribed The outdoor ventilation rate specified by Eq. 40.1 is
by ASHRAE Standard 62.1 may also be used if the affected by the distribution effectiveness, Ez, as specified
zone population fluctuates.2 ASHRAE Standard 62.1 in Table 40.2. The zone outdoor airflow, V_ oz , at the
requires that the rate specified by Eq. 40.1 be main- diffusers is given by Eq. 40.2. For single-zone systems,
tained during operation under all load conditions. this is also the system total outdoor air requirement,
V_ ot , as shown in Eq. 40.3.
V_ bz Rp P z Ra Az 40:1
V_
V_ oz bz 40:2
2 Ez
Outdoor airflow rates can be reduced dynamically in the critical zones
that have variable occupancy. Changes in outdoor air demand (i.e.,
changes in occupancy) can be detected several ways, including mea-
V_ oz V_ ot single-zone system& 40:3
surement of carbon dioxide, CO2.
Table 40.2 Zone Air Distribution Effectiveness Since cool air is supplied from the ceiling, from
air distribution configuration effectiveness, Ez Table 40.2, Ez = 1.0. The total outdoor air to the zone is
ceiling supply of cool air 1.0
ft3
542
ceiling supply of warm air with floor return 1.0 V_ bz min 542 ft3 =min
ceiling supply of warm air 15" F (8" C) or 0.8 V_ oz
Ez 1:0
more above space temperature, with
ceiling return
ceiling supply of warm air less than 15" F 1.0 4. ASHRAE VENTILATION RATE:
(8" C) above space temperature, with MULTIZONE
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
ceiling return, provided that the 150 fpm
(0.8 m/s) supply air jet reaches to within There are two types of multiple-zone (multizone) systems
4.5 ft (1.4 m) of floor level drawing outside air: 100% outside air (OA) systems and
ceiling supply of warm air less than 15" F 0.8 recirculating air systems. For 100% outside air systems,
(8" C) above space temperature, with the system total outside air requirement is the sum of all
ceiling return, with supply jet air velocity of the zonal requirements.
less than 150 fpm (0.8 m/s)
floor supply of cool air with ceiling return, 1.0 V_ ot V_ oz multiple 100% OA zones& 40:4
provided that the 150 fpm (0.8 m/s)
supply air jet reaches 4.5 ft (1.4 m) or For recirculating systems with outside air intakes, a
more above the floor level* correction is made for occupancy diversity (also known
floor supply of cool air with ceiling return, 1.2 as occupant diversity or population diversity), D, which
provided the low-velocity displacement is the ratio of the system population (the maximum
ventilation achieves unidirectional flow number of simultaneous occupants in the space served
and thermal stratification by the system), Ps, to the sum of the zonal peak
floor supply of warm air with floor return 1.0 occupancies.
floor supply of warm air with ceiling return 0.7
Ps
D 40:5
P z
*
This describes most underfloor air distribution systems.
From ASHRAE Standard 62.1, Table 6-2, copyright 2010, by

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Only the population outdoor air component is affected
Engineers, Inc. Reproduced with permission. by the diversity term. The uncorrected system outdoor
air requirement is corrected for diversity but not for
distribution effectiveness.
Example 40.1
V_ ou D Rp P z Ra Az 40:6
A single-zone high school classroom has a floor area of
1600 ft2 and seats 35 students. Cool air is supplied from Since multizone recirculating systems are not as efficient
ceiling diffusers. How much outdoor ventilation air is as 100% OA systems, the system outdoor rate is deter-
HVAC
required per ASHRAE Standard 62.1? mined from the system ventilation efficiency, Ev. The
system ventilation efficiency, in turn, depends on the
Solution maximum primary outdoor air fraction. ASHRAE Stan-
From Table 40.1 (educational: classroom (age 9 and dard 62.1 gives two methods for determining this effi-
up)), Rp = 10 cfm/person, and Ra = 0.12 cfm/ft2. From ciency: the default method using Table 40.3 (ASHRAE
Eq. 40.1, Table 6-3), and the more accurate and more involved
calculated method using ASHRAE App. A. These meth-
ods produce significantly different results, but either
V_ bz Rp P z Ra Az may be used.
! "
ft3 The system ventilation efficiency depends on the max-
10 35 people
min-person imum primary outdoor air fraction evaluated over all of
! " the zones. A zones primary outdoor air fraction, Zp, is
ft3
0:12 1600 ft2 the fraction of total air (including the outdoor and
min-ft2
recirculated airflows) from the air handler, known as
542 ft3 =min the zonal primary airflow, V_ pz , that is outdoor air.
V_ oz
Zp 40:7
V_ pz
Table 40.3 System Ventilation Efficiency* controlled ventilation (DCV) is required for spaces
maximum Zp Ev larger than 500 ft2 (47 m2) and with a design occupancy
for ventilation of greater than 40 people per 1000 ft2
0.15 1.0
(100 m2) of floor area and served by systems with one or
0.25 0.9
more of the following: (a) an air-side economizer,
0.35 0.8
(b) automatic modulating control of the outdoor air
0.45 0.7
damper, or (c) a design outdoor airflow greater than
0.55 0.6
3000 cfm.
40.55 Use ASHRAE Standard 62.1
App. A method.
*
6. INFILTRATION
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
Interpolation may be used between tabulated values.
Infiltration (also known as accidental infiltration) refers
From ASHRAE Standard 62.1, Table 6-3, copyright 2010, by
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning to the air that unintentionally enters an occupied space
Engineers, Inc. Reproduced with permission. through cracks around doors and windows and through
openings in a building. Accidental infiltration may be as
high as 0.4 to 1.0 ACH.
Table 40.3 can be used with the maximum value of Zp to
determine the system ventilation efficiency, Ev. With the crack length method, the amount of infiltra-
tion, V_ , is determined from the crack coefficient, B, and
# $
V_ multiple zones the crack length, L. Values of the crack coefficient vary
V_ ot ou 40:8 greatly and depend on the type of window or door, wind
Ev with recirculation
velocity, orientation, and degree of closure.4 Alterna-
tively, the infiltration may be found from the plane area.
(This method is more common when determining infil-
5. SPECIAL ASHRAE VENTILATION
tration through entire walls.) As with the crack length
REQUIREMENTS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
method, the crack area coefficient B 0 depends on many
As specified in ASHRAE Standard 62.1, some condi- factors.
tions trigger special ventilation requirements.3
V_ BL B 0 A 40:9
. Natural ventilation may be relied on when certain
requirements are met.
More sophisticated correlations recognize the depen-
. Outdoor air drawn from National Ambient Air Qual- dence on the difference in outside and inside pressures.
ity Standards (NAAQS) nonattainment areas must Values of B 00 and n must be known or assumed and must
be treated to reduce particulate matter, ozone, carbon be consistent with the units of pressure.
dioxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen dioxide, and/or lead
to specified levels. Specifically, coils and other devices V_ B 00 ADpn 40:10
with wetted surfaces must have MERV 6 filters
upstream if the outdoor air does not meet NAAQS Since air entering through cracks on the windward side
for PM-10 particulates. An ozone air cleaner (mini- must leave through cracks on the leeward side, only half
mum 40% efficiency) is generally required if the aver- of the total crack length is used when all four sides of a
age ozone concentration exceeds 0.107 ppm.
HVAC
building are exposed to wind. However, the amount of
. Ventilation in areas exposed to environmental crack length used also depends on the building orienta-
tobacco smoke (ETS) (i.e., in smoking areas) requires tion. When only one wall is exposed to wind, that walls
the use of methods in ASHRAE Standard 62.1 total crack length is used. With two exposed walls, the
Sec. 5.17. Smoke-free areas must be maintained at wall with the larger crack length is used. When three
higher static pressures relative to adjacent ETS walls are exposed, only two walls contribute to crack
areas. length. The crack length used should never be less than
half of the total crack length.
. Variable air volume (VAV) systems with fixed out-
side air dampers must comply at the minimum sup- The air change method can also be used for infiltration.
ply airflow. Infiltration into modern (tight) residential construction
may be as low as 0.2 air changes per hour, while older
. Residential spaces in buildings over three stories
residences in good condition may experience ten times as
have special requirements. much. In the past, a rule of thumb used (to size furnaces)
ASHRAE Standard 90.1 Sec. 6.4.3.9 (Ventilation Con- in the absence of other information was that infiltration
trols for High-Occupancy Areas) specifies that demand into residences with windows on one, two, or three sides
would be one, one and one-half, or two air changes per
3
An interesting situation is a repair garage. For a repair garage, Rp =
0, and Ra = 0. Therefore, V_ bz = 0, and V_ oz = 0. Outside air is not 4
Typical values of the crack length coefficient are given in most HVAC
required in a repair garage, although removal of exhaust is. Make-up books. Manufacturers literature should be used for specific name-
air would most likely, but not necessarily, be outside air. brand windows and doors.
hour, respectively. Experience is needed to modify these is the elevation of the neutral pressure level and all
values for use with modern, energy-efficient construction. temperatures are absolute.
Dpstack effect "outside ) "inside gh ) hNPL

7. INFILTRATION IN TALL BUILDINGS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
"inside gh ) h NPL T abs;outside ) T abs;inside
For tall buildings (i.e., those over 100 ft (30 m) in
T abs;inside
height), the pressure difference, Dp, in Eq. 40.11 is a
SI& 40:15a
combination of the wind velocity pressure and the stack
effect (chimney effect). The stack effect is particularly "outside ) "inside gh ) hNPL
important during the winter. The combined infiltration Dpstack effect
due to static pressure (including wind velocity pressure) gc
and the stack effect is proportional to the square root of "inside gh ) h NPL T abs;outside ) T abs;inside
the sum of the heads acting on the building.
g c T abs;inside
q U:S:& 40:15b
Dp p2w Dp2stack effect 40:11
Some methods determine infiltration by using an effec-
If the infiltrations due to wind alone and stack effect tive wind velocity (equivalent wind velocity), veffective, to
alone are known, Eq. 40.12 is equivalent to taking the combine the effects of wind and stack effect. For
square root of the sum of the heads. example, a table of crack coefficients usually requires
knowing the wind velocity. For short buildings, the
q actual wind velocity, vo, at the opening (window, door,
2 2
V_ V_ V_ w stack effect 40:12 opening, crack, etc.) elevation is used. For tall buildings,
vo at the opening elevation is modified for stack effect.
In addition to traditional HVAC methods based on For rough estimates of infiltration made by such meth-
crack length, infiltration from wind may be calculated ods, Eq. 40.16 gives an effective wind velocity at a
from extensions of traditional fluid principles. Specifi- location y above or below a buildings midheight, the
cally, if the opening area or effective leakage area, A, assumed location of the neutral pressure level. vo is the
and entrance or discharge coefficient, Cd, are known, wind velocity that would be used if the stack effect was
the infiltration is neglected. y is positive above the midheight and nega-
tive below the midheight. This correctly reflects infiltra-
r tion into the building due to both wind and stack effect
2pw
V_ w C d A SI& 40:13a below midheight, but infiltration due to wind balanced
" against exfiltration due to stack effect above midheight.
r q
2g c pw
V_ w C d A U:S:& 40:13b veffective;mph v2o;mph ) 1:75y ft U:S: only& 40:16
"
The wind pressure, pw, is based on the theoretical veloc-

ity pressure (stagnation pressure) modified by a wind 8. INDOOR DESIGN CONDITION
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
surface pressure coefficient, Cp, which is a function of

HVAC
The indoor design condition refers to the thermody-

wind direction, building orientation, and vertical loca-
namic state of the air that is removed from an occupied
tion. Ideally, Cp = 1.0 for wind perpendicular to a sur-
space. The inside design temperature, Tid, represents
face, but rarely does Cp exceed 0.9 in practice, and
the maximum dry-bulb air temperaturea not-to-be-
values between 0.5 and 0.9 are typical. In cases where
exceeded limitthat the space will reach.
the wind flow is affected by adjacent structures or vege-
tation, a shelter factor (sheltering coefficient), s, may be HVAC books contain tables of recommended inside
incorporated into the calculation of wind pressure. For design conditions and charts of comfort ranges that
an unsheltered building projecting vertically above level can be used to select suitable combinations of tempera-
surroundings, s = 1. ture and humidity. Within a comfort range, choice of
the actual inside design condition is subjective and
C p s2 "v2 requires modification based on experience for the needs
pw SI& 40:14a
2 of the particular industries, the season, and the levels of
physical exertion.
C p s2 "v2
pw U:S:& 40:14b Most people feel comfortable when the dry-bulb temper-
2gc ature is kept between 74 " F and 77 " F (23.3 " C and 25 " C)
and the relative humidity is 30% to 35% (in the winter)
Several different methods (theoretical, heuristic, and or 45% to 50% (in the summer). 75 " F (23.9 " C) dry-bulb
code-based) can be used to determine the stack effect. and 50% relative humidity is often selected as an inside
The theoretical value is given by Eq. 40.15, where hNPL design condition for initial studies. This temperature is
for the breathing line, 3 ft to 5 ft (0.9 m to 1.5 m) above in closed and confined environments such as mines,
the floor.5 tunnels, manholes, and closed tanks, forced ventilation
and/or oxygen masks are necessary.
Attention also needs to be given to the temperature
swing, the difference between the thermostats on and Air is approximately 20.9% oxygen by volume, indepen-
off settings. For commercial applications, the swing dent of altitude. For confined spaces, OSHA (29 CFR
during the summer should be approximately 2 " F to 1910.134) specifies a minimum oxygen content of 19.5%,
4 " F (1.1 " C to 2.2 " C) above the indoor design (i.e., which is adequate for elevations below 3000 ft (914 m).
off ) setting, and the swing during the winter should NIOSH and ACGIH specifications differ slightly. Concen-
be approximately 4 " F (2.2 " C) below the indoor design trations less than 19.5% are known as oxygen-deficient
(i.e., off) setting. atmospheres. Reaction to oxygen deficiency varies with
individuals, but in general, significant impairments to
work rate, perception, concentration, and judgment can
9. HUMIDIFICATION
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . be expected with lower values. Some individuals may
experience coronary, pulmonary, and circulatory prob-
Ventilation provides humidification to the occupied lems. Concentrations below 12% pose immediate danger
space, particularly during the winter. Air should not to life. OSHA defines an oxygen-enriched atmosphere as
be completely dry when it enters an occupied space. one with an oxygen concentration greater than 23.5%
Air that is too dry will cause discomfort and suscepti- (29 CFR 1910.146(b)). (OSHA 1915.12(a)(2) pertaining
bility to respiratory ailments. Also, some pathogenic to shipyard operations specifies concentrations above
bacteria that survive in low- and high-humidity air will 22% as being enriched.) Oxygen-enriched environments
die very quickly in air with midrange humidities.6 pose extreme fire and explosion hazards, especially if
Some manufacturing and materials handling processes combustible material is present.
require specific humidity for efficient operation. Hygro-
scopic materials, such as wood, paper, textiles, leather, 11. CARBON DIOXIDE BUILDUP
and many food and chemical products, readily absorb . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
moisture. A constant humidity level is required to obtain Diluting exhaled carbon dioxide, like providing oxygen,
consistent manufacturing conditions with such products. is only an issue in completely closed environments.
Dry air prevents static electricity from dissipating Infiltration alone provides the dilution needed. Healthy
(into the air). Therefore, dry air can cause intermit- individuals can usually tolerate a concentration of
tent electrical/electronic failures; affect the handling 0.5% (by volume), though the air will be noticeably
of static-prone materials such as paper, films, and stale.8 Equation 40.17 is used for finding the approx-
plastics; and ignite potentially explosive atmospheres imate time (in hours) for a 3% buildup of carbon diox-
of dust and gases. ide in a closed area.9 The carbon dioxide concentration
should not exceed 5% under any circumstances.
Humidification can be provided by evaporating water in
the occupied space (the evaporative pan method) or by
injecting water (the water spray method) or steam into 1:4V room;m3
th SI& 40:17 a
the duct flow. Most commercial humidification is no: of occupants
accomplished by placing one or more steam manifolds
in the air distribution duct. Booster humidification (spot 0:04V room;ft3
t hr U:S:& 40:17 b
HVAC
humidification) from a separate, independent source is no: of occupants
required when a higher humidity is needed in a limited
area within a larger controlled space. Steam flow is
controlled by humidistats placed downstream of the
steam manifold.7 12. ODOR REMOVAL
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
The airflow required through a room to remove body

10. OXYGEN NEEDS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . odors depends on the room size and level of activity.
Body odors become more pronounced when the relative
Providing oxygen is not an issue in traditional buildings. humidity is above 55%. Except for very cramped areas,
Infiltration alone provides the oxygen needed. However, common ventilation standards are normally sufficient
for odor removal. Good practice requires approximately
5
The temperature variation with height above the floor is approxi- one-third of the air to be new air.
mately 0.75 " F/ft (1.4 " C/m).
6
In particular, airborne type 1 pneumococcus, group C staphylococcus,
and staphylococcus are quickly killed in relative humidities of 45% to
55%. Other viruses, including measles, influenza, and encephalomyeli-
tis, survive longer in very dry air than in midrange relative humidities.
7 8
Steam flow is turned off when the humidity reaches the high-limit Some submarines have operated at 1% by volume carbon dioxide.
9
humidistat setting, typically 90% relative humidity. This prevents This equation assumes an initial (atmospheric) carbon dioxide con-
oversaturation of the air when there is a failure in the air conditioning tent of 0.03% and carbon dioxide production of 0.011 ft3/min
system or controlling humidistat. (0.00031 m3/min; 5.2 mL/s) per person.
13. SENSIBLE AND LATENT HEAT

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
air density of 0.075 lbm/ft3 (1.2 kg/m3), a specific
heat of 0.24 Btu/lbm- " F (1.0 kJ/kg! " C), and the fac-
Metabolic heat contains both sensible and latent compo- tor 60 min/hr (60 s/min).10
nents. Sensible heat is pure thermal energy that
increases the airs dry-bulb temperature. Latent heat is q_ s;kW
moisture that increases airs humidity ratio. Table 40.4 V_ m3 =min & '
kJ!min
gives the approximate amounts of metabolic heat in a 0:02 3 " T id;" C ) T in;" C
m !s! C
75 " F (23.9 " C) environment. The adjusted column SI& 40:20a
refers to a normal mix of men, women, and children.
For design purposes, the heat gain for an adult female is q_ s;Btu=hr
approximately 85% of the adult male rate; the heat gain V_ ft3 =min & '
Btu-min
for a child is 75% of the adult male rate. 1:08 3 T id;" F ) T in;" F
ft -hr-" F
U:S:& 40:20b
Table 40.4 Approximate Heat Generation by Occupants (Btu/hr)
total q_ s;Btu=hr
V_ L=s & '
adult total sensible* latent* Btu-sec
2:28 T id;" F ) T in;" F
activity males adjusted adjusted adjusted L-hr-" F
seated, at rest, 390 330 225 105 mixed units& 40:20c
theater,
classroom q_ s;W
V_ L=s & '
moderately 475 450 250 200 W!s
1:20 " T id;" C ) T in;" C
active office L! C
work SI& 40:20d
standing, light 550 450 250 200
work, slowly The sensible heat loads will usually be more significant
walking than the latent load, and ventilation will be determined
moderate 900 850 305 545 solely on that basis. When large moisture sources are
dancing present, however, the latent loads may control.
walking 3 mph, 1000 1000 375 625
moderately q_ l m _ air D!hf g
_ water hf g m
heavy work _
V "D!hf g 40:21
heavy work 1500 1450 580 870
The constant 4775 (49.36) in Eq. 40.22 is the product of
(Multiply Btu/hr by 0.293 to obtain watts.)
*
The sensible-latent splits given are for a 75 " F (23.9 " C) environment. the air density of 0.075 lbm/ft3 (1.2 kg/m3), a latent heat
For an 80 " F (26.7 " C) environment, total heat remains the same, but of vaporization at the approximate partial pressure of the
sensible heat decreases approximately 20% and latent heat increases water vapor in the air of 1061 Btu/lbm (2468 kJ/kg), and
accordingly. the factor 60 min/hr (60 s/min).11
14. VENTILATION FOR HEAT REMOVAL q_ l;kW

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . V_ m3 =min & ' SI& 40:22a
kJ!min
HVAC
49:36 D!kg=kg
Ventilation requirements can be calculated from sensi- m3 !s
ble heat and/or moisture (i.e., latent heat) generation
rates. In Eq. 40.18, Tin is the dry-bulb temperature of q_ l;Btu=hr
the air entering the room. V_ ft3 =min & ' U:S:& 40:22b
Btu-min
4775 D!lbm=lbm
ft3 -hr
q_ s mc
_ p T id ) T in
V_ "cp T id ) T in 40:18 15. VENTILATION FOR MOLD CONTROL
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
Equation 40.18 can be written in terms of the number of Humidity as low as 70%, even without condensing infil-
air changes per hour, ACH, and the temperature of the tration, can provide sufficient moisture for mold and
ventilation air, Tout. fungi growth in as little as six hours. Moisture manage-
ment should be specifically considered in ventilation
"cp V room ACHT in ) T out
q_ 40:19 10
min cp = 0.24 Btu/lbm- " F (1.0 kJ/kg! " C) is applicable to dry air. For air
60 with normal amounts of water vapor, the specific heat is closer to cp =
hr
0.244 Btu/lbm- " F (1.02 kJ/kg! " C).
11
There is some variation in these constants depending on what heat of
In ventilation work, volumetric flow rates are tradi- vaporization is used. For example, some sources use 1076 Btu/lbm
tionally given in ft3/min (cfm), m3/min, or L/s. The (2503 kJ/kg), in which case the constant is 4840 Btu-min/ft3-hr
constant 1.08 (0.02) in Eq. 40.20 is the product of an (50.06 kJ!min/m3!s).
design, and it should take precedence over energy man- Table 40.5 Minimum Control Velocities for Enclosure Hoods
agement. Best practice requires that (a) infiltration of minimum control velocity
unfiltered and unconditioned humid air be prevented;
process ft/min m/min
(b) negative interior pressures be avoided and net posi-
tive pressure with respect to outdoors be maintained (in evaporation from open tanks 50100 1530
the absence of wind and stack effects) while dehumidi- paint spraying, welding, 100200 3660
fication is occurring; (c) building and system design, plating
operation, and maintenance provide for dehumidifica- stone cutting, mixing, 200500 60150
tion (drying) of surfaces and materials prone to moisture conveying
accumulation under normal operating conditions; and grinding, crushing 5002000 150600
(d) the HVAC should specifically monitor and control
humidity. (Multiply ft/min by 0.3048 to obtain m/min.)
With only a few exceptions, ASHRAE Standard 62.1

Sec 5.9.1 limits maximum humidity in occupied spaces material. In nonbypass air hoods, the resulting high-
to 65% during periods of peak outdoor dew point.12 velocity air jet sweeping over the work surface and noise
Without dehumidification equipment, meeting this limit is often disconcerting, leading to a reluctance by users to
may be difficult with high outdoor air latent loading and close the sash fully. Bypass air hoods address this issue.
low inside space sensible heat ratio. Meeting acceptable (See Fig. 40.1.) In air hoods with bypass, air enters the
humidity ratios is facilitated in buildings maintained at fume chamber through the bypass opening when the
small positive pressures. sash is closed. When the sash is open, air enters the
fume chamber through the sash opening. The bypass
Even if the interior relative humidity is maintained area is typically 2030% of the all-open sash area, and
below 65%, as prescribed by ASHRAE Standard 62.1, the resulting terminal face velocities with a fully closed
local areas with higher humidity can exist. Areas with sash are in the 300500 ft/min (90150 m/s) range,
higher spot humidity include carpet over concrete, win- significantly higher than required for most processes.
dow sills, under sinks, under outside sliding doors, near Therefore, most users prefer a combination of bypass
defective roof installations, and, ironically, near dehu- and partially open sash.
midification equipment. Although not required by
ASHRAE, relative humidities less than 35% may be
required to avoid condensation on cold surfaces during Figure 40.1 Conventional Cabinet Bypass Air Hood
the winter. Alternatively, relative humidity should be
kept above 30% to prevent generation of static
electricity. sash
16. FUME EXHAUST HOODS

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
bypass
bypass
Air hoods (also known as fume hoods or exhaust hoods) partly
blocked
are used to provide localized protection from and open
by sash
removal of hazardous vapors, dusts, and biological
sash
materials. Table 40.5 lists representative control veloc-
HVAC
ities needed for air to capture and entrain materials moderate
generated by various processes. When there is sufficient face
air in the work room to create the face velocity, a velocity
moderately
separate blower bringing air from the outside may be high
used, in which case, the term auxiliary-air hood is used. face
Hoods may be of the nonenclosure or closure varieties. velocity
Nonenclosure air hoods for nontoxic materials may be
simple canopies over open tanks (for vapors that rise) or (a) sash fully open (b) sash partly open
periphery slots (for contents that do not rise). Flanges
around the exterior of canopies extending over the edges
of the tank increase the collection efficiency and reduce With auxiliary-air hood units (also known as makeup air
the required airflow, but nonenclosure hoods are partic- fume hoods), outside air is drawn in by a supply blower
ularly inefficient at best. and discharges downward through a face plenum along
With a conventional enclosure air hood, air is drawn the top width of the bypass hood. Typically, 5070% of
through the front opening into the fume chamber and the discharged air can be supplied by the auxiliary
across the work surface, entraining the captured blower. Unfortunately, even when adjusted properly,
auxiliary air hoods provide relatively poor containment
12
Exceptions where humidity may exceed 65% include kitchens, hot
and result in significantly higher worker exposure com-
tub rooms, refrigerated areas including ice rinks, shower rooms, spas, pared to conventional (non-auxiliary air) hoods. The air
and pools. curtain created may even pull vapors out of the hood
interior. Therefore, most authorities, including Labora- Three types of TLVs are used. The time-weighted aver-
tory Ventilation (ANSI/AIHA Standard Z9.5), recom- age (TLV-TWA) is the time-weighted average concen-
mend against auxiliary air hoods. tration that workers may be exposed to for eight hours
per day, day after day, without experiencing adverse
Some contaminants are released with almost no velocity effects. The short-term exposure limit (TLV-STEL) is
of their own. This is the case with products of natural the time-weighted average concentration that workers
evaporation. Other contaminants (paint booth over- may be exposed to for fifteen minutes, up to four times
spray, dust from grinding wheels, etc.) are released at per eight-hour period.16 The ceiling value (TLV-C) is
high velocity. With distance, the velocity dissipates and the concentration that should not be exceeded, even
reaches zero at the null point. Although capture is instantaneously. Depending on the substance, one,
easiest at the null point, it is difficult in most situations two, or all three of these limits may be applicable.17
to determine the distance to the null point. Even when
the distance to the null point is known, the direction- Assuming that a contaminant is uniformly distributed
ality may vary. Therefore, a high air intake velocity is throughout the plant air, at equilibrium the contami-
needed to capture the moving contaminants near the nant generation rate, R, is equal to the ventilated
point of generation. removal rate.
Air velocity decreases with increasing distance from the R C V_ 40:23
source, varying almost inversely with the square of the
distance. Therefore, the hood opening should be as close
To account for irregular vapor evolution, inefficient
as possible to the contaminant source.
ventilation, and toxicity, an empirical multiplicative
Since heated air rises, different design principles are effectiveness of mixing factor (the K-factor) between
needed for high-temperature (e.g., molten metal) pro- 3 and 10 is used.
cesses. The heated air mixes with the surrounding air,
and a larger volume of diluted air must be captured. K R C V_ 40:24
17. DILUTION VENTILATION

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
The maximum concentration, Cmax, is usually the
threshold limit value or the permissible exposure limit
Dilution ventilation (toxicity dilution) refers to the dilu- (PEL), both with a safety factor. The required airflow is
tion of contaminated air in order to reduce its health or
explosion hazard. Dilution is less effective than outright
removal of hazards by exhaust ventilation. Dilution is 4:02 * 108 K Rkg=min
V_ L=s
generally applicable to organic liquids and solvents MWC max
whose toxicities are low, when the workers are not too
close to the source, and when vapor generation is fairly 4:02 * 108 K SGRL=min SI& 40:25a
uniform.13 The required volume of dilution air must not
MWC max
be so great as to make air velocities unreasonable.
Dilution is achieved by providing enough air to reduce a 3:86 * 108 K Rlbm=min
V_ ft3 =min
vapors concentration to an acceptable level. Various MWC max
designations are given to acceptable levels, although
HVAC
the threshold limit value (TLV) in parts per million 4:03 * 108 K SGRpints=min U:S:& 40:25b
(ppm) by volume (mg/m3 in SI) and lower explosive
MWC max
limit (LEL) in parts per hundred (pph) by volume
(mg/m3 in SI) are the most common.14 The TLV is
assumed to be the concentration that workers may be When two or more hazardous substances that have
continuously exposed to during a certain period. TLVs similar toxicologic effects are simultaneously present
are subject to ever-changing legislation and ongoing (i.e., act on the same organ or metabolic process), the
research.15 combined effect should be considered. If the air is to be
breathed, the airflow rates for each substance must be
13
Dilution ventilation is not recommended for carbon tetrachloride, calculated and the separate flow rates summed. The
chloroform, and gasoline, among others. Dusts are seldom removed mixture threshold value is exceeded when
successfully by dilution.
14
Another unit used for dust concentrations in respirable air is millions & ' & '
C C
of particles per cubic foot (mppcf) determined by midget impinger !!! > 1 40:26
techniques. The conversion between mppcf and other units is not TLV 1 TLV 2
exact, depending primarily on the particle size and density. However,
equivalences of 5.6 mppcf and 6.4 mppcf to 1.0 mg/m3 are quoted. In
16
the absence of any other information, an average value of 6 mppcf is Other restrictions may apply to TLV-STEL. For example, there may
recommended. be a sixty-minute waiting period between successive exposures at this
15
In the United States, TLVs are updated annually in Industrial level.
17
Ventilation: A Manual of Recommended Practice, published by the For example, irritant gases may be controlled only by the TLV-C
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. value.
The additive nature implied by Eq. 40.26 is assumed 20. VENTILATION AND PRESSURIZATION IN
unless the two substances are known to act indepen- LABORATORIES AND CLEAN ROOMS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
dently instead of additively. In that case, the thresh-
old limit is exceeded only when the ratio C/TLV for at Clean rooms should be maintained at positive pressure
least one component in the mixture exceeds unity. with respect to the surrounding areas. However, OSHA,
The highest ventilation rate calculated for each com- NFPA, and ANSI require most laboratories to be main-
ponent independently is the design ventilation rate. tained at negative pressure. Recirculation of air from
laboratories is strongly discouraged, if not prohibited.
18. RECIRCULATION OF CLEANED AIR
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
21. CLOSED RECIRCULATING
The volume of ventilation air required will be reduced if ATMOSPHERES
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
some of the contaminated air can be cleaned and
returned. Dust and particulate matter in air can be The closed recirculating atmosphere in submarines and
removed by two types of air cleaners. Air filters are spacecraft presents unique challenges. There are four
applicable when the concentration is between 0.5 grains primary requirements for closed recirculation of atmo-
and 50 grains per 1000 cubic feet (1.1 milligrams per sphere within closed environments such as submarines
cubic meter to 110 milligrams per cubic meter). Dust and spacecraft: oxygen replacement, carbon dioxide
collectors are used at the higher concentrations nor- removal, moisture removal, and, in some cases, heat
mally found in manufacturing processes. Equilibrium removal. Water vapor is removed in a dehumidification
will be achieved when the contaminant generation rate process. Replacement oxygen is added from tanks, elec-
equals the rate at which the air filter removes particles trolysis of water, or oxygen generators. Oxygen can be
from the air. released continuously by a monitoring system that
senses the percentage of oxygen in the air, or it can be
R !filter C V_ 40:27 released periodically in bulk.
Exhaled air is 45% by volume carbon dioxide. The
19. CLEAN ROOMS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
carbon dioxide content is chemically reduced to a nor-
Clean rooms are defined by the number of particles mal atmospheric concentration, approximately 0.04%
(pollen, skin flakes, etc.) above a given size (usually by volume, in a scrubber.18,19 Scrubbers use chemical
0.5 microns) in a cubic foot of air. Most semiconductor aqueous absorbents (e.g., soda lime, consisting of mostly
clean rooms are Class-100 or better, meaning that there calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) with small amounts of
will be no more than one hundred 0.5 micron-sized sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and/or potassium hydroxide
particles per cubic foot. (KOH)) to remove carbon dioxide. The absorbent can
be rejuvenated by heating.
Clean rooms technology generally relies on high-efficiency,
prefilters, either high-efficiency particulate arresting
(HEPAs) or ultra-low penetration air (ULPA) filters in
the supply, positive room pressure, fast air movement,
and floor grates (i.e., downflow air movement). A positive
pressure of approximately 0.1 in of water (25 Pa) is
typical. Twenty air changes per hour is a typical mini-
HVAC
mum, while airflow velocities of 75 ft/min to 100 ft/min
(0.38 m/s to 0.5 m/s) are used in the best clean rooms.
High-efficiency (60% to 90%) prefilters reduce the load
on HEPAs. Usually, HEPAs (99.97% efficiency at the
0.3 micron level) are suitable for Class-100 clean rooms,
while ULPAs are needed for Class-10 or better clean
rooms. Large centralized equipment may be used, or
modular air handling units (AHUs) drawing air from
the main general supply may be used for individual
clean rooms. Adjustable-frequency drives can be used
to change the airflow in order to reduce energy usage or
change the cleanliness. Stainless steel is the preferred
material for ducts and hoods, as it does not have the
flaking problem associated with galvanized metals.
Ventilation requirements are similar to regular designs.
Makeup air should be 25% of the total airflow and not 18
Similar but separate scrubbing operations are required to remove
less than 20 ft3/min (0.57 m3/min; 9.4 L/s) per person. other contaminants, such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and refrig-
Clean rooms are normally maintained with a positive erants in the closed system.
pressure relative to the surroundings. 19
Atmospheric air is 0.038% (380 ppm) carbon dioxide by volume.
41 1. Standard and Actual Flow Rates . . . . . . . . .
Fans, Ductwork, and
Terminal Devices
. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . ... . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .
41-2 Nomenclature1
2. Static Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-3 A area ft2 m2
3. Velocity Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-3 ACFM actual flow rate ft3 =min L/s
4. Total Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-3 AHP air horsepower hp n.a.
5. Air Handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-3 AkW air kilowatts n.a. kW
6. Variable Air Volume Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-3 BHP brake horsepower hp n.a.
7. Axial Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-4 BkW brake kilowatts n.a. kW
8. Centrifugal Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-6 cp specific heat at constant Btu/lbm- ! F kJ/kg"K
9. Fan Specific Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-6 pressure
10. Fan Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-6 C coefficient
11. Variable Flow Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-7 CL leakage class cfm/100 ft2 n.a.
12. Temperature Increase Across the Fan . . . . . 41-8 d diameter in mm
13. Fan Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-8 D diameter ft m
14. Multirating Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-8 E energy ft-lbf J
15. System Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-8 EHP electrical power hp n.a.
16. System Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-9 F leakage factor cfm/100 ft2 n.a.
17. Operating Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-9 FHP friction horsepower hp n.a.
18. Affinity Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-10 FP friction pressure in wg Pa
19. Fan Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-10 g acceleration of gravity, ft/sec2 m/s2
20. Operation at Nonstandard Conditions . . . . . 41-11 32.2 (9.81)
21. Duct Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-13 h head or height ft m
22. Sheet Metal Duct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-13 H duct height ft mm
23. Spiral Duct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-13 ICFM inlet flow rate cfm L/s
24. Fiberglass Duct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-14 k Atkinson friction factor
25. Flexible Duct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-14 K factor
26. Friction Losses in Round Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . 41-14 L length ft m
27. Pressure Drop for Nonstandard L sound pressure level dB dB
Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-17 L space characteristic length ft mm
28. Rectangular Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-17 m_ mass flow rate lbm/sec kg/s
29. Friction Losses in Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-17 ME mechanical efficiency
30. Coefficient of Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-19 n fan speed rev/min rev/min

HVAC
31. Static Regain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-19 N exponent
32. Divided-Flow Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-19 p pressure in wg Pa
33. Duct Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-21 P power hp kW
34. Economical Duct Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-22 Q volumetric flow rate ft3 =min L/s
35. Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-22 r radius ft m
36. Collapse of Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-23 R aspect ratio
37. Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-23 R Atkinson resistance atkinsons gauls
38. Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-23 R regain coefficient
39. Velocity-Reduction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-24 S perimeter ft mm
40. Equal-Friction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-24 SCFM standard flow rate ft3 =min L/s
41. Combination Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-26 SE static efficiency
42. Static Regain Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-27 SP static pressure in wg Pa
43. Total Pressure Design Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-29 SR static regain in wg Pa
44. Air Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-29 t thickness in mm
45. Exhaust Duct Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-31
46. Duct System Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-31
47. Dust Collection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-32
1
48. Atkinson Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-32 There is only marginal consistency in the symbols used by this indus-
try. For example, the symbol for total pressure can be pt, pT, TP, Pt,
Tp, ht, and many other variations. The symbol for fitting loss coeffi-
cient is almost universally K in the industry; ASHRAE uses C.
! Table 41.1 Pressure at Altitudes

T absolute temperature R K
TP total pressure in wg Pa altitude ratio of
v velocity ft/min m/s (ft (m)) pactual =pstd
VP velocity pressure in wg Pa
sea level (0) 1.00
W duct width ft mm
1000 (305) 0.965
X 50 throw to 50 fpm ft mm
2000 (610) 0.930
z elevation above sea level ft m
3000 (915) 0.896
4000 (1220) 0.864
Symbols 5000 (1525) 0.832
! specific weight lbf/ft3 N/m3 6000 (1830) 0.801
" efficiency 7000 (2135) 0.772
# density lbm/ft3 kg/m3
$ specific volume ft3/lbm m3/kg (Multiply ft by 0.3048 to obtain m.)
% relative humidity % %
Standard air is implicitly dry air. A correction for water
Subscripts vapor can be made if the relative humidity, %, is known.
br branch The saturation pressure, psat, is read from a saturated
d density or discharge steam table for the dry bulb temperature of the air.
down downstream ! "! "
e entry or equivalent pstd T actual
Kd
f friction pactual $ pvapor T std
k kinetic ! "! "
m motor pstd T actual
41:3
s specific pactual $ %psat T std
sat saturation
std standard Other air flow designations are ICFM (inlet cubic feet
up upstream per minute), SDCFM (standard dry cubic feet per min-
v velocity ute, the time rate of DSCF, dry standard cubic feet),
MSCFD (thousand standard cubic feet per day), and
1. STANDARD AND ACTUAL FLOW RATES MMSCFD (million standard cubic feet per day). The
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
term ICFM is not normally used in duct design. It is
Airflow through fans is typically measured in units of used by compressor manufacturers and suppliers to
cubic feet per minute, ft3/min (L/s). When the flow is specify conditions before and after filters, boosters, and
at the standard conditions of 70 ! F (21 ! C) and 14.7 psia other equipment. If the conditions before and after the
(101 kPa), the airflow is designated as SCFM (stan- equipment are the same, then ICFM and ACFM will be
dard cubic feet per minute). As described in Sec. 41.3, identical. Otherwise, Eq. 41.4 can be used.
the density, #, of standard air is 0.075 lbm/ft3 ! "! "
(1.2 kg/m3). The specific volume, $, of standard air is pbefore T after
ACFM ICFM 41:4
the reciprocal of the density of standard air, or pafter T before
13.33 ft3/lbm (0.8333 m3/kg). Airflow at any other
condition is designated as ACFM (actual cubic feet per
HVAC
Example 41.1
minute). The two quantities are related by the density
factor, Kd.2 In Eq. 41.2, absolute temperature must be A manufacturing application in Denver, Colorado
used.3 Table 41.1 gives the ratio of pactual to pstd . (pactual = 12.2 psia, Tactual = 60 ! F, relative humidity
of 75%) requires 100 SCFM of compressed air at
125 psig. What is the ICFM in Denver?
ACFM
SCFM 41:1
Kd Solution
! "! "
# pstd T actual Use Eq. 41.3 to calculate the density factor, Kd.
K d std 41:2
# actual pactual T std From App. 23.A, the saturation pressure at 60 ! F is
0.2564 lbf/in2.
! "! "
2
Some sources use an air density ratio that is the reciprocal of the
pstd T actual
Kd
density factor, Kd, defined by Eq. 41.2. In some confusing cases, the pactual $ %psat T std
same name (i.e., density factor) is used with the reciprocal value. 0 1
3
The temperature correction should be based on the temperature and lbf ! "
14:7 2
pressure of the air through the duct system. Though atmospheric B in C 60! F 460!
@ # $A
pressure and temperature both decrease with higher altitudes, air lbf
12:2 2 $ 0:75 0:2564 2
lbf 70! F 460!
entering any occupied space will generally be heated to normal tem-
peratures. Therefore, the temperature correction will not generally be
in in
used unless the duct system carries air for process heating or cooling. 1:20
F A N S , D U C T W O R K , A N D T E R M I N A L D E V I C E S 41-3
From Eq. 41.1, the inlet flow rate is In SI units, with pressure in pascals, the velocity pres-
! " sure is
ft3 ! "
ICFM ACFM K d SCFM 1:20 100
min kg 2
#v2m=s 1:2 3 vm=s
120 ft3 =min m
VPPa
2 2
0:6v2m=s standard conditions* 41:9
2. STATIC PRESSURE
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
The force of moving or stationary air perpendicular to a

duct wall is known as the static pressure, SP. Static 4. TOTAL PRESSURE
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
pressure can be measured in the field by a static tube
or static tap. It is usually reported in inches of water, The total pressure, TP, is the sum of the velocity and
abbreviated in wg (or in. w.g.) for inches of water static pressures. Contributions from potential energy
gage, or in pascals. The pressure, height of a fluid are insignificant in virtually all duct design problems.
column, and specific weight of the fluid are related by The total pressure decreases in the direction of flow.
Eq. 41.5. The specific weight, !, of water is approxi- (However, the static pressure can increase with diameter
mately 0.0361 lbf/in3 (9810 N/m3). increases.)
p
h 41:5 TP SP VP 41:10
!
ppsig The change in total pressure is the algebraic sum of the
SPin wg 41:6 changes in static and velocity pressures. In straight
lbf
0:0361 ducts with no branches or diameter changes, the change
in3 in total pressure is the same as the friction loss. DTP is
positive when total pressure decreases.
3. VELOCITY PRESSURE
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
DTP TP1 $ TP2 DSP DVP
The velocity pressure, VP, is the kinetic energy of the SP1 $ SP2 VP1 $ VP2 41:11
air expressed in inches of water. Velocity pressure is
measured with a pitot tube, hand-held velometer, hot
wire or rotating vane anemometer, or calibrated orifice 5. AIR HANDLERS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
or nozzle. The velocity head of a mass of moving air is
Air handling unit (AHU or air handler) is the term used
v2 to describe a unit that combines a fan with other process
hv 41:7
2g equipment, such as heating coils, cooling/dehumidifica-
tion coils, and filters, as well as various dampers and
Air velocities are typically measured in ft/min (fpm) in bypass paths. An air handler that conditions outside air
the United States and in m/s in countries that use SI only, without receiving any recirculated air, is known as
units. (The designation LFM, for linear feet per min- a make-up air unit (MAU). An air handler designed for
ute, is occasionally encountered.) As expressed, exterior use is known as a packaged unit (PU) or rooftop
HVAC
Eq. 41.7 calculates the kinetic energy as the height of unit (RTU). Smaller units containing an air filter, coil,
an air column, not a height of a water column. The and blower are known as terminal units, blower-coil
specific weights of air and water are approximately units, or fan-coil units.
0.075 lbf/ft3 (density of 1.2 kg/m3) and 62.4 lbf/ft3
(density of 1000 kg/m3), respectively. Therefore, the
velocity pressure in inches of water is4 6. VARIABLE AIR VOLUME BOXES
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
00 12 1
# $ Historically, most HVAC systems were constant air
B@ v A 12 in C0 1 volume (CAV) systems that varied the temperature
B sec ft C lbf of the delivered air in order to maintain space condi-
B 60 C 0:075 3
B min CB ft C tions. In its simplest form, a variable air volume (VAV)
VPin wg B # $ C@ A
B 2 32:2 ft C 62:4 lbf terminal box is a unit that varies the amount of air
B C
@ sec2 A ft3 entering a zone while keeping the temperature of the
delivered air constant. A VAV box typically contains a
#v $ motorized damper controlled by a controller that
ft=min 2 receives signals from sensors. Zone air temperature is
( standard conditions* 41:8
4005 the primary input variable affecting flow quantity,
although velocity in the supply duct may also be mea-
4
The constant 4005 is reported as 4004 and 4004.4 in some references. sured. The controller may be pneumatic, single loop
4005 is the most common. digital, or microprocessor. In addition to increased
reliability and accuracy, microprocessor controllers 90 ! F (32 ! C)), and (3) the airflow required to prevent
accommodate daily schedules, automatic adjustment dumping and poor distribution. For an FPV unit,
of hot and cold set points, multiple after-hours (unoc- typically only the ventilation requirement is impor-
cupied) setbacks, outdoor air ventilation control, and tant because the parallel fan operation ensures high
on-demand operation. The controllers deadband supply rates. Both California Title 24 and ASHRAE
(deadzone or neutral zone) is the temperature range Standard 90.1 limit the minimum airflow to the largest
over which the controller does not generate any control of (1) 30% of the maximum air flow, (2) the minimum
signal. For a VAV with both heating and cooling, a required for ventilation, (3) 0.4 cfm/ft2 (2 L/s per m2),
deadband separates the ranges of temperatures over and (4) 300 cfm (142 L/s).
which heating and cooling coils are turned on.
VAV boxes in the duct systems index run will affect the
There are many types of VAV units, including single- system pressure. Since the inlet velocity will normally be
and multizone; variable and constant volume; with and greater than the outlet velocity, there will be static
without fan power; constant- and variable-speed fans; regain, so the static pressure drop across a VAV box
with and without reheat, and hybrid systems; and with will normally be less than the total pressure drop (the
and without void air induction, among others. Single- sum of static and velocity pressure changes). Total
zone, VAV-with-reheat (VRH) and parallel fan-powered pressure drop is the true measure of fan power required.
VAV (FPV, or fan-coil unit (FCU)) units are most Drops in total pressure should be used to evaluate and
common. A multizone (MZ) system consists of a unit select VAV boxes, since the fan has to supply both
with multiple output ducts, each duct serving a separate static and velocity pressures.
zone with its own sensors. Conventional MZ systems
perform both heating and cooling functions. Selection
(sizing and design) of VAV boxes is complex, as input 7. AXIAL FANS
and output duct quantity and sizes, pressure drop across . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
the box, noise generation, heating and cooling capacity, Axial-flow fans are essentially propellers mounted with
and installation size are all related. Selection is further small tip clearances in ducts. They develop static pres-
complicated by consideration of life-cycle costs that sure by changing the airflow velocity. Axial flow fans are
include energy usage. usually used when it is necessary to move large quantities
In a true VRH installation, the central air handlers of air (i.e., greater than 500,000 ft3/min; 235 000 L/s)
heating and cooling coils remove sensible and latent against low static pressures (i.e., less than 12 in of water,
heat from all zones served, but the air supplied to the 3 kPa), although the pressures and flow rates are much
VAV box is heated only to 55 ! F. Any additional heating lower at most installations. An axial-flow fan may be
required by the zone is done by the reheat coil in the followed by a diffuser (i.e., an evase) to convert some of
VAV terminal box. In a cooling mode, the VAV damper the kinetic energy to static pressure.
will be all or mostly open, supplying as much 55 ! F air as
Compared with centrifugal fans, axial flow fans are
is required to cool the zone. Since VAV boxes vary the
more compact and less expensive. However, they run
volume of supplied air instead of the supply air temper-
faster than centrifugals, draw more power, are less
ature, operation in cooling mode is energy efficient. In
efficient, and are noisier. Axial flow fans are capable
the heating mode, or in the cooling mode after the zone
of higher velocities than centrifugal fans. In addition,
has been adequately cooled, electric or hydronic heating
overloading is less likely due to the flatter power curve.
elements turn on, and the VAV damper closes substan-
(See Fig. 41.1(a).) Fan noise is lowest at maximum
HVAC
tially, supplying only enough air to meet outside air

efficiencies.
ventilation requirements. Air typically enters the VAV
terminal box at 55 ! F (13 ! C) and leaves (enters the Axial fans can be further categorized into propeller,
zone) after its temperature is increased approximately tubeaxial, and vaneaxial varieties. Propeller fans (such as
20 ! F (11 ! C), to 75 ! F (24 ! C), by the reheat coil.5 The the popular ceiling-mounted fans) are usually used only for
heating coil should be sized to satisfy the conditioned exhaust and make-up air duty, where the system static
zones heating load as well as to heat the supply air from pressure is not more than 1=2 in wg (125 Pa). Since they
55 ! F (13 ! C) to the room supply temperature of 75 ! F generally dont have housings, they are not capable of
(24 ! C). generating static pressures in excess of about 1 in wg
VAV controllers have minimum and maximum volu- (250 Pa). Though they are light and inexpensive, they
metric setpoints. Regardless of the type of VAV, the are the least efficient (efficiency of about 50%) and the
maximum is typically the airflow required to provide most noisy axial fans.
the design cooling. For a VRH unit, the minimum
Tubeaxial fans, also known as duct fans, generally move
airflow is the largest of (1) outside air ventilation
air against less than 3 in of water (750 Pa). They have
requirements, (2) the airflow that meets the design
four to eight blades, and the clearance between the
heating load at a reasonable temperature (e.g., below
blade tips and surrounding duct is small. Fan efficiency
5
To allow for early morning warm-up, the reheat coil can be oversized is approximately 7580%. Tubeaxials can be recognized
slightly to allow for an 80 ! F (27 ! C) discharge. Maximum air supply by their hub diameters, which are less than 50% of the
temperature is approximately 90 ! F (32 ! C). tip-to-tip diameters.
Figure 41.1 Typical Fan Curves
120
% delivery pressure and % efficiency

hors 100
epo
100 we
r
% maximum horsepower
stat
ic p l pressur 80
res tota e
80 su
re
60
60
cy
ien
y e ffic 40
nc tic
40 ie sta
ef fic
tal 20
to
20
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% of wide-open volume
(a) axial flow
120
100 tota 100

lp
ress
ure
sta
tic
80 pr 80
es
su
cy re
ien
60
ffic 60
e
al
t
sta
to
40 tic 40
effi
cie
er nc
20 pow y 20
horse
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(b) forward-curved centrifugal
HVAC
120
re
pressu
total
es sure
100 static pr 100
r
80 we 80
epo
rs
ho
60 y 60
nc
fi cie cy
f
40 le ien 40
to
ta ffic
e
ic
at
20 st 20
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(c) backward-curved centrifugal
Vaneaxial fans can be distinguished from tubeaxial fans be used in most applications with clean air below 1000 ! F
by their hub diameters, which are greater than 50% of (540 ! C) and up to about 40 in wg (10 kPa). They are
the tip-to-tip diameters. Furthermore, the fan assembly available in three styles: flat, curved, and airfoil. Airfoil
will usually have vanes downstream from the fan to fans have the highest efficiency (up to 90%), while the
straighten the airflow and recover the rotational kinetic other types have efficiencies between 80% and 90%.
energy that would otherwise be lost. Vaneaxials typi- Because of these high efficiencies, power savings easily
cally have as many as 24 blades, and the blades may compensate for higher installation or replacement costs.
have cross sections similar to airfoils. Because they
recover the rotational energy, vaneaxials are capable of Motor overloading is less likely with backward-curved
moving air against pressures of up to 12 in of water blades than with forward-curved blades, and, therefore,
(3.8 kPa). Their efficiencies are typically 8590%. may be referred to as non-overloading fans. These fans
are normally equipped with motors sized to the peak
power requirement so that the motors will not overload
8. CENTRIFUGAL FANS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
at any other operating condition.
Centrifugal fans are used in installations moving less Such fans operate over a great range of flows without
than 1 + 106 ft3/min (470 000 L/s) and pressures less encountering unstable air. Though their efficiencies are
than 60 in of water (15 kPa). Like centrifugal pumps, greater, they are noisier than forward-curved fans. The
they develop static pressure by imparting a centrifugal fan noise is lowest at the highest efficiencies. For the
force on the rotating air. Depending on the blade cur- same operating speed, backward-curved blade fans
vature, kinetic energy can be made greater (forward- develop more pressure than forward-curved fans.
curved blades) or less (backward-curved blades) than
the tangential velocity of the impeller blades. 9. FAN SPECIFIC SPEED
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
Forward-curved centrifugals (also called squirrel cage The fan specific speed is calculated from Eq. 41.12.
fans) are the most widely used centrifugals for general Specific speed ranges will be 10,000 to 20,000 (110 to
ventilation and packaged units. They operate at rela- 220) for radial centrifugals; 12,000 to 50,000 (130 to
tively low speeds, about half that of backward-curved 550) for centrifugals; 40,000 to 170,000 (440 to 1900)
fans. This makes them useful in high-temperature appli- for vaneaxials; 100,000 to 200,000 (1100 to 2200) for
cations where stress due to rotation is a factor. Compared tubeaxials; and 120,000 to 300,000 (1300 to 3300) for
with backward-curved centrifugals, forward-curved propeller fans.
blade fans have a greater capacity (due to their higher
velocities) but require larger scrolls. However, since the p
n rpm QL=s
fan blades are cupped, they cannot be used when the air ns SI* 41:12a
contains particles or contaminants. Efficiencies are the SP0:75
Pa
lowest of all centrifugals7075%. p
n rpm Q ft3 =min
Motors driving centrifugal fans with forward-curved ns U:S:* 41:12b
blades can be overloaded if the duct losses are not calcu- SP0:75
in wg
lated correctly. The power drawn increases rapidly with
increases in the delivery rate. The motors are usually
sized with some safety factor to compensate for the pos- 10. FAN POWER
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
HVAC
sibility that the actual system pressure will be less than

the design pressure. For forward-curved blades, the max- The air horsepower (blower horsepower), AHP, or air
imum efficiency occurs near the point of maximum static kilowatts, AkW, is the power required to move the air.
pressure. Since their tip speeds are low, these fans are
quiet. The fan noise is lowest at maximum pressure. Q L=s TPPa
AkW SI* 41:13a
Radial fans (also called straight-blade fans, paddle wheel 106
fans, and shaving wheel fans) have blades that are Q ft3 =min TPin wg
neither forward- nor backward-inclined. Radial fans AHP U:S:* 41:13b
are the workhorses of most industrial exhaust applica- 6356
tions and can be used in material-handling and convey-
ing systems where large amounts of bulk material pass The actual power delivered to a fan from its motor is the
through them. Such fans are low-volume, high-pressure brake horsepower, BHP, or brake kilowatts, BkW. Cen-
(up to 60 in wg; 15 kPa), high-noise, high-temperature, trifugal fan efficiencies are in the range of 5065%,
and low-efficiency (6570%) units. Radial tip fans con- although values as high as 80% are possible. The mech-
stitute a subcategory of radial fans. Their performance anical efficiency, ME, of a fan is normally read from the
characteristics are between those of forward-curved and total efficiency fan curves once the operating point is
conventional radial fans. known, but can be calculated from Eq. 41.14.
Backward-curved centrifugals are quiet, medium- to high- AHP AkW

ME 41:14
volume and pressure, and high-efficiency units. They can BHP BkW
The electrical power delivered to the motor will include Customary U.S. Solution
the friction, windage, and other electrical losses in the
motor. The electrical power is (a) From Eq. 41.8, the velocity pressure is
0 1
ft 2
BHP AHP #v $2 1800
EHP 41:15 ft=min B minC
"m "m ME VPin wg @ A 0:2 in wg
4005 4005
The static efficiency, SE, of a fan is defined as

From Eq. 41.10, the total pressure is
# $
SP
SE ME 41:16 TP SP VP 2:0 in wg 0:2 in wg
TP
2:2 in wg
The primary advantage of using a variable speed fan
motor is the ability to accommodate minor changes in From Eq. 41.13, the air horsepower is
flow rates and resistance (e.g., changes in the system
friction, as when filter resistance increases over time.) Qft3 =min TPin wg
AHP
Variable speed fan drives are often variable frequency 6356
drives (VFD). ! "
ft3
27;000 2:2 in wg
min
Example 41.2
6356
A fan moves 27,000 ft3/min (12 700 L/s) of air at 9:35 hp
1800 ft/min (9.2 m/s) against a static pressure of 2 in wg
(500 Pa). The electrical motor driving the fan delivers From Eq. 41.14, the fan efficiency is
13.12 hp (9.77 kW) to it. What are the (a) mechanical
efficiency and (b) static efficiency? AHP 9:35 hp
ME 0:71 71%
BHP 13:12 hp
SI Solution
(a) From Eq. 41.9, the velocity pressure is (b) From Eq. 41.16, the static efficiency is
# $ ! "
# $ SP 2 in wg
m 2 SE ME 0:71
VPPa 0:6v2m=s 0:6 9:2 51 Pa TP 2:2 in wg
s
0:65 65%
From Eq. 41.10, the total pressure is
11. VARIABLE FLOW RATES
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
TP SP VP 500 Pa 51 Pa 551 Pa
Ventilation and air conditioning rates usually vary with
time. It is essential in modern, large systems to be able to
HVAC
From Eq. 41.13, the air kilowatts are
vary the flow rate, as large amounts of energy are saved.
# $ Variable flow rates (i.e., capacity control, flow rate mod-
L ulation) can be achieved through use of system dampers,
Q L=s TPPa 12 700 551 Pa
AkW s fan speed control, variable blade pitch, and inlet vanes.
106 10 6
7 kW System dampers downstream of the fan are rarely used

for capacity control. They increase friction loss, are
noisy, and are nonlinear in their response. Speed control
From Eq. 41.14, the fan efficiency is of the fan through fluid or magnetic coupling has low
noise levels, but a high initial cost. For that reason, it
AHP 7 kW also is seldom used.
ME 0:72 72%
BHP 9:77 kW With blade pitch control (controllable pitch), all blades
are linked and simultaneously controlled while the fan is
(b) From Eq. 41.16, the static efficiency is operating. Changing the blade angle of attack is effi-
cient, quiet, and linear in response.
# $ # $
SP 500 Pa Inlet vanes are commonly used with centrifugal and
SE ME 0:72
TP 551 Pa in-line fans. Inlet vanes pre-spin and throttle the air
0:65 65% prior to its entry into the wheel. Inlet vanes are rela-
tively inefficient, noisy, and nonlinear in response.
Though a direct drive with flexible coupling can be used 13. FAN CURVES
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
when flow is steady, most fans are run by v-belts.6 In
some applications requiring variable volume, either The operational parameters of fans are usually pre-
variable-pitch pulleys or variable (multispeed) motors sented graphically by fan manufacturers. Total pres-
can be used. However, most modern designs use pulse- sure, power, and efficiency are typically plotted on fan
width modulation (PWM) (also known as pulse dura- characteristic curves. Figure 41.1 contains typical
tion modulation) with variable frequency drives (VFDs) curves for the three main types of fans. The dip in total
to achieve energy-saving and efficient control of supply pressure for axial flow and forward-curved centrifugal
and exhaust fans, pumps, and other HVAC system fans is characteristic.
components.
14. MULTIRATING TABLES
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
12. TEMPERATURE INCREASE ACROSS THE
FAN
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
Some manufacturers provide fan rating tables similar to
Table 41.2. These tables, known as multirating tables,
The difference between the brake horsepower and air give the fan curve data in tabular, rather than in graphi-
horsepower represents the power lost in the fan. This cal, format. The highest mechanical efficiency for each
friction horsepower, FHP, heats the air passing through pressure range will be in the middle third of the flow rate
the fan. If the fan motor is also in the airstream, it will (Q) range. Manufacturers often indicate (by underlining
also contribute to the heating effect to the extent that or shading) points of operation that are within 2% of the
the motors efficiency is not 100%.7 peak efficiency. If the peak efficiency point is not indi-
cated, the actual efficiency can be calculated for each
FHP BHP $ AHP BHP1 $ ME 41:17 point using Eq. 41.14. Otherwise, selections can be lim-
ited to the middle third of the column.
The temperature increase across the fan is given by
Eq. 41.18. Consistent units must be used. Table 41.2 Typical Fan Rating Table (portion)
SP = 1 in wg SP = 2 in wg
FHP
DT 41:18 Q n P n P
_ p
mc
(ft3/min) (rev/min) (BHP) (rev/min) (BHP)
If traditional units are used and the air is essentially at 5000 440 1.20 617 2.67
standard conditions, Eq. 41.19 and Eq. 41.20 give the 10,000 492 2.18 626 4.20
relationship between temperature change and the sensi- 15,000 600 4.06 706 6.45
ble heating or cooling effect. 20,000 816 9.59 830 10.83
15. SYSTEM CURVE

3160heating or cooling effect in kW . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
DT ! F
Q ft3 =min The ductworks index run (or, critical path) has the
# $ highest overall pressure drop and determines the total
Btu
0:926 heating or cooling effect in pressure, and therefore, the fan power required. The
hr
Qft3 =min index run is generally the longest run in the system.
HVAC
Only equipment, such as VAV boxes, in the index run

2356heating or cooling effect in hp affects the design pressure. Resistance pressure, friction
pressure, and external static pressure are terms that are
Qft3 =min
used to designate the minimum total system pressure
41:19
that the fan must provide.
829heating or cooling effect in kW As with liquid flow in pipes, the pressure loss due to
DT ! C
Q L=s friction of air flowing in ducts varies with the square of
1760heating or cooling effect in kW the velocity. And, since Q = Av, the pressure loss varies
with the square of Q. The graph of the friction loss
Q ft3 =min versus the flow rate is the system characteristic curve
41:20 (system curve), as shown in Fig. 41.2.
If one point on the curve is known, the remainder of the
curve can be found or generated from Eq. 41.21. Static
6
When selecting v-belts for fans, use a load factor of 1.4 (i.e., a power head is assumed to be insignificant, and due to the low
rating of 1.4 times the motor power). density of air, this is almost always true.
7
If the electrical input power and air horsepower are known, it isnt
necessary to determine where the friction losses occur. The bearings, ! "2
pulleys, and belts may all contribute to friction. However, the heating p2 Q2
depends only on the difference between the input power and the power
41:21
p1 Q1
contributing to pressure and velocity.
Figure 41.2 Typical System Curve Figure 41.3 Operating Point and Unstable Region
p p
unstable
region operating point
fan curve
Q
system curve
16. SYSTEM EFFECT

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . Q
Almost all fans are rated under ideal laboratory condi-

tions. Not only is the air at standard conditions, but also
region is shown in Fig. 41.3 as being to the left of the
many of the physical features that would normally cause
peak. Technically, the region of instability includes a
turbulence (bearings, diffusers, plenums, duct corners,
horizontal band containing all system pressures for
etc.) are not present when the fan is tested. For that
which there are two or three different airflows.
reason, rated performance is rarely achieved in practice.
Depending on transient factors, the airflow could
Most fans are tested without being attached to a duct fluctuate between the corresponding rates while
system. Merely connecting a duct system to a fan will satisfying the requirement that duct friction equals
produce a degradation in fan performance from rated the supply pressure. This is known as airflow sur-
values. This degradation, known as the system effect, is ging. The curves of axial fans and those with forward
in addition to the duct friction and other losses. The curved airfoils and backward curved blades have
system effect factor is the additional pressure (in inches regions of instability and are more prone to surging.
of water) that must be added to the calculated duct Surging is more difficult with steep fan curves.
friction. The system effect factor depends on the flow . A fan with a steep pressure curve should be chosen to
rate (velocity) through the fan and the type of fan. For avoid large variations in flow rate with changes in
that reason, it must be based on information provided duct friction.
by the fan manufacturer.
System configurations (length of runs, bends, equip-
ment, etc.) are usually less flexible than fans when it
comes to changing performance. If the operating point
17. OPERATING POINT
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . for a specific fan does not provide the required airflow
(efficiency, power, etc.), there are several different steps
The intersection of the fan and system curves defines the that can be taken.
operating point (point of operation).8 If a fan is to be
HVAC
chosen by plotting the system curve on various fan . Use a different fan.
curves, the following guidelines should be observed.
. Change the fan speed.
. To minimize the required motor power, the operat- . Change the fan size.
ing point should be as close as possible to the peak
efficiency. . Use two fans in parallel. The combined flow at a
particular pressure will be the sum of the individual
. For fans whose pressure characteristics have a dip fan flows corresponding to that pressure.
(e.g., forward-curved centrifugals and axial flow
fans), the operating point should be to the right of . Use two fans in series. The combined pressure at a
the peak fan pressure. This will avoid the noise and particular flow rate will be the sum of the individual
uneven motor loading that accompany pressure and fan pressures corresponding to that flow rate.
volume fluctuations. (See Fig. 41.3.) The unstable
Example 41.3
The pressure loss due to friction in a system is 1.5 in wg
8 (375 Pa) when the flow rate is 3500 ft3/min (1650 L/s).
The rating point (point of rating) is the one single point on the fan
curve that corresponds to the stated (often the rated) performance. Velocity head and outlet pressure are negligible. What
The duty point (point of duty) is one single point on the system curve will be the flow rate if a fan with the characteristics
where a fan is to operate. shown is used?
Q (L/s) The remainder of the system curve can be determined in

1000 2000 the same manner. The fan and system curves intersect
at approximately 3300 ft3/min.
Q (ft3/min) p (in wg)
fan
2 in 500 500 0.03
curve
1000 0.12
1500 0.28
given 2000 0.49
p p
point
(in wg) (Pa) 2500 0.77
3000 1.1
3500 1.5
1 in 250 4000 2.0
18. AFFINITY LAWS

. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
Within reasonable limits, the speed of v-belt driven fans

can be easily changed by changing pulleys. The follow-
ing affinity laws (fan laws) can be used to predict per-
2000 4000 formance of a particular fan at different speeds. These
Q (ft3/min) fan laws assume the fan size, fan efficiency, and air
density are the same.9,10
SI Solution
The fan curve is given. One point on the system curve Q2 n2
41:22
is known. Use Eq. 41.21 to derive the remainder of the Q1 n1
system curve. For 1500 L/s, the pressure drop ! "2 h i
p2 n2 static; velocity; or
would be total pressure 41:23
p1 n1
0 1 ! "3
! "2 L 2 AHP2 n2
Q2 1500
B sC 41:24
p2 p 1 375 Pa@ A 310 Pa AHP1 n1
Q1 L
1650
s Since the efficiency at the two speeds is assumed to be
The remainder of the system curve can be determined in the same, Eq. 41.24 can be rewritten in terms of power
the same manner. The fan and system curves intersect drawn.
at approximately 1550 L/s. ! "3
BHP2 n2
41:25
BHP1 n1
Q (L/s) p (Pa)
500 35 A change in the fan speed cannot be used to put the
750 80 operating point into a stable region. Changing the fan
HVAC
1000 140 speed does not change the relative position of the oper-
1250 215 ating point with respect to the dip present in some fan
1500 310 curves. The locus of peak points follows the Q2 rule also.
1650 375 So, if an operating point is to the left of the peak point
1750 420 (i.e., is in an unstable region) at one fan speed, the new
operating point will be to the left of the peak point on
the new fan curve corresponding to the new speed.
19. FAN SIMILARITY
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
The fan curve is given. One point on the system curve
is known. Use Eq. 41.21 to derive the remainder of the The performance of one fan can be used to predict the
system curve. For 3000 ft3/min, the pressure drop performance of a dynamically similar (homologous) fan.
would be 9
These fan laws are simplifications of the similarity laws presented in
0 12 the next section. The similarity laws must be used if the density
! "2 ft3 changes.
Q2 3000
B minC 10
For any given efficiency, the locus of equal-efficiency points on the
p2 p1 1:5 in wg@ A pressure-capacity (p-Q) diagram is a parabola starting at the origin
Q1 ft3
3500 and crossing the different fan curves corresponding to different speeds.
min The intersection points of the fan curves and the parabolic equal-
1:1 in wg efficiency curve are known as corresponding points. Theoretically,
the fan laws can only be used at these points.
This can be done by using Eq. 41.26 through Eq. 41.30. (It is unlikely that the same motor will be able to
Pressures may be static, velocity, or total. provide this increased power.)
! "3 !
" (b) Use Eq. 41.23.
QA DAnA
QB

DBnB
r $
p2 %r
rev 713 Pa
! "2 rr n2 n1 800
DA pA !B p1 min 560 Pa
41:26
DB pB !A 903 rev=min
! "2 ! "2 ! "
pA DA nA !A Customary U.S. Solution
41:27
pB DB nB !B (a) Use Eq. 41.24.
! "5 ! "3 ! "
AHPA DA nA !A 0 rev 13
! "3 1400
AHPB DB nB !B n minA
AHP2 AHP1 2 6:2 hp@ rev
! "2 ! "3=2 r n1 800
DA pA !B min

DB pB !A 33:2 hp
! "2 ! "
QA pA 41:28 (It is unlikely that the same motor will be able to

QB pB provide this increased power.)
! "rr
nA DB p A !B (b) Use Eq. 41.23.

nB DA pB !A
r $
p2

%r2:85 in wg
r! "3=4 ! "3=4 rev
Q B pA !B n2 n1 800
41:29 p1 min 2:25 in wg
Q A pB !A
s! " ! " 900 rev=min
1=4 1=4
DA Q A pB !A
41:30
DB Q B pA !B 20. OPERATION AT NONSTANDARD
CONDITIONS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
Similarity laws may be used to predict the performance
of a larger fan from a smaller fans performance, since Fan tests used to develop curves and rating tables are
the efficiency of the larger fan can be expected to exceed based on air at standard conditions70 $ F and 14.7 psia
that of the smaller fan. Larger fans should not be used to (21 $ C and 101 kPa). Small variations in density due to
predict the performance of smaller fans. Even extrapola- normal temperature and humidity fluctuations can be
tions to larger fans should be viewed cautiously when disregarded. However, if the system operates at
there is a significant decrease in air density or when the extremely elevated temperatures or reduced atmo-
ratio of the larger-to-smaller fan diameters, the ratio of spheric pressures, corrections will be necessary.
speed, or the product of the diameter and speed ratios Fans are constant-volume devices. They deliver the
exceed 3.0.
HVAC
same volume of air (at the same fan speed) regardless
of temperature, pressure, and humidity ratio. Therefore,
Example 41.4
the actual flow rate, ACFM, should be used to select a
A fan turning at 800 rev/min develops 6.2 hp (4.6 kW) fan from rating tables. The speed can be read directly
against a static pressure of 2.25 in wg (560 Pa). (a) If from the fan table. The standard (i.e., table) values of
the fan is driven at 1400 rev/min, what will be the power and pressure (static, velocity, and total) should
power developed? (b) If duct length is increased such be modified by the density factor, Kd (see Eq. 41.2), with
that the static pressure loss is 2.85 in wg (713 Pa) and the density.11
the fan efficiency remains the same, what speed will be
required?
SPtable VPtable TPtable
Kd
SI Solution SPactual VPactual TPactual
(a) Use Eq. 41.24. FPtable BHPtable
41:31
FPactual BHPactual
0 rev 13
! "3 1400
n2 min
AkW2 AkW1 4:6 kW@ rev
A
n1 800
min
11
24:7 kW There is also a correction for viscosity. However, the viscosity change
is so insignificant that it is disregarded.
Example 41.5 From Eq. 41.2, the density factor is

A fan is chosen to move 18,000 SCFM (8500 L/s) of air pstd 101:3 kPa
against a static pressure of 0.85 in wg (210 Pa). The fan Kd 1:2
pactual 84:3 kPa
draws 4.2 hp (3.1 kW) when moving standard air in that
configuration. The fan is used in a nonstandard envi- From Eq. 41.31, the standard friction pressure loss is
ronment to provide 150 ! F (66 ! C) air for drying. What
will be the (a) required power, and (b) friction loss? FPtable K d FPactual 1:2375 Pa 450 Pa
SI Solution (b) Since the volumetric flow rate does not change, the
duct speed is also unchanged. The fan supplies both
(a) Equation 41.2 gives the density factor. The pressure velocity and static pressure. From Eq. 41.9, the velocity
is unchanged. pressure is
0 1
T actual 66! C 273! kg
Kd ! 1:15 1:2 3
T std 21 C 273! B m C
VP 0:832@ Av2m=s
2
From Eq. 41.31,
0 1
kg
AkWstd 3:1 kW 1:2 3 # $
AkWactual 2:7 kW B m C m 2
Kd 1:15 0:832@ A 7:7
2 s
(b) The friction loss is 30 Pa
pf ;std 210 Pa
pf ;actual 183 Pa From Eq. 41.10, the total pressure energy supplied by
Kd 1:15 the fan is
Customary U.S. Solution TP SP VP 375 Pa 30 Pa 405 Pa

(a) Equation 41.2 gives the density factor. The pressure From Eq. 41.13, the original power drawn is
is unchanged. # $
L
Q L=s TPPa 18 300 405 Pa
T actual 150! F 460! s
Kd 1:15 AkW
T std 70! F 460! 106 106
7:41 kW
From Eq. 41.31,
From Eq. 41.14 and Eq. 41.31, the standardized brake
BHPstd 4:2 hp kilowatts are
BHPactual 3:7 hp
Kd 1:15
K d AkWactual 1:27:41 kW
(b) The friction loss is BkWtable
ME 0:75
11:9 kW
HVAC
pf ; std 0:85 in wg
pf ; actual 0:74 in wg
Kd 1:15
(a) From Table 41.1, the atmospheric pressure ratio at
5000 ft altitude is 0.832. The pressure is
Example 41.6
70 ! F (21 ! C) air in a duct located at an altitude of pactual 0:83214:7 psia 12:2 psia
5000 ft (1525 m) moves at 1500 ft/min (7.7 m/s). The
actual flow rate is 39,000 ft3/min (18 300 L/s). The duct From Eq. 41.2, the density factor is
resistance at that altitude is 1.5 in wg (375 Pa). pstd 14:7 psia
(a) What duct resistance should be used with fan rating Kd 1:2
tables? (b) At standard conditions, what input power to pactual 12:2 psia
the fan is required if the fan efficiency is 75%? From Eq. 41.31, the standard friction pressure loss is
SI Solution FPtable K d FPactual 1:21:5 in wg
(a) From Table 41.1, the atmospheric pressure ratio at 1:8 in wg
1525 m altitude is 0.832. The pressure is
(b) Since the volumetric flow rate does not change, the
pactual 0:832101:3 kPa 84:3 kPa duct speed is also unchanged. The fan supplies both
velocity and static pressure. From Eq. 41.8, the velocity through use of a mixing damper. The entire apparatus
pressure is is usually combined into a single dual duct VAV box.
0 1 Numerous variations exist. The system can be con-
ft 2
# $2 1500 stant- or variable-volume; a single fan can be used, or
v B minC
VP 0:832 0:832@ A each deck can have its own fan; the mixing plenum can
4005 4005 have its own heating and cooling capabilities.
0:12 in wg 22. SHEET METAL DUCT
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
From Eq. 41.10, the total pressure energy supplied by Most commercial and residential ductwork, whether
the fan is rectangular or round, is manufactured from plain and
galvanized sheet steel, stainless steel, and aluminum
TP SP VP 1:5 in wg 0:12 in wg with folded seams. Ducts may subsequently be painted
1:62 in wg or powder coated or wrapped with fiberglass insulation.
Table 41.3 lists the sheet metal gauges used in ducts.
From Eq. 41.13, the original power drawn is
! " Table 41.3 Thickness of Sheet Metal Used in Ducts (in (mm))
ft3 plain mild galvanized
39;000 1:62 in wg
QTP min gauge steel steel stainless steel aluminum
AHP
6356 6356 16 0.0598 0.0635 0.0625 0.0508
9:94 hp (1.52) (1.62) (1.59) (1.29)
18 0.0478 0.0516 0.0500 0.0403
From Eq. 41.14 and Eq. 41.31, the standardized brake (1.21) (1.31) (1.27) (1.02)
horsepower is 20 0.0359 0.0396 0.0375 0.0319
K d AHPactual 1:29:94 hp (0.91) (1.01) (0.953) (0.810)
BHPtable 22 0.0299 0.0336 0.0312 0.0253
ME 0:75
(0.76) (0.85) (0.792) (0.643)
15:9 hp
24 0.0239 0.0276 0.0250 0.0201
(0.61) (0.70) (0.635) (0.511)
26 0.0179 0.0217 0.0187 0.0159
21. DUCT SYSTEMS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . (0.45) (0.55) (0.475) (0.404)
There are two primary types of air ducting designs:
(Multiply in by 25.4 to obtain mm.)
trunk and radial. The most common duct design is the
trunk system, also known as an extended plenum system.
A large main supply duct (trunk duct) connects to and 23. SPIRAL DUCT
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
extends the air handler plenum. Smaller branch ducts,
known as runout ducts, deliver air from the trunk to the Spiral duct (with a spiral seam, as distinguished from
individual outlets. Particularly in residential applica- traditional round duct with a longitudinal seam) is pre-
tions, the trunk is usually rectangular, while the branch ferred for high velocity systems, when visual aesthetics
ducts are usually round. In a reducing trunk system, the are important, and where space is available. It can be
HVAC
trunk is proportionately reduced after each branch take- manufactured from any sheet metal. Double-wall and
off. Because of additional design and construction costs, oval varieties are available. Spiral duct can be painted,
reducing trunk systems are generally used only in com- powder coated, and/or insulated just like rectangular
mercial and high-end residential applications. ducting. Polyvinyl coated spiral duct (PCD) is available
Radial duct systems are used less often than trunk sys- for underground ducts and fume exhaust systems. PCD
tems and are typically used where the air handling combines the strength of steel and the chemical inert-
equipment may be centrally located and where it is not ness of plastic; it is lightweight, weather resistant, and
necessary to conceal ductwork. All of the radial branch corrosion resistant. Although seams for spiral duct can
ducts connect directly to the equipment plenum. Grav- be welded, a folded lock seam is adequate for normal
ity duct systems are essentially radial systems that cir- ductwork. The seam is external to the duct, presenting a
culate heated air through ductwork by natural smooth surface to the airflow. Standard spiral duct is
convection, without fan assistance. They are suitable uncorrugated; corrugations add mechanical strength
only for small residences, and they are typically asso- and are used with underground ducts. Purchase and
ciated with coal- and wood-burning furnaces. installation costs for spiral duct are comparable or lower
than for traditional rectangular sheet metal ducts. Flow
In dual duct systems, heated and cooled air flowing resistance (friction) is generally lower. Spiral duct gen-
from hot and cold decks, respectively, are both avail- erally has less leakage, reduced noise, greater mechani-
able to the zone. The mixture of the two flows is cal strength, greater bursting (seam failure) resistance
determined by sensors in the conditioned zone, and to positive pressures, and greater collapse resistance to
the two air flows are combined in a mixing plenum negative pressures.
There is no significant difference between spiral and but is lighter and stronger than light gauge steel. It
traditional ducts in duct layout and design method- generally has better acoustical qualities and is corrosion
ology, although accurate determination of system fric- resistant. FRP duct may be the best material in corro-
tion may require use of manufacturers charts and sive environments and where the duct must resist posi-
tables. Traditional duct has a specific roughness of tive and negative pressure extremes. Since FRP duct
0.0005 ft (0.15 mm). Spiral duct is usually put into cannot be grounded, it can accumulate static electricity
the ASHRAE category of medium smooth and has a and become an ignition source in dusty environments.
specific roughness of 0.0003 ft (0.09 mm). Corrugated Therefore, FRP duct should not be used in dust collec-
spiral duct is categorized as medium rough and has a tion systems.
specific roughness of 0.0024 ft (0.74 mm). Corrugations
increase the duct resistance by 1030%. Spiral ducts
have less friction pressure loss, FP, than traditional 25. FLEXIBLE DUCT
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
ducts, so standard friction charts predict pressure losses

Flexible duct (flex) is typically manufactured by wrap-
for spiral ducts that are slightly (i.e., 510%) higher
ping a plastic sheet over a metal wire coil. Flex is
than actual. The error is conservative and well within
commonly used for connecting supply/return grills to
the acceptable range considering all other inaccuracies
trunk and branch lines. Due to the significantly
and assumptions.
increased friction (e.g., three times as much as smooth
Burst and collapse pressures of ductwork depend some- metal ductwork), runs of flex line are kept as short as
what on manufacturing methods, and so, are based on possible, generally less than 15 ft (5 m). Since flex does
a combination of theoretical methods and testing. not tolerate large negative pressures, its use in return air
Pressures are typically correlated to the wall thickness- systems is not favored.12
diameter ratio, t/D, as illustrated in Fig. 41.4.
26. FRICTION LOSSES IN ROUND DUCTS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
Figure 41.4 Typical Collapse Pressure of Steel Spiral Ducts
15 Friction loss (friction pressure, FP) can be calculated

from the standard Moody equation. Equation 41.32
expresses the Moody equation in typical air-moving units
10 for standard air (0.075 lbm/ft3) through average, clean,
internal negative pressure to collapse (psi)
9 round galvanized duct (specific roughness of 0.0005 ft)

8 having a typical number of connections, joints, and slip
7 couplings.13,14
6
# $ 1:9
5 2:74 vfpm 1:9 0:109Qcfm
FPin wg;100 ft 1:22 1000
5:02
41:32
4
D in D in
3 However, Eq. 41.32 is almost never used in the HVAC

industry. Rather, friction losses are typically determined
from graphs. Figure 41.5 and Fig. 41.6 assume clean,
2 commercial-quality round ducts with a normal number
HVAC
of joints and conditions close to standard air. For smooth

1.5 ducts with no joints, the friction loss is 6095% of the
value determined from Fig. 41.5 and Fig. 41.6.15
Duct flow areas are calculated from their nominal
0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
dimensions. Any size duct can be manufactured. How-
ever, there are standard sizes of premanufactured round
ratio of wall thickness to diameter (t/D)
duct, and these sizes should be chosen to minimize cost.
From A Complete Line of High Pressure Ductwork, Vol. 5, copy- 12
UL181 testing specification requires functionality at a negative pres-
right 2006, by Spiral Manufacturing Co., Inc. Reproduced with sure of 0.03 lbf/in2 (200 Pa), so flexible duct can tolerate moderate
permission. negative pressures.
13
Specific roughness is the reciprocal of the number of duct diameters
required to cause a static pressure loss of one velocity pressure. Typical
24. FIBERGLASS DUCT
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . values for galvanized duct are 0.0003 ft to 0.0005 ft (0.09 mm to
0.15 mm).
Fiberglass (also known as fiber-reinforced plastic, fiber- 14
Some authorities, such as Carrier, report the 1.9 exponent as 1.82.
15
reinforced polymer (FRP) and fibrous) duct, of rigid and For corrugated ductwork, the friction loss is approximately twice
flexible varieties, is generally more expensive than stan- that shown in Fig. 41.5 and Fig. 41.6. However, the analysis is not
precise enough to make most corrections, including those for a differ-
dard metal, but may be easier to install without sheet ent number of joints or duct material. Corrections should be limited to
metal training. Rectangular ducts can be manufactured extreme cases when the ductwork deviates significantly from commer-
using FRP ductboard. FRP duct has comparable friction cial (e.g., airflow through brickwork or corrugated duct).
Figure 41.5 Standard Friction Loss in Standard Duct* (inches of water per 100 ft of duct; 5% for temperatures of 40 ! F to 100 ! F, elevations to
1500 ft, and duct pressures of $20 in wg to +20 in wg) (Recommended operating points shown as shaded region.)
air quantity, cfm at 0.075 lbm/ft3 ( = 0.0005 ft)
HVAC
friction loss, in of water per 100 ft of duct

*Clean, round galvanized duct with a specific roughness of 0.0005 ft (0.15 mm) and approximately 25 beaded slip-couplings (joints) per 100 ft
(30 m). Can also be used for smooth commercial spiral duct with about 10 joints per 100 ft (30 m).
From 2009 ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, Inch-Pound Edition, copyright 2009, by American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. Reproduced with permission.
Figure 41.6 Standard Friction Loss in Standard Duct* (pascals per meter of duct; 5% for temperatures of 5 ! C to 35 ! C, elevations to 500 m,
and duct pressures of $5 kPa to +5 kPa) (Recommended operating points shown as shaded region.)
air quantity, L/s at 1.20 kg/m3 ( = 0.0005 ft)

HVAC
friction loss, Pa/m

*Clean, round galvanized duct with a specific roughness of 0.0005 ft (0.15 mm) and approximately 1 beaded slip-coupling (joint) per meter. Can
also be used for smooth commercial spiral duct with about 1 joint per 3 m.
From 2009 ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, Inch-Pound Edition, copyright 2009, by American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. Reproduced with permission.
Generally, commercial duct manufacturers produce nonstandard temperatures and elevations, the pressure
every whole-inch size up to at least 20 in (510 mm) in drop is given by Eq. 41.33.
diameter. After that, ducts are available in 2 in (50 mm)
increments. Odd-number sizes may be available with FPactual K elevation K temperature FPstd 41:33
premium pricing. $6 4:73
K elevation 1 $ 6:8754 + 10 z ft 41:34
Example 41.7 ! "0:825
530! R
K temperature 41:35
2000 ft3/min (1000 L/s) of air flows in a 13 in (315 mm) T ! F 460!
diameter duct. What are the (a) velocity and (b) friction
loss per 100 ft (per meter) of duct?
28. RECTANGULAR DUCTS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
SI Solution
Duct systems are initially designed for round ducts.
(a) Use Fig. 41.6. Locate the intersection of the 1000 L/s Then, conversions to rectangular ducts are made as
and 315 mm lines. The velocity is approximately 13 m/s. required. A round duct with diameter D can be con-
(b) Move horizontally to the left and read from the verted to a rectangular duct with equal friction per unit
vertical scale. The friction loss is approximately 6 Pa/m length if the desired aspect ratio is known. The aspect
of duct. ratio, R, of a rectangular duct should be kept below 8 for
ease of manufacture.
Customary U.S. Solution D1 R1=4
short side 41:36
(a) Use Fig. 41.5. Locate the intersection of the 1:3R5=8
2000 ft3/min and 13 in lines. The velocity is approxi- long side
mately 2200 ft/min. (This answer could also be calcu- R 41:37
lated from v = Q/A.) short side
(b) Drop straight down to the horizontal scale. The The equivalent diameter of a rectangular duct with an
friction loss is approximately 0.5 in wg per 100 ft of aspect ratio less than 8 is given by the Huebscher equa-
duct. tion, Eq. 41.38. The round duct will have the same fric-
tion and capacity as the rectangular duct. Figure 41.5
and Fig. 41.6 can be used with De and the actual flow
Example 41.8 rate to find the friction loss.16 The velocity indicated by
the chart will be incorrect but can be calculated as Q/A.
2000 ft3/min (1000 L/s) of standard air moves through
a duct with a velocity of 1600 ft/min (8 m/s). (a) What 1:3short side + long side5=8
size duct is required? (b) What is the friction loss? De 41:38
short side long side1=4
SI Solution
(a) Locate the intersection of 1000 L/s and 8 m/s. The 29. FRICTION LOSSES IN FITTINGS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
required duct diameter is 400 mm.

Friction losses (dynamic losses) due to bends, fittings,
(b) Move horizontally to the left and read from the vertical enlargements, contractions, and obstructions are calcu-
scale. The friction loss is approximately 1.7 Pa/m. lated in the same ways as for liquid friction losseseither
HVAC
by loss coefficient or equivalent length methods.17,18
With the loss coefficient method, the friction loss is calcu-
(a) Locate the intersection of 2000 ft3/min and lated as a multiple of the velocity pressure. Though
1600 ft/min. The required duct diameter is approxi- reported values vary widely, typical values of the loss coef-
mately 15 in. ficient, K, for common features are given in Table 41.4.19
(b) Drop straight down to the horizontal scale. The Loss coefficients are usually based on the upstream velocity
friction loss is approximately 0.23 in wg per 100 ft of pressure. However, there are some cases (i.e., where plenum
duct. 16
This is the formula used by ASHRAE and most other authorities for
the equivalent diameter. Some sources merely equate formulas for
round and rectangular areas and use the hydraulic diameter, which is
p
27. PRESSURE DROP FOR NONSTANDARD 4 + short side + long side=p: When rounded to the nearest whole
CONDITIONS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . duct size, the difference is often insignificant. Although the two ducts
may have the same cross-sectional area, they will not have the same
Common pressure drop equations and friction charts capacity or friction.
assume standard air with a density of 0.075 lbm/ft3,
17
Unlike losses for liquid flows, however, fitting losses for duct systems
which corresponds to air at sea level at about 65 ! F are significant. They are not minor losses.
18
Any fitting or feature that causes a static pressure loss of 0.75 in wg
and 40% relative humidity, or air at 70 ! F and 0% (200 Pa) or higher is a potential source of unwanted noise.
relative humidity. The density of air depends on the 19
Static pressure losses due to equipment (e.g., filters, coils, and heat
temperature, T, and elevation above sea level, z. For exchangers) are determined from manufacturers literature.
Table 41.4 Typical Fitting Loss Coefficientsa,b,g air with negligible velocity enters a duct) where the down-
feature K stream velocity is used by convention. The coefficient
should always be used with the velocity at the point cor-
abrupt expansion vdown/vup = Aup/Adown = 0 1.00 responding to the coefficients subscript.
from Aup to Adown 0.2 0.64
(referred to vup) 0.4
0.6
0.36
0.16
FPPa K VPPa 0:6K v2m=s SI* 41:39a
Kup = (1$(Aup/Adown))2 ! "
0.8 0.04
& ' vft=min 2
FPin wg K VPin wg K U:S:* 41:39b
abrupt contraction vup/vdown = Adown/Aup = 0.20 0.32 4005
from Aup to Adown 0.25 0.30
(referred to vdown) 0.40 0.25
0.50 0.20 In a straight duct of constant diameter, the velocity
0.60 0.16 pressure is unchanged. The change in static pressure is
0.75 0.10
0.80 0.06
the friction loss. Since there is no change in the velocity
pressure, the friction loss will produce an equivalent
round pipe of diameter D1 D1/D2 = 0.10 0.20 decrease in total pressure. In other words, the friction
across (through) duct of 0.25 0.55
0.50 2.00 loss is the change in total pressure. The same loss coeffi-
diameter D2
(referred to vup or vdown) cient is used for calculating the change in static pressure
and the change in total pressure.
tapered reducing sectionc taper angled = 20 ! 0.012
(referred to vdown) 30 ! 0.020 FP TP1 $ TP2 SP1 $ SP2
40 ! 0.032 h i
45 ! 0.040 constant area duct
60 ! 0.070 K VPup with no branches 41:40
bell-mouthed entrancee 0.040
(referred to vdown) Loss coefficients are zero-length losses. That is, they
90 ! round elbowsf r/D = 0.00 1.20 only include the dynamic effects. If a large fitting has a
continuous die-stamped (miter) specific length, that length must be included in the run-
(bend radius, r) 0.50 0.83
0.75 0.46
of-duct length when calculating the duct friction.
(referred to vup or vdown)
1.00 0.31
1.25 0.27 The fitting loss can be assumed to be the result of an
1.50 0.22 equivalent length of duct. These lengths are given in
1.75 0.20 multiples of duct diameter in Table 41.5. This is the
2.00 0.19
2.25 0.18 equivalent length method.
2.50 0.17
2.75 0.16
3.00 0.15 Table 41.5 Typical Equivalent Lengthsa,b
Le
30 ! , 45 ! , 60 ! continuous, die-stamped elbows
multiply 90 ! loss coefficients by 0.33 (30 ! ), 0.50 (45 ! ), and
90 ! continuous, round elbows r/D = 0.00 (miter) 65D
0.67 (60 ! ) of bend radius r and 0.50 45D
diameter D 0.75 23D
90 ! mitered and gored elbows (round) 1.00 17D
1.25 15D
straight miter: 1.2
1.50 12D
straight miter with turning vanes: 0.5 1.75 11D
2.00 10D
r/D = 0.75 r/D = 1.0 r/D = 1.5 r/D = 2.0
HVAC
2.25 9.7D
2.50 9.2D
3 piece 0.54 0.42 0.34 0.33 2.75 8.6D
4 piece 0.50 0.37 0.27 0.24 3.00 8.1D
5 piece 0.46 0.33 0.24 0.19
30 ! , 45 ! , 60 ! continuous elbows
! ! ! multiply 90 ! equivalent lengths by 0.33 (30 ! ), 0.50 (45 ! ),
30 , 45 , 60 gored elbows
multiply 90 ! loss coefficients by 0.45 (30 ! ), 0.60 (45 ! ), and and 0.67 (60 ! )
0.78 (60 ! ) 90 ! mitered and gored elbows (round)
straight miter: 65D
a
Subscripts up and down refer to upstream and downstream, straight miter with turning vanes: 27D
respectively.
b r/D = 0.75 r/D = 1.0 r/D = 1.5 r/D = 2.0
In multiples of velocity pressure.
c
The total energy loss is small for all taper angles. The advantage of 3 piece 29D 23D 18D 18D
a very long taper is insignificant. 4 piece 27D 20D 15D 13D
d
The taper angle is the angle one side makes with the straight wall. 5 piece 25D 18D 13D 10D
The included angle refers to twice the taper angle.
e 30 ! , 45 ! , 60 ! gored elbows
When stationary air is drawn into a bell-mouthed opening, the fan
must supply the velocity pressure (1.0) as well as overcome the multiply 90 ! equivalent lengths by 0.45 (30 ! ), 0.60 (45 ! ),
entrance friction (0.04). Because of that, some sources report this and 0.78 (60 ! )
value as 1.04.
f a
Also, see Table 41.5. In terms of inside duct diameter, D.
b
g
Specific roughness is & = 0.0005 ft; f 0.0185. Specific roughness is & = 0.0005 ft; f 0.0185.
Duct elbows can be die-formed (i.e., stamped) or gored. 31. STATIC REGAIN
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
Gore elbows typically have three or five gores per 90 ! of
bend (e.g., a 3-gore, 90 ! elbow), although 2- and 4- Disregarding friction loss, energy is constant along the
piece elbows are available. A radius-to-diameter ratio run of a duct. If the velocity pressure decreases due to an
(i.e., the ratio of centerline radius (CLR) and diameter) increase in duct area or a branch takeoff, the static
of 1.5 is typical, although values of 2.0 and 2.5 are also pressure will increase. This increase is known as the
used. Data on friction losses in bends are usually depen- static regain, SR.21
dent on the radius-diameter ratio. The throat radius
(i.e., the radius to the inside of the bend) is not com- Ideally, the regain would be exactly equal to the
monly used to categorize friction losses. decrease in velocity pressure. Actually, 10% to 25% of
the energy is lost due to friction, turbulence, and other
The equivalent length of a smooth-radius rectangular factors. The portion of the theoretical regain that is
duct elbow depends on aspect ratio and radius. For a realized is given by the static regain coefficient, R. R
duct with a width W, height H, and bend radius r, the has typical values of 0.75 to 0.90 for well-designed ducts
equivalent length of a 90 ! elbow can be estimated from without reducing sections. (When vdown 4 vup, the
Eq. 41.41. regain will be a static pressure loss. Use R = 1.1 in that
case.)
# $ 0:126 ( )
r $2:13H =W 90! smooth
Le W 0:33 rectangular elbow SRactual SRactual;Pa
W R SI* 41:45a
41:41 SRideal 0:6v2up $ v2down
SRactual SRactual;in wg
R 2 U:S:* 41:45b
30. COEFFICIENT OF ENTRY
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
SRideal vup $ v2down
The coefficient of entry, Ce, is the ratio of the actual to 40052

ideal velocities as stationary air is drawn into an inlet.20
The coefficient of entry is not the same as the loss
coefficient, Ke, which is the entrance friction expressed 32. DIVIDED-FLOW FITTINGS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
as a multiple of the velocity pressure. Typical values of
the coefficient of entry are given in Table 41.6. Equa- Figure 41.7 illustrates typical commercial divided-flow
tion 41.44 is the relationship between the coefficient of (i.e., branch takeoff ) fittings and the terminology that
entry and the loss coefficient. describes them. Air enters upstream, from the left. After
the air reduction at the branch takeoff, the downstream
r velocity will (generally) be less than the upstream veloc-
VPduct ity. The change in static pressure due to the change in
Ce 41:42
SPduct velocity is
SPdown $ SPup TPdown $ TPup $ VPdown $ VPup

Q vactual A C e videal A
p RVPdown $ VPup
4005C e A SPduct 41:43
41:46
HVAC
1 $ C 2e The total pressure change from upstream to down-
Ke 41:44 stream is
C 2e
Table 41.6 Typical Coefficients of Entry TPdown $ TPup SPdown $ SPup VPdown $ VPup
entrance Ce R 1VPdown $ VPup
plain opening (round, 0.72 41:47
rectangular, square)
flanged openings (round, 0.82 The total pressure change from upstream through the
rectangular, square) branch is
bell-mouthed 0.98
tapered square* 0.93 TPbr $ TPup SPbr $ SPup VPbr $ VPup
conical* 0.96
$K br VPup 41:48
*
For included taper angle of 30! to 60! . Values of other angles are close.
21
If a downstream or branch velocity is low enough, it is possible for
20
This is analogous to the coefficient of velocity, Cv, used in liquid flow the regain to actually exceed the dynamic losses due to fitting turbu-
measurement devices. lence. This may hide the true inefficiency of the fitting.
Figure 41.7 Types of Commercial Divided-Flow Fittings
branch
branch branch
up down up down up down
(a) 90 tee (d) 45 conical lateral (g) 45 lateral branch at

90 to main
branch branch branch
up up up down
down down
(b) 90 conical tee (e) 90 tee rolled 45 (h) tangential tee

plus 45 elbow
down
branch
branch
up down up down up branch
(c) 45 lateral (f) 90 conical tee rolled 45 (i) 90 elbow with heel tap
plus 45 elbow
The change in static pressure from upstream through

the branch is 1.0
Kbr
HVAC
SPbr $ SPup TPbr $ TPup $ VPbr $ VPup

0.5
$K br VPup $ VPbr $ VPup
1 $ K br VPup $ VPbr
41:49 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
vbr
Manufacturers of commercial fittings provide graphs of vup
the loss coefficient as a function of the ratio of branch-
to-upstream velocities.22 Typical values of the branch SI Solution
loss coefficient, Kbr, are given in Table 41.7. The ratio of the branch-to-upstream velocity is
Example 41.9
The velocity in a main duct before a branch is 3200 ft/min m
12:8
(16 m/s). The velocity in the branch duct is 2560 ft/min vbr s
m 0:8
(12.8 m/s). What is the change in static pressure from the vup 16
main duct through the branch? s
22
Some manufacturers also provide direct-reading charts that give the
friction loss directly in terms of in wg. From the graph, the loss coefficient is Kbr = 0.85.
From Eq. 41.9, the upstream and branch velocity pres- Table 41.7 Typical Branch Loss Coefficient (Kbr) Values*
sures are angle of takeoff
ratio of
# $ vbr/vup 90 ! 60 ! 45 !
m 2
VPup 0:6v2m=s 0:6 16 154 Pa
s 0.5 1.1 0.8 0.5
# $
m 2 1.0 1.5 0.8 0.5
VPbr 0:6 12:8 98 Pa
s 1.5 2.2 1.1 0.9
From Eq. 41.49, the change in static pressure is 2.0 3.0 2.9 2.8
2.5 4.3 3.3 3.2
SPbr $ SPup 1 $ K br VPup $ VPbr 3.0 5.6 5.2 4.9
1 $ 0:85154 Pa $ 98 Pa *
Round ducts only.
$75 Pa
Customary U.S. Solution Supply duct systems take air from the fan and bring it
The ratio of the branch-to-upstream velocity is to the ventilated space. Exhaust duct systems (return
air systems) carry air from the ventilated space back to
ft the fan.
2560
vbr min
0:8 Compared with conventional systems, high-pressure
vup 3200 ft and high-velocity systems require less space, cost less
min for ductwork, and provide better control of the condi-
From the graph, the loss coefficient is Kbr = 0.85. From tioned space. However, they are noisier, require a more
Eq. 41.8, the upstream and branch velocity pressures are precise duct design, and require larger (more expen-
sive) fans.
0 1
ft 2 The following general recommendations apply to all
# v $2 3200
up B minC duct designs and design methods.
VPup @ A 0:64 in wg
4005 4005
. Make duct routes as direct as possible.
0 12
ft . Avoid sudden changes in direction and diameter.
2560
B minC
VPbr @ A 0:41 in wg . Use radius-to-diameter ratios of 1.5 or higher.
4005
. Eliminate obstructions in and through the ducts.
From Eq. 41.49, the change in static pressure is . Use radiused elbows whenever possible, and when
not, use turning vanes.
SPbr $ SPup 1 $ K br VPup $ VPbr . Make rectangular ducts as square as possible. Avoid
1 $ 0:850:64 in wg $ 0:41 in wg aspect ratios greater than 8:1, and use 4:1 or less
whenever space permits.
HVAC
$0:31 in wg
. Use smooth metal construction whenever possible.
. Maintain an incremental size difference of at least
33. DUCT DESIGN PRINCIPLES
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . 2 in in adjacent duct sections.
Duct systems are categorized as low-velocity (up to . Include a small volume allowance above the sum of
2000 ft/min to 2500 ft/min or 10.2 m/s to 12.8 m/s) all the outlet volumes to account for leakage.23
and high-velocity (above 2500 ft/min or 12.8 m/s). Low-
velocity systems, also known as conventional systems, . Size the fan with excess capacity to compensate for
are usually designed with the velocity-reduction and inaccuracies in the design.
equal-friction methods. High-velocity systems are able . Install balancing dampers in all branches, even when
to take advantage of benefits associated with the static the static regain method is used for the design. In
regain method. order to minimize noise, install dampers as close as
Duct systems are categorized according to the static pres- possible to the main duct.
sure at the fan: low-pressure (02 in wg; 0500 Pa),
23
medium-pressure (26 in wg; 5001500 Pa), and high- Some sources say to include up to 10% excess air to account for leaks.
pressure (610 in wg; 15002500 Pa). Residential and While this may sound nominal, the fan laws show that increasing the
fan speed 10% to obtain the extra flow will increase the horsepower
commercial ducts are typically designed such that the 30%. It is unlikely that a motor would be able to provide 30% more
pressure drop at the fan is between 0.08 in wg and power. Therefore, more reliance should be placed on tight ductwork
0.15 in wg. than on excess air.
. Use the lowest possible duct velocities in order to penetrations to be sealed. For seal class A, the leakage
minimize fan power and noise. class, C L , can be estimated as 3 cfm/100 ft2 for round
metal ducts and as 6 cfm/100 ft2 for rectangular metal
. In practice, to prevent undersizing supply ducts in
ducts. Seal class B, applicable to pressurizations of
residential applications, supply-side designs should
34 in wg, requires sealing of transverse joints and
be based on no greater than 0.1 in wg per 100 ft;
longitudinal seams. The approximate leakage class is
and, a value of 0.06 in wg is more appropriate. For
6 cfm/100 ft2 for round metal ducts and 12 cfm/100 ft2
return lines, values in the range of 0.040.05 in wg
for rectangular metal ducts. Seal class C, applicable to
are appropriate.
pressurizations of 2 in wg and less, requires sealing
. Conventional rule-of-thumb wisdom specifies the only of transverse joints. The approximate leakage
gross area of return grilles as 1 ft2 (144 in2) per ton class is 12 cfm/100 ft2 for round metal ducts and
of refrigeration. However, this generally results in 24 cfm/100 ft2 for rectangular metal ducts. Unsealed
the average system return being undersized by 30% ductwork can be expected to exhibit a leakage class
or more. A better rule of thumb is to have 1 in2 of of 24 cfm/100 ft 2 for round metal ducts and
gross grille area for every 2 ft3/min of air flow. 48 cfm/100 ft2 for rectangular metal ducts.
Actual construction and sealing can be used to predict
the seal class when ducts are manufactured customarily.
34. ECONOMICAL DUCT DESIGN
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
Since Eq. 41.50 was developed from measurements of
ducts constructed with normal and customary quality,
All other factors being equal, economical duct design is it should only be used to predict leakage from ducts
achieved by using standard, factory-manufactured whose construction is customary for the intended pres-
round duct, keeping runs straight, minimizing the surization range. It should not be used when construc-
aspect ratio of rectangular duct, minimizing the total tion is inconsistent with intended use. For example, a
amount of sheet metal (i.e., minimizing the total mass) duct expected to operate at a pressure less than 2 in wg
used, and by maintaining trunk size until a reduction of would not normally be constructed with a class A seal
2 in (51 mm) or more is warranted (this is known as the class, and Eq. 41.50 cannot be expected to predict leak-
2-inch rule). age accurately in that instance.
Ductwork carries flows of 25 cfm/ft2 (cfm per square
35. LEAKAGE
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
foot of duct area). Systems with a lot of ductwork and
small air flows are nearer to the lower end, while systems
Ducts are not intended to be leak-free. However, the with minimal ductwork and large air flows are nearer to
volumetric leakage should be less than 1% for well- the upper end. The leakage as a percentage of the sup-
sealed ducts and 25% for unsealed ducts.24 Ducts are plied air flow is
not pressure vessels and are not intended to be tested by
sealing and pressurization. (The term airtight should Q leakage;cfm
be avoided.) Leakage should be tested volumetrically leakage% of supply + 100%
with the air in motion. Qsupply;cfm
Leakage can be classified and quantified by a duct leak- Q leakage;cfm=100 ft2

41:51
age class. The leakage class, CL, is defined as actual Qsupply;cfm=ft2
leakage in cubic feet per minute per 100 square feet of
HVAC
duct area, a quantity known as the leakage factor, F,

when the gage pressure, p, within the duct is 1 in wg. An Example 41.10
exponent, N, is used to correlate the leakage class and
leakage factor. N depends on turbulence within the Air flows through a rectangular duct (seal class C) at
duct, but it has a reliable average value of 0.65. Duct the rate of 3 cfm/ft2. The gage pressure in the duct is
leakage is essentially independent of duct velocity. 1.7 in wg. What is the leakage as a percentage of the
Equation 41.50 is valid for both positive and negative supply rate?
pressures.
Solution
Qleakage C L pN 41:50 Rectangular duct with seal class C can be expected to
have a leakage class, C L , of 24 cfm/100 ft2.
For convenience, the leakage class of ducts constructed
by skilled, trained technicians can be predicted by the From Eq. 41.50,
SMACNA seal class.25 Seal class A, applicable to ducts
with pressurizations 4 in wg and higher, requires all # $
cfm
transverse joints, longitudinal seams, and duct wall Q leakage C L pN 24 1:7 in wg0:65
100 ft2
24
ASHRAE and SMACNA recommendations. 33:88 cfm=100 ft2
25
Duct Construction StandardsMetal and Flexible, SMACNA,
1985 ed.
From Eq. 41.51, combining the area and flow rate terms, elements (e.g., foam and pleated) increase in efficiency
over time (albeit with an increase in pressure drop),
cfm
Qleakage;cfm=100 ft2 33:88 100 ft2 efficiencies of electrostatic filters decrease as the filter
leakage% of supply is used and the collection surface becomes coated.
Q supply;cfm=ft2 cfm
3 2
ft Filters are rated by their minimum efficiency reporting
11:29% value (MERV), a standard used to categorize the overall
efficiency of the filter. MERV ratings range from 1 to 16,
with the more efficient filters receiving the higher
36. COLLAPSE OF DUCTS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .
values. Typical residential pleated filters have poor per-
formance below 10 microns and have MERV ratings of
Under certain conditions, ducts may collapse inward. 1 to 4. High-quality filters with MERV ratios 5 to 8 can
This may happen in medium- and high-velocity systems remove particles as small as 3 microns. Filters with 9 to
when a fire damper or blast gate suddenly closes, but 12 MERV ratings are used in commercial and industrial
can also occur in long, large-diameter air return systems. applications and will stop particles in the 1 to 3 micron
The negative pressure created between a closed damper range. The most efficient filters have MERV ratings of
and the retreating mass of air may collapse the duct. 13 to 16 and will stop particles as small as 0.3 microns.
The negative pressure required to collapse a duct These filters are used in hospitals and clean rooms.
depends on the duct construction and must be specified
by the duct manufacturer. Pressure drops in most pleated filters are less than
0.5 in wg, and for residential and light industrial appli-
To prevent collapse in air return systems, increased cations are generally 0.20.3 in wg. Manufacturers data
metal gage and/or angle rings may be used. To prevent must be used for accurate assessments. Filters with
collapse due to sudden closures, a negative-pressure MERV ratings greater than 13 generally have high
relief valve can be installed immediately downstream pressure drops. Because of this, they may be installed
of each fire damper. in parallel (not inline) with the return duct and filter
only a portion of the air at a time.
37. FILTERS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .
38. DAMPERS
Duct filters are used to remove dust, pollen, spores, bac- . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
teria, and other particles. In residential and light com- Since friction loss is proportional to the distance from
mercial applications, traditional pleated furnace-type the fan to the outlet, duct runs to outlets near the fan
filters are used, along with fiberglass and foam media will have lower friction losses than the main duct run. If
filters. Most commercial/industrial filter units contain not constrained, most of the airflow will escape out of
two or more stages of successively finer filtration, starting the lower-friction runs. Limited pressure balancing can
with a pleated pre-filter. Hogs hair filters (made from be achieved with jumper ducts, also known as crossover
latex-coated organic fibers) are washable and reusable ducts, which are ducts (without equipment) that run
and can be used as pre-filters. Commercial and industrial between zones and terminate at simple grilles in order
environments may require box and bag cloth filters. In to equalize pressure in the zones. Jumper ducts are
more demanding environments, such as clean rooms and generally only used in residential construction where
hospitals, multi-stage, high-efficiency particulate air duct runs are short.
(HEPA) and electrostatic filters can be used. Filters with
HVAC
layers of granulated activated carbon (GAC) are some- Duct systems are not self-equalizing or self-balancing.
what useful in removing gases, VOCs, and odors. Even when exquisitely designed, installed ducts rarely
perform as designed, and each run must be adjusted
Filtration efficiency is measured by the percentage of individually after installation. Balancing adjusts the
particles removed. For most filters, the removal effi- flow rate in each duct to match the design value for
ciency varies nonlinearly with the particle size. The the corresponding zone. Dampers are used to balance
arrestance is the percentage of macroscopic particles airflow in ducts and to regulate the quantity of outside
(lint, hair, dust, etc.) removed. Arrestance for most make-up air drawn in. Dampers can be motorized, but
filter types is usually well above 80%. However, most they are usually operated manually. A significant char-
filters have lower filtration efficiencies with smaller par- acteristic (i.e., disadvantage) of manual dampers is that
ticles. The 0.3 micron particle size is an industry stan- they are generally left forever in their originally installed
dard comparison point. For example, when new, a position. Pressure loss through dampers can be substan-
typical, high-quality pleated furnace filter for residential tial, even when fully open. A typical pressure-loss coeffi-
use has a removal efficiency of approximately 80% at cient, K, for a fully open damper is 0.52.
10 microns, 40% at 1 micron, and less than 10% at
0.3 micron. Electrostatic filters have efficiencies Dampers are included in all runs to keep the pressure
approaching 95%. HEPA filters have efficiencies of drop the same in all duct runs, even those that are short.
99.97% at the 0.3 micron level, and some manufacturers Balancing is the act of closing down the dampers to
claim efficiencies better than 5 nines (i.e., 99.999%) for equalize the friction losses. It is a good idea to install
multi-stage units. Although filters with traditional filter dampers even when sophisticated design methods are
used. Dampers can be manually operated (for balancing step 1: Select the velocity leaving the fan from judg-
or other occasional use), motorized (for zone control and ment. As the duct branches off, use judgment
variable volume), or gravity operated. to select a reduced velocity for each branch.
Table 41.8 lists typical maximum values of duct
Figure 41.8 illustrates three general types of dampers. velocities for conventional low-velocity systems.
Volume dampers should be used only in branch ducts
when a splitter damper cannot be used.26 Splitter dam-
Table 41.8 Typical Maximum Duct Velocities (in ft/min)
pers should be used at the junction of the main and
branch ducts. Automatic dampers are usually chosen large small
with parallel blades for applications with two distinct supply supply return
positions. Dampers with opposed blades are chosen application ducts ducts ducts
when airflow is to be controlled over a wide range. residences 800 600 600
Gravity dampers are self-closing and are intended to apartments/hotel 1500 1100 1000
prevent backflow. Fire dampers and smoke dampers bedrooms
close automatically to prevent the spread of smoke theaters 1600 1200 1200
throughout the system. deluxe offices 1100 800
average offices 1300 1000
Figure 41.8 Types of Dampers general offices 2200 1400 1200
restaurants 1800 1400 1200
small shops 1500 1200
department stores
(a) opposed blade lower floors 2100 1600 1200
damper upper floors 1800 1400 1200
(Multiply ft/min by 0.00508 to obtain m/s.)
step 2: Determine the airflow requirement, Q, for each

(b) simple louver
damper outlet.
step 3: Calculate the duct size from A = Q/v.
step 4: By inspection, find the highest-resistance (i.e.,
longest) duct run. Calculate the static pressure
drop in the longest run.
(c) splitter damper step 5: Specify dampers in all of the runs for balancing.
Balancing/volume-adjusting dampers should be installed 40. EQUAL-FRICTION METHOD

. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
close to the main supply, as far away as possible from the

outlets. However, outlets can be designed to act as dam- The equal-friction method is applicable to simple low-
pers. Such decorative grilles may be fixed pattern dam- velocity systems. The method gets its name from the
procedure that arbitrarily keeps the friction loss per unit
HVAC
pers (i.e., perforated plate or fixed-bar grilles) or

adjustable bar grilles with a manual control lever. The length the same in all duct runs. Velocity pressure and
disadvantage of combining terminal air distribution with regain are disregarded. The system will require exten-
dampering is that the noise created by the friction is sive dampering, as no attempt is made to equalize pres-
projected directly into the room. In order to limit noise, sure drops in the branches.
the maximum flow velocities and flow rates are specified A common assumption in preliminary design studies is a
with standard commercial grilles by the manufacturers. friction loss of 0.08 in wg per 100 ft (0.65 Pa/m) for
virtually all situations except offices (0.10 in wg per
39. VELOCITY-REDUCTION METHOD 100 ft; 0.82 Pa/m) and industrial uses (0.15 in wg per
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .
100 ft; 1.2 Pa/m). This value is referred to as the design
In the velocity-reduction method, the fan discharge pressure drop (dpd). These values ensure duct velocities
velocity is selected by judgment. Arbitrary reductions are low enough to avoid excessive noise, and they repre-
in velocity are made down the run, usually at branch sent a good compromise between duct and fan installa-
takeoffs. This method requires expertise on the part of tion and operating costs.
the designer. It is used primarily for estimating simple step 1: Select the main duct velocity from Table 41.8,
layouts. The following steps constitute the velocity- contract specifications, or judgment.
reduction method.
step 2: From the velocity and flow rate in the main
26
In the ventilation industry, dampers used only to adjust volume are duct, find the friction loss per unit length from
also known as blast gates. Fig. 41.5 or Fig. 41.6.
step 3: After each branch, reduce the main duct flow step 4: By inspection, the longest run is ABC. From
rate by the branch flow. Find the new velocity Table 41.5, the equivalent length of each bend
and duct size to keep the same friction loss per is 12D.
unit length. (This means that all points will be
along a vertical line on Fig. 41.5 or Fig. 41.6.) 12560 mm
Le;bend 12D mm 6:72 m 7 m
1000
step 4: Determine the static pressure drop in the m
highest-resistance duct. The fan must supply
this static pressure drop plus the desired outlet
pressure. The equivalent length of the entire run is
6m (from fan to first bend)
step 5: Compare the actual system pressure with the
7m (equivalent length of first bend)
design pressure, if known. If they are signifi-
9m (first bend to second bend)
cantly different, repeat all the steps with a dif-
7m (equivalent length of second bend)
ferent main duct velocity.
3m (jog between sections A and B)
step 6: Size branch runs the same waykeeping the 6m (section B)
same friction loss per unit length. Use dampers 12 m (section C)
to equalize the pressure drops. total: 50 m
Example 41.11 The straight-through friction loss in the longest run is

# $
A theater duct system is shown. All bends have a radius- Pa
to-diameter ratio of 1.5. The branch takeoff between 50 m 1:2 60 Pa
m
sections A and B has a branch loss coefficient of Kbr =
1.5. The design pressure at each outlet is 0.15 in wg Use Eq. 41.48 to find the friction loss in the branch
(38 Pa). Disregard the divided flow fitting loss. Use takeoff between sections A and B.
the equal-friction method to size the system.
TPA $ TPB K br VPup K br 0:6v2up
# $
A
m 2
1:50:6 8:1
10 ft (3 m) s
4000 ft3/min 30 ft (9 m)
B C 800 ft3/min
(2000 L/s) 20 ft 59 Pa
20 ft 40 ft (400 L/s)
(6 m)
(6 m) (12 m) The fan must be able to supply a static pressure of
20 ft
fan (6 m) D 2000 ft3/min (1000 L/s)
20 ft 1200 ft3/min (600 L/s) SPfan 60 Pa 59 Pa 38 Pa 157 Pa
(6 m)
The total pressure supplied by the fan is
SI Solution TPfan SPfan 0:6v2m=s

# $
step 1: From Table 41.8, choose the main duct velocity m 2
HVAC
157 Pa 0:6 8:1
(section A) as 1600 ft/min. From the table foot- s
note, the SI velocity is 196 Pa
# $# $
ft m"min Customary U.S. Solution
vmain 1600 0:00508 8:1 m=s
min s"ft
step 1: From Table 41.8, choose the main duct velocity
(section A) as 1600 ft/min.
step 2: The total airflow from the fan is 2000 L/s. From
step 2: The total airflow from the fan is 4000 ft3/min.
Fig. 41.6, the main duct diameter (section A) is
From Fig. 41.5, the main duct diameter (sec-
approximately 560 mm. (This may not corre-
tion A) is 21 in. The friction loss is 0.15 in wg
spond to a standard duct size.) The friction loss
per 100 ft.
is 1.2 Pa/m.
step 3: After the first takeoff, the flow rate in
step 3: After the first takeoff, the flow rate in section B is section B is
L L ft3 ft3
2000 $ 600 1400 L=s 4000 $ 1200 2800 ft3 =min
s s min min
From Fig. 41.6 for 1400 L/s and 1.2 Pa/m, the From Fig. 41.5 for 2800 ft3/min and 0.15 in wg
diameter is 490 mm, and the velocity is 7.4 m/s. per 100 ft, the diameter is 18 in, and the
velocity is 1500 ft/min. Similarly, the diameters (compared with the main duct run) and to (theoreti-
at sections C and D are 11.5 in (say 12 in) and cally) eliminate the need for dampers.
13 in, respectively. The velocity at section C is
1000 ft/min. The desired outlet pressure is subtracted from the pres-
sure at the main duct branch takeoff to get the pressure
step 4: By inspection, the longest run is ABC. From that must be dissipated in the branch run. This pressure
Table 41.5, the equivalent length of each bend is divided by the estimated equivalent length to find the
is 12D. pressure drop per unit length. Figure 41.5 and Fig. 41.6
can be used to find the duct size and velocity.27
1221 in
Le;bend 12D 21 ft
in Example 41.12
12
ft
An air supply system consists of a long run and two
branches. The total friction loss in the long run is
The equivalent length of the entire run is 0.15 in wg (38 Pa). The longest duct was sized with
the equal-friction method using a pressure drop of
20 ft (from fan to first bend) 0.2 in wg per 100 ft (1.6 Pa/m). The equivalent length
21 ft (equivalent length of first bend) of the branch takeoff at A is 12 ft (3.6 m). The equiva-
30 ft (first bend to second bend) lent length of the elbow in duct A is 18 ft (5.4 m).
21 ft (equivalent length of second bend) Rather than use a damper in duct A to equal the
10 ft (jog between sections A and B) pressure drop, duct A will be sized small enough to
20 ft (section B) equalize the losses through increased velocity. Use the
40 ft (section C) combination method to size duct A.
total: 162 ft
750 ft3/min
(375 L/s)
The straight-through friction loss in the longest run is
# $ 20 ft (6 m) 1000 ft3/min
fan
162 ft 10 ft A (500 L/s)
0:15 in wg per 100 ft 0:24 in wg
100 ft (3 m) 750 ft 3/min (375 L/s)
5 ft
Use Eq. 41.48 to find the friction loss in the branch (1.5 m)
takeoff between sections A and B.
TPA $ TPB K br VPup SI Solution

0 1
ft 2 Subtracting the pressure drop from the fan to the
1600 branch takeoff, the pressure left to be dissipated in
B minC
1:5@ A duct A is
4005
# $
Pa
0:24 in wg 38 Pa $ 6 m 1:6 28 Pa
m
The fan must be able to supply a static pressure of
HVAC
The required loss per meter in duct A is

SPfan 0:24 in wg 0:24 in wg 0:15 in wg
28 Pa
0:63 in wg 2:07 Pa=m
3 m 1:5 m 3:6 m 5:4 m
The total pressure supplied by the fan is Use Fig. 41.6. With 375 L/s and 2.07 Pa/m, the velocity
is approximately 6.9 m/s, and the diameter is approxi-
TPfan SPfan VPup mately 260 mm.
0 1
ft 2
1600 Customary U.S. Solution
B minC
0:63 in wg @ A
4005 Subtracting the pressure drop from the fan to the
branch takeoff, the pressure left to be dissipated in
0:79 in wg duct A is
# $
20 ft
0:15 in wg $ 0:2 in wg per 100 ft
41. COMBINATION METHOD
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . 100 ft
0:11 in wg
A combination method is sometimes used. The main
duct is sized by the equal-friction method. The branch
27
runs are sized so as to dissipate the remaining friction To limit noise, very high velocities should be avoided.
The required loss per 100 ft in duct A is determine the vertical separation.) Then, drop down
# $ and read the velocity from the horizontal scale. A gain
ft is handled similarlyby moving to the left.
0:11 in wg 100
100 ft 0:24 in wg per 100 ft
10 ft 5 ft 12 ft 18 ft The following steps constitute a simplified static regain
method. In practice, the prediction of the regain coeffi-
Use Fig. 41.5. With 750 ft3/min and 0.24 in wg, the cient, R, is quite difficult, rendering this method gener-
velocity is 1240 ft/min, and the diameter is 10 in. ally unusable.
step 1: Use Table 41.8 to choose a velocity in the main
42. STATIC REGAIN METHOD
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
run.
In the static regain method, the diameter of each succes- step 2: Size the main run using A = Q/v.
sive branch is reduced in order to increase the static
pressure at the branch entrance back to the fan dis- step 3: Find the equivalent length of the main duct from
charge pressure. The reduction is such that the static the fan to the first branch takeoff. Assume any
regain offsets the friction loss in the succeeding section. unknown bend radii.
(This method can also be used to size branch ducts as step 4: Use Fig. 41.5 or Fig. 41.6 to find the friction loss,
long as the duct sizes are reasonable.) In Eq. 41.52, FPmain in the main run up to the branch takeoff.
point A is before the branch takeoff, point B is immedi-
ately after the branch takeoff, and point C is just prior step 5: Determine the fan pressure. Assuming that all
to the next branch takeoff. (See Fig. 41.9.) subsequent friction after the first branch takeoff
will be recovered with static regain, the static
SPA $ SPB FPB$C 41:52 pressure supplied by the fan will be
Figure 41.9 Duct Runs for Static Regain SPfan FPmain grille discharge pressure 41:55
Equation 41.55 assumes that the fan discharge velocity

A
and velocity in the main duct run are the same. If the
B C
velocities are different, Eq. 41.45 is used to determine a
static regain that reduces the pressure supplied by the fan.
step 6: Calculate the flow rate in the duct after the
branch takeoff.
The analytical relationship between the velocities in the Q Qmain $ branch flow 41:56
sections is given by Eq. 41.53. C is equal to 0.0832 for a
static regain coefficient, R, of 0.75. Values of C for other step 7: Knowing the flow rate and length of the next
values of R can be calculated from Eq. 41.54.28 section, determine the velocity in that section
! from Fig. 41.10. For other values of R, or when
L a regain chart is not available, the duct size must
BC
v2A $ v2B C v2:43
B U:S: only* 41:53 be found by trial and error. The duct size is
Q0:61
B varied until the friction loss equals the regain.
6:256 + 10$2 step 8: Solve for the duct size from A = Q/v.
HVAC
C U:S: only* 41:54
R Example 41.13
The velocity vB appears on both sides, making Eq. 41.53 The fan in the duct system shown moves a total of
difficult to use. For that reason, duct diameters are 1500 ft3/min. The velocity of the air in the fan is
often chosen by trial and error. However, graphical aids 1700 ft/min. Bends have equivalent lengths of 15 ft.
(e.g., Fig. 41.10) can be used to determine the unknown The required outlet grille pressure is 0.25 in wg. Use
velocity without extensive trial and error iterations. To the static regain method with a static regain coefficient
use Fig. 41.10, the quantity LAB =Q0:61
B is calculated. The of 0.75 to size the main duct run fan-A-F.
intersection of the L/Q line and the vA line defines vB .
In most cases, it is assumed that the regain will equal 50 ft 30 ft 10 ft
the friction loss in the following section. In that case, vB (15 m) (9 m) (3 m)
is read directly from the horizontal scale. However, 20 ft B C D 10 ft
Fig. 41.10 can also be used to determine a velocity that (6 m) A E (3 m) 300 ft3/min
will increase or decrease the static pressure by some 450 ft3/min 3
450 ft /min (150 L/s)
given amount. If a loss in static pressure is required, fan (225 L/s) (225 L/s) 30 ft
move to the right of the intersection point until the F (9 m)
vertical separation between the two curves equals the
desired loss. (Use the vertical scale on the right edge to 300 ft3/min
28
(150 L/s)
Equation 41.53 is based on a friction factor of 0.0270.
Figure 41.10 Static Regain Chart (R = 0.75)
0.17
0.16
30
0.5
00
0.15
29
0
0.4
00
0.14
ve
28
lo
5
0.3
cit
0.13
00
y
, v1
27
,b
0
0.12
00
0.3
ef
or
e
26
25
ta
0.11
0
0.
ke
net gain or loss (in of water)

of
f(
25
0.10
ft/
20
00
0.
m
in
17
24
)
00 18 0.09
00
0.
23
16
16 0.
00
00 0.08
14
22
15 0.
00
00 0.07
2
0.1
21
00
14 0
00 0.1 0.06
20
00
.09
1.0
0
19
13 8 0.05
00
0. 0
12 00 0.0
0.9
80
70
18
00
0. .60
L 61 .07
00
0. 0
0
11 . 50 Q 0.0
6 0.04
00 0 40
10 0. 5 0.0
5
00 0.3 0 0.03
90 0.3 5 0.04
0 0.2 20
80
0 0. 0.03 0.02
0.15
0.10 0.01
0.05
0.01
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
HVAC
velocity, v2, after takeoff (ft/min)
Solution step 3: The equivalent length of the main duct from the
fan to the first takeoff and bend is
step 1: Choose 1500 ft/min as the main duct velocity.
step 2: The area and diameter of the main duct are L 20 ft 15 ft 50 ft 85 ft
ft3
Q 1500 min step 4: From Fig. 41.5, the friction loss in the main run
A 1 ft2 up to the branch takeoff is approximately
v ft3 0.20 in wg per 100 ft. The actual friction loss is
1500
min
r r
# $
4A 41 ft2 # in
$ 85 ft
D 12 FPmain 0:20 in wg per 100 ft
p p ft 100 ft
13:5 in 14 in 0:17 in wg
v
step 5: Since the main duct velocity is lower than the u ! 3
"
u4 300 ft
fan discharge velocity, there will be static regain u min # $
u in
from the fan. From Eq. 41.45, DF t # $ 12
ft ft
p 560
min
Rv2fan $ v2main
SRfan 9:91 in 10 in
40052
0:75
0# $2 # $ 1
ft ft 2 43. TOTAL PRESSURE DESIGN METHOD
1700 $ 1500 . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
B min min C
+@ A The previous duct design methods focus on static pres-
40052
sure. The static regain method actually compensates for
0:03 in wg the inefficiency of a fitting by increasing subsequent
duct sizes. None of the duct design methods mentioned
attempts to minimize the friction loss. Nevertheless,
energy is lost due to friction and turbulence at fittings.
SPfan FPmain grille pressure $ SRfan
The true measure of the loss in a fitting is represented
0:17 in wg 0:25 in wg $ 0:03 in wg
by the change in total pressure it causes. Unlike static
0:39 in wg pressure, total pressure along a duct run will always
decrease, never increase. Features (i.e., fittings) where
the total pressure drops by a significant amount repre-
step 6: The flow rates, equivalent lengths, and L/Q 0.61 sent inefficient features (i.e., the wrong fitting for that
ratios for each section are location). These should be replaced with fittings with
lower loss coefficients. This is the basic premise of the
L total pressure design method.
section L Q Q 0:61
C 30 1050 0.43
D to E 10 + 15 + 10 = 35 600 0.71
44. AIR DISTRIBUTION
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
F 30 300 0.92
An outlet is a supply opening through which air enters
the ventilated space. An inlet is a return opening
through which air is removed from the ventilated space.
In residential construction, outlets are usually placed in
step 7: From Fig. 41.10, the velocities are
floors under windows, and inlets are placed in the ceiling
or on walls near the ceilings. In commercial construc-
v tion, locations are determined by numerous factors and
section (ft/min) can be anywhere. The terms grille, register, and diffuser
C 1130 are used to describe coverings for the openings, and the
800 terms are used somewhat interchangeably. A grille is a
D to E
decorative covering for an opening. For example, perfo-
F 560 rated plate grilles are used to cover inlets to return air
HVAC
ducts. A filter grille accommodates a furnace filter
behind its face. A diffuser is a grille with fixed or move-
step 8: Solve for the duct size from A = Q/v. able louvers that guides the supply or return air. The
number of louvers is given in bars per unit length. In
r r residential applications, units with 2 bars to the inch are
4A 4Q used for heating, while units with 3 bars to the inch are
D
p pv for mixed use. Diffusers can be 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-way,
v
"
u ! 3 referring to the number of orthogonal directions the air
u4 1050 ft is directed by louvers. A register is a grille with an
u min # $
u in internal damper. Registers may have louvers.
DC t # $ 12
ft ft
p 1130 Incorrect location of registers results in drafts, hot and
min
cold spots, and noise. Locating a register requires knowl-
13:1 in 13 in edge of register performance regarding throw, spread,
v
u ! 3
"
drop, and terminal velocity for the given airflow and
u4 600 ft
u min # $ velocity. The Coanda effect (ceiling effect) causes air to
u in
D D=E t # $ 12 adhere to the ceiling after discharge from a wall register
ft ft at the ceiling level. The suction effect is proportional to
p 800
min the square of the discharge velocity. With improper
11:7 in 12 in designs, the terminal velocity is too low, eventually
decreasing to a point (about 4.5 ft/sec (1.5 m/s)) where The throw (also known as the blow) is the distance from
the ceiling effect suction is inadequate, and the dis- the outlet to the distribution point. (See Fig. 41.11.)
charged air drops downward, a characteristic known as When an outlet has been properly selected, the average
dumping. Occupants find dumping to be uncomfortable, terminal velocity at the distribution point should be
as it places them in drafts. Once dumping begins, the approximately 50 ft/min (0.25 m/s) for sedentary occu-
discharge velocity must be increased to 3040% above pants up to 75 ft/min (0.38 m/s) for slightly active
the original velocity in order to reattach the airflow to occupants.30,31 Therefore, the throw is roughly the dis-
the ceiling. tance from the outlet where the average air velocity is
50 ft/min (0.25 m/s). As it emerges from the outlet, duct
ASHRAE has two suggestions: For systems in the cool- air will entrain room air. The increase in airflow width is
ing mode, diffuser selection should be based on the ratio known as the rise, and the absolute width of the airflow
of the diffusers throw to the length of the zone being is the spread. (Even straight outlets have airflows that
supplied. For systems in the heating mode, the diffuser diverge with a total included angle of up to 20 ! .)
to room temperature difference (DT) should not exceed
15 ! F to avoid excessive temperature stratification. Figure 41.11 Air Distribution Terminology
For systems in the cooling mode, ASHRAE has devel- wall
oped the air diffusion performance index (ADPI) to
categorize occupant thermal comfort in sedentary envi-
ronments with ceilings of at least 8 ft. The ADPI is a rise
single-digit index derived from temperatures and veloc- duct
ities at specific locations (prescribed by the ASHRAE
vcore voutlet vterminal spread
test method) around the outlet diffuser. The ADPI
essentially represents the percentage of occupants that
would feel comfortable. In general, velocities experi-
enced by occupants should be less than 70 fpm rise
(50 fpm ideally), and the ADPI should predict greater
throw
than 70%, and preferably 8090%, of occupant accep-
tance. ASHRAE suggests combinations of velocity and
The conservation of momentum law predicts the
temperatures that accomplish these goals.29 Using man- amount of entrained air. The velocity of the room air
ufacturers data, diffusers should be selected that satisfy is initially zero. The induction ratio, IR, is the ratio of
the suggested X50/L throw ratios. X 50 is the manufac- combined to outlet air masses.
turers reported throw to 50 fpm. L is the space charac-
teristic length. This is usually the distance from the m outlet voutlet m outlet m entrained vcombined 41:58
outlet to the wall or mid-plane between outlets. The
v m mentrained
desired throw value can be determined by multiplying IR outlet outlet 41:59
the desired throw ratio by the characteristic length. The vcombined moutlet
throw ratio is based on a 9 ft ceiling height. The throw
can be increased or decreased by the same amount that The centerline velocity can be predicted for a distance x
the ceiling height exceeds or is less than 9 ft. from the outlet. In Eq. 41.60, K is the outlet constant
supplied by the outlet manufacturer, and Rfa is the ratio
For an outlet (grille, register, etc.) to work properly, the of free area to core (gross) area. The outlet velocity
HVAC
air must have a minimum static pressure (typically 0.1 should be 300500 ft/min (1.52.5 m/s) for ultra-quiet
0.3 in wg; 2575 Pa) at the grille outlet. This grille areas, 500750 ft/min (2.53.8 m/s) for residences,
pressure (terminal pressure) is added to the static and theaters, and libraries, and 6001000 ft/min (3.0
velocity pressures of the air when the fan is sized. 5.1 m/s) for offices and service areas. In noisy industrial
areas, velocities as high as 2000 ft/min (10.2 m/s) may
The gross area or core area of the grille is its total cross- be tolerable.
sectional area. The net opening left when the gross area K Q outlet
is reduced by the area of the louvers or dividers is the vcenterline at distance x r
free area or daylight area, also known as the effective C d Acore Rf a
x
area. The outlet velocity can be found from the core A
velocity and outlets coefficient of discharge, Cd, which K Q outlet
is typically between 0.7 and 0.9. p 41:60
x C d Afree
vcore Acore The centerline velocity of the air emerging from a duct is
voutlet 41:57
C d Afree approximately twice that of the average velocity across
the duct face. Since the throw is roughly the distance at
30
For industrial work, the velocity may be as high as 300 ft/min
29
ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals, Inch-Pound Edition, American (1.5 m/s).
31
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Some sources say the minimum air movement should be 20 ft/min
Inc., Atlanta, GA, 2009. (0.1 m/s) or above.
which the average distribution velocity is 50 ft/min Figure 41.12 Converging-Flow Fitting
(0.25 m/s), the throw is
K Qoutlet h i
consistent
throw # $r units
ft C d Acore Afree up down
100
min Agross
41:61
Generally, the throw should be 75% of the distance from

the outlet face to the opposing normal surface. For
example, for a ceiling-mounted outlet and a 12 ft
(3.6 m) ceiling height, the throw would be approxi-
mately 9 ft (2.7 m). The throw should be increased
25% to 50% when the air is released along a wall or near
branch
the ceiling in order to compensate for the friction
between the air and that surface.
The change in static pressure from the branch to down-
45. EXHAUST DUCT SYSTEMS stream is
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
Exhaust (return air) duct systems are designed some- SPbr $ SPdown 1 K br VPdown $ VPbr 41:64
what differently from supply systems.32 Low-velocity
designs often use the equal-friction method. Since the The change in static pressure from upstream to down-
duct operates under a negative pressure, collapse is stream is
always a consideration. The negative suction rating of
SPup $ SPdown 1 K main VPdown $ VPup 41:65
the fan should also not be exceeded.
With a single-fan system, in order for air to enter the
return ducts through return grilles and then exhaust 46. DUCT SYSTEM NOISE
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
through relief dampers, the return air must enter the
return air duct above atmospheric pressure. This requires Fan noise and duct noise have many sources.
the building to be continuously over-pressurized, causing 1. Vortex shedding describes air separation from the
doors to blow open and other problems. In order to avoid blade surface and trailing edge. The resulting noise
these over-pressurization problems, a return air fan after is broadband (i.e., containing a wide range of fre-
the return grilles and before the relief dampers is used. quencies). Noise from vortex shedding is minimized
Air enters the return ductwork near atmospheric pres- by good blade profile design, use of proper pitch
sure, and the return air fan raises the static pressure in angle, and the presence of notched or serrated trail-
the duct to above atmospheric as required for the relief ing blade edges.
dampers. Since no additional friction sources (as com-
pared to the single-fan system) are added, this does not 2. Broadband noise can also be caused by turbulence in
increase the total fan power required by the system, the air stream caused by inlet and outlet distur-
HVAC
although it does increase the total initial installation cost. bances, sharp edges, and bends. High-impedance sys-
tems (i.e., those with high back-pressure) are noisier
Converging-flow fittings behave differently than do than low-impedance systems.
divided-flow fittings. Figure 41.12 shows a typical
converging-flow fitting. The branch loss coefficient 3. Fan speed is a major factor in fan noise. The varia-
(branch-to-downstream) for the fitting is defined by tion in sound level, L (measured in decibels), with
Eq. 41.62. rotational speed, n, is predicted by Eq. 41.66.33
n1
TPbr $ TPdown L2 L1 $ 50 log10 41:66
K br 41:62 n2
VPdown
The main loss coefficient (upstream-to-downstream) is 4. A fan is generally quieter when operated near its
peak efficiency. Noise will vary as the system load
TPup $ TPdown varies and the operating point shifts.
K main 41:63
VPdown 5. Substantial noise can be generated by structural
vibration related to unbalance, bearings, rotor to
32
Some buildings (e.g., those with high-velocity supply systems and stator eccentricity, and motor mounting.
where space is limited) dont have return air systems. Even when there
33
is a return air system, some rooms (e.g., those generating odors) may A 3 dB change is barely noticeable; a 5 dB change is clearly notice-
not have return air inlets. able; a 10 dB change is twice (or half) as loud.
47. DUST COLLECTION SYSTEMS

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
the friction from the suction index run ducts, along with
losses from entrances, capture nozzles, fittings, filters,
Design of dust collection systems draws on concepts and flexible duct. Rules of thumb and assumptions may
similar to the design of duct systems for conditioned be needed in the absence of manufacturers data. Con-
air, with notable differences. Dust collection systems venient assumptions include (1) 1 in wg entrance loss,
are primarily return-air systems, and the fan is often (2) 2 in wg filter loss, and (3) flex hose loss equal to three
incorporated into a cyclone type dust collector.34 Two- times smooth duct loss.
stage dust collectors combine a cyclone with a fine-dust
filter. Each dust type should be collected separately. To
minimize explosion hazards, wood dust, metal dust, and 48. ATKINSON RESISTANCE
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
fumes should be separated. Solvent fumes must be col-

In the mining industry, duct resistance is characterized
lected using non-ferrous ducts (e.g., aluminum) and
by specialized units and unique assumptions. Some
explosion-proof blowers.
parts of a mine are ventilated using the mine passage-
Spiral duct is preferred for dust collection because of its way as the duct. Air may flow in manufactured ducts
smoothness. 22 gauge metal duct is the most common; into a mine, but exhaust air may simply escape through
18 gauge is used for heavy duty systems where high the mine tunnel. The pressure drop through a mine
collapsing strength and abrasion resistance are required. tunnel is known as the Atkinson resistance.35 The fric-
24 gauge and 20 gauge can also be used. Branch ducts tion and pressure drop are related to the resistance, R,
serve individual dust-generating equipment; branch measured in atkinsons. One atkinson is the resistance
ducts join a common main duct feeding the dust collec- that results in a pressure drop of 1 lbf/ft2 with a flow
tor. Branches should enter the main duct horizontally to rate of 1000 ft3/sec at a standard air density, #std , of
prevent dust in the mains from falling back into the 0.075 lbm/ft3. Similarly, for use with SI units, one gaul
branches. Ducts should be equipped with access doors is the resistance that results in a pressure drop of 1 Pa
for duct cleaning and blockage clearing. with a flow rate of 1 m3/s at a standard air density of
1.2 kg/m3.36,37
Dust-generating equipment attached to the system is
categorized as primary or secondary. All primary The Atkinson resistance is
machines operate simultaneously and are served by ! "
direct branch connections to the main duct. Secondary #actual
DpPa Rgauls Q 2m3 =s SI* 41:67 a
machines operate sporadically and are isolated from the #std
main duct by sliding-blade blast gates. Equipment
! " ! "2
requiring the highest airflow should be placed closest to #actual Qcfm
the dust collector. Branch diameters can be determined Dplbf=ft2 Ratkinsons U:S:* 41:67 b
#std 1000
from the sizes of factory-installed equipment collars or
from Q Av if the airflows are known. Main duct diam- The Atkinson resistance, R, can be calculated from the
eters increase as new primary branches enter the main Atkinson friction factor, k, and the duct perimeter, S.
duct in order to accommodate the airflow of all branches
while maintaining the main duct velocity. Duct veloc- kLS
ities are high in order to entrain dust in the airflow. Duct R 41:68
A3
noise on the suction side can be minimized by using
heavier gauge duct, proper hanging, and exterior insula- Equation 41.67 is noteworthy because of its derivation.
HVAC
tion. Duct silencers (i.e., mufflers) should only be placed As Eq. 41.68 shows, all constants and physical charac-
in the discharge side. Table 41.9 lists typical duct speeds. teristics, including the flow area, perimeter length, mine
length, and friction factor, have been incorporated into
Table 41.9 Typical Duct Velocities for Dust Collection Systems
(fpm (m/s)) the resistance term. While mines in England may all
have been similarly constructed near the earths surface
branch main
during Atkinsons time, conditions in modern mines are
type of dust duct velocity duct velocity
considerably different. In addition to variability in mine
metalworking 4500 (23) 4000 (20) length and cross section, the density of air miles below
woodworking 4000 (20) 3500 (18) the surface increases greatly, increasing the required fan
other light dust 4000 (20) 3500 (18) power. Still, Atkinson resistance remains in widespread
use in the modern mining industry, although resistance
(Multiply ft/min by 0.00508 to obtain m/s.) is often quoted by manufacturers of flexible ventilation
ducts in terms of atkinsons or gauls per unit length (e.g.,
The system friction pressure loss is determined using atkinsons/1000 yd or gauls/100 m).
standard methods (e.g., loss coefficients, equivalent
35
lengths, and standard duct friction loss charts). Friction Atkinson resistance is named after J. J. Atkinson, who investigated
in the ducts, silencers, and up-blast stack caps on the mine ventilation in 1862.
36
One of the reasons that the Atkinson method remains in use today is
discharge side of the dust collection should be added to the relative ease of making onsite measurements. Only a pressure gage
and anemometer are required.
34 37
Cyclone design is covered in Chap. 71. Multiply gauls by 16.747 to obtain atkinsons.
42 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heating Load
. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . ... . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .
42-1 Symbols
2. Inside Design Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-2 ! emissivity
3. Outside Design Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-2 " efficiency
4. Adjacent Space Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-2 # density lbm/ft3 kg/m3
5. Walls and Ceilings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-2
6. Air Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-2 Subscripts
7. Ground Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-3 a dry air
8. Ventilation and Infiltration Air . . . . . . . . . . . 42-3 b base
9. Humidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-4 fg vaporization
10. Internal Heat Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-4 i inside design
11. Thermal Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-5 o outside design
12. Furnace Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-5
13. Degree-Days and Kelvin-Days . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-6 1. INTRODUCTION
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
14. Fuel Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-6
15. Conservation Through Thermostat A buildings heating load is the maximum heat loss
Setback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-7 (typically expressed in Btu/hr or kW) during the heat-
16. Freeze-Up of Heating and Preheating ing season.1 The maximum heating load occurs when the
Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-7 outside temperature is the lowest. The maximum heat-
ing load corresponds to the minimum furnace size, even
though the lowest temperature occurs only a few times
Nomenclature each year. The average heating load can be derived from
A area ft2 m2 the maximum heating load and is used to determine the
C thermal conductance Btu/hr-ft2- ! F W/m2" ! C annual fuel requirements.
! !
CDD cooling degree-days F-day C"d
HDD heating degree-days !
F-day !
C"d Heating load consists of heat to make up for transmis-
DD degree-days !
F-day !
C"d sion and infiltration losses. Determining transmission
E effective emissivity losses is essentially a heat transfer problem. Transmis-
F slab edge coefficient Btu/hr-ft- ! F W/m" ! C sion loss is heat lost through the walls, roof, and floor.
h enthalpy Btu/lbm kJ/kg Infiltration loss is heat required to warm ventilation and
h surface heat transfer Btu/hr-ft2- ! F W/m2" ! C infiltration air. Though no credit for solar heat gain is
coefficient taken in heating load calculations, reliable sources of
internal heating are considered.2 Modifications for ther-
HVAC
HV heating value various various
k efficiency factor mal inertia due to high-mass walls and ceilings are gen-
k empirical Hitchins 1/ ! F 1/ ! C erally not made in calculations of heating load. When
exponent thermal inertia is considered, the approach taken is
k thermal conductivity Btu-ft/hr-ft2- ! F W"m/m2" ! C simplistic. (See Sec. 42.11.)
L length ft m Calculation of the heating load is greatly simplified by
m _ mass flow rate lbm/hr kg/h having access to tabulations of data.3 Data on climato-
M masonry M factor logical conditions are essential, and data on building
N number of days in materials and construction will greatly simplify the task
heating season of calculating heat transfer coefficients. Data of this
p perimeter length ft m nature is available in a variety of formats. Heat transmis-
P power hp W sion data are available for specific materials as well as for
q_ heat transfer rate Btu/hr W composite walls of specific construction. Both types of
R total thermal hr-ft2- ! F/Btu m2" ! C/W data are useful.
resistance
SF service factor 1
A therm per hour is 100,000 Btu/hr.
! !
T temperature F C 2
The sky is assumed to be overcast during the heating season, so solar
U overall coefficient of Btu/hr-ft2- ! F W/m2" ! C heat gain is minimal. Reliable sources of internal heating include
heat transfer permanently mounted equipment and lights.
3
It is essential that engineers working in this area obtain their own
V_ volumetric flow rate ft3/min m3/s compilations of this type of data.
Calculations of heating load are based on many assump- resistance per unit thickness of the material.4 The total
tions. Because of the intrinsic unreliability of some of resistance is the product of the resistivity and the mate-
the data, an exposure allowance of up to 15% may be rial thickness. Conductance, C, and conductivity, k, are
added to the calculated ideal heating load. This helps to the reciprocals of total resistance and unit resistance,
account for unexpected heat losses and severe climatic respectively.
conditions. L 1
R 42:1
k C
2. INSIDE DESIGN CONDITIONS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . The heat transfer through walls, doors, windows, and
ceilings is calculated from the traditional heat transfer
For the purposes of initial heating load calculations for equation, Eq. 42.2. The overall coefficient of heat trans-
residences and office spaces, the inside design tempera- fer, U, can be calculated for each transmission path from
ture is generally taken as 70 ! F to 72 ! F (21.1 ! C to the conductivities and resistances of the individual com-
22.2 ! C). ponents in that path, or it can be obtained from tabula-
For industrial spaces, such as factories and warehouses, tions of typical wall/ceiling construction. Table 42.1
the inside design temperature is lower: 60 ! F to 65 ! F contains typical values.
(15.6 ! C to 18.3 ! C). Humidity is typically 30% to 35%
q_ U AT i % T o 42:2
relative humidity, but is generally not considered except
in certain manufacturing industries (e.g., textiles and 1 1 42:3
U
printing) where moisture content is critical.
Ri
hi k C ho
1 L 1 1

3. OUTSIDE DESIGN CONDITIONS

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
Unlike most heat transfer problems, little effort is
expended in calculating surface heat transfer (film) coef-
The outside temperature and average wind speed (for ficients from theoretical correlations. Tables of typical
infiltration) are needed to determine heating load. For values are used. (See Table 42.2.) When tabulations of
estimates of annual heating costs, information on the overall coefficients of heat transfer are used, it is impor-
winter degree days is needed. (See Sec. 42.13.) These tant to know if an outside film coefficient has been
values are almost always obtained from tables of cli- included. If it has, the tables assumption about outside
matological data. wind speed must be known and compared with actual
wind conditions. Multiplicative corrections for other
Design conditions are probabilistic in nature. There is wind speeds generally accompany such tables.
always some probability that a temperature will be
exceeded. Depending on the nature of the facility, it
may be desirable to select an outside design temperature 6. AIR SPACES
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
that will be exceeded (for example) 5 days out of
100 days. Many tables give design temperatures for The thermal conductance of an air space, C, used in
1%, 2.5%, and 5% exceedance probabilities. Eq. 42.3 depends on the space thickness, emissivities of
both sides, orientation, mean temperature, and temper-
ature differential. Typical values for a 50 ! F (27.8 ! C)
4. ADJACENT SPACE CONDITIONS temperature differential are given in Table 42.3.5 The
HVAC
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
effective space emissivity, E, used in the table is a func-
Since the conductive heat transfer through shared walls tion of the surface emissivity, !, and is defined by
depends on the temperatures on both faces, determining Eq. 42.4. Surface emissivities range from approximately
the heating load for single rooms and separately heated 0.05 for bright aluminum foil through 0.25 for bright
offices also requires knowing the temperatures in adja- galvanized steel to 0.90 for typical building materials
cent spaces. For residential calculations, this may (wood, sheetrock, masonry, etc.).
require knowing the temperature in attics, large closets,
and basements. For attics ventilated by large open lou- 1
vers, the approximate attic temperature is the average E 42:4
1 1
of the inside and outside design temperatures. %1
!1 !2
5. WALLS AND CEILINGS

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
4
Unit resistance and conductivity are combined with a length when
Each material used in constructing a wall, ceiling, and so calculating thermal resistance. There are several sets of units in use for
on, contributes resistance to heat flow. This resistance can conductivity, depending on how the length is measured. For lengths in
be specified in a variety of ways. Total resistance, R (with feet, Btu/hr-ft- ! F and Btu-ft/hr-ft2- ! F are the same. For lengths in
inches (centimeters), the units Btu-in/hr-ft2- ! F (W"cm/h"m2" ! C) must
units of hr-ft2-! F/Btu or m2" ! C/W), is the total resistance be used.
to heat flow through all of the material. Unit resistance 5
Data in Table 42.3 depend on many factors and are merely represen-
(with units of hr-ft2-! F/Btu-ft or m2" ! C/W"cm) is the tative. Values can vary by 20% or more.
H E A T I N G L O A D 42-3
Table 42.1 Typical Overall Coefficients of Heat Transfer Table 42.2 Representative Surface Heat Transfer (Film)
(with film coefficients) (Btu/hr-ft 2- ! F) Coefficients for Air (nonreflecting surfaces)
average U-factors, surface orientation,
exterior walls insulation
heat flow direction air speed* Btu/hr-ft2- ! F W/m2" ! C
standard 2 by 4 construc- none 1 in 2 in 4 in
tion sheathed in wood or horizontal, heat 0 1.63 9.26
insulating board, covered
with wood siding, shingles, flow up
brick, and sheetrocked or vertical, heat flow 0 1.46 8.29
plastered 0.22 0.12 0.09 0.07
horizontal 71=2 mph 4.00 22.7
12 in concrete blocks 0.49 0.14
15 mph 6.00 34.1
8 in poured concrete walls 0.70 0.16
horizontal, heat 0 1.08 6.13
average U-factors, flow down 71=2 mph 4.00 22.7
interior ceilings insulation between rafters
15 mph 6.00 34.1
ceiling applied directly to none 1 in 2 in 3 in 4 in 6 in
wood rafters with wood
sheathing covered by (Multiply mph by 1.61 to obtain kph.)
asphalt or cedar shingles 0.64 0.19 0.12 0.09 0.077 0.05 (Multiply Btu/hr-ft2- ! F by 5.68 to obtain W/m2" ! C.)
*
average U-factors, Use 0 indoors. Use 71=2 mph (12 kph) in summer. Use 15 mph (24 kph)
insulated between joists in winter.
as shown
Compiled from a variety of sources.
horizontal ceiling under a none 1 in 2 in 3 in 4 in 6 in
pitched roof with no
flooring on the ceiling; approximately 0.5 Btu/hr-ft- ! F (0.9 W/m" ! C) for slabs
rafters covered by wood
sheathing and asphalt or with insulated edges in warm climates to approximately
cedar shingles 0.32 0.15 0.10 0.09 0.077 0.05 2.7 Btu/hr-ft- ! F (4.9 W/m" ! C) for slabs with no insula-
There is no heat loss in ceilings between heated floors. tion located in cold climates.6
For ceilings of rooms over insulated crawl spaces below, use
/2 of the U-value shown. For ceilings of rooms over vented or
1
unheated crawl spaces, use the indicated U-value. For ceilings of

rooms over unheated basements, use 1/3 of the indicated U-value. q_ pFT i % T o 42:5
average U-factors,
per linear foot of slab edge,
Btu/hr-ft-F
insulation* 8. VENTILATION AND INFILTRATION AIR
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
concrete slab on none 1 in 12 in 1 in 24 in
grade floors Outside ventilation air must be warmed before being
0.81 0.46 0.21
introduced into the occupied space. All infiltrated air
windows average U-factors (from window sashes, door jams, and other cracks) will
single glazing 1.31 also go through the air conditioner, so its sensible heat
with storm window 0.45 load is combined with the ventilation air deliberately
thermopane 0.61
drawn in.
doors
3/4 in wood 0.69 Based on dry or low-humidity air, the sensible heating
15/8 in wood 0.46
15/8 in wood with 0.32 load for infiltration and ventilation air whose tempera-
storm door ture is increased from T1 to T2 is7
(Multiply in by 2.54 to obtain cm.)
(Multiply Btu/hr-ft2-F by 5.68 to obtain W/m2 .C.) ! "
kW"min _
HVAC
*
1 in of foam board insulation extending 12 in or 24 in vertically (exte- q_ kW 72 V m3 =min T 2;! C % T 1;! C
rior insulation) or horizontally (interior insulation) m3 " ! C
! "
kW"s
7. GROUND SLABS 1:2 3 ! V_ m3 =s T 2;! C % T 1;! C SI) 42:6a
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . m " C
! "
Heat is lost from ground slabs both through the face and W"s
q_ W 1:2 ! V_ L=s T 2;! C % T 1;! C
from the exposed edges. Since the ground temperature is L" C
usually higher than the winter air temperature, a lower ! "
W"s
temperature difference (typically 5 ! F (2.8 ! C)) should be 1200 3 ! V_ m3 =s T 2;! C % T 1;! C SI) 42:6b
m "C
used to find the heat loss through the face.
! "
This loss is generally small, and an overall coefficient of Btu-min _
q_ Btu=hr 1:08 V cfm T 2;! F % T 1;! F
0.05 Btu/hr-ft2- ! F (0.3 W/m2" ! C) is typical. The loss is hr-ft3 -! F
! "
essentially constant throughout the year since the soil Btu
0:018 3 ! V_ cfh T 2;! F % T 1;! F
temperature under a building does not vary appreciably. ft - F
The radial loss from the edges can be found from the U:S:) 42:6c
slab edge coefficient, F, and from the perimeter of the
exposed edge. Thickness of the slab is disregarded. Coef- 6
The slab edge coefficient may be given in Btu/hr-! F (W/ ! C) per unit
ficients for concrete slabs on grade depend on the con- distance.
struction method, the amount of insulation, and 7
The constant 1.08 in Eq. 42.6(c) is reported by other authorities as
weather conditions. The coefficient varies from 1.085 and 1.1 depending on the degree of precision intended.
Table 42.3 Representative Thermal Conductances of Planar Air Spaces* (Btu/hr-ft 2- ! F (W/m 2" ! C))
space thickness effective space emissivity, E

air space orientation heat flow direction (in (mm)) 0.05 0.20 0.50 0.82
horizontal up 0.754.0 0.41 0.55 0.82 1.11
(19102) (2.3) (3.1) (4.7) (6.30)
horizontal down 0.75 0.28 0.42 0.69 0.98
(19) (1.6) (2.4) (3.9) (5.6)
1.5 0.18 0.31 0.58 0.87
(38) (1.0) (1.8) (3.3) (4.9)
4.0 0.11 0.25 0.52 0.81
(102) (0.62) (1.4) (3.0) (4.6)
vertical horizontal 0.754.0 0.28 0.42 0.69 0.99
(19102) (1.6) (2.4) (3.9) (5.6)
(Multiply in by 25.4 to obtain mm.)

(Multiply Btu/hr-ft2- ! F by 5.68 to obtain W/m2" ! C.)
*
For a 50 ! F (27.8 ! C) temperature differential.
Compiled from a variety of sources.
If the outside design temperature is 32 ! F (0 ! C) or 9. HUMIDIFICATION

. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
cooler, there will be little or no moisture in the incom-
ing air. However, for air with higher temperatures, heat Outside air entering at very low temperatures may need
is required to warm any moisture that enters with to be humidified. The latent heat required to add mois-
outside air. ture to the outside air is covered in Chap. 38.
Although the sensible heating of the dry air and accom-
panying moisture can be calculated separately and
added, it is more expedient to use enthalpy values read 10. INTERNAL HEAT SOURCES
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
from the psychrometric chart.
Internal heat sources are heat sources within the condi-
tioned space.8 Heat sources may introduce sensible and
latent loads. Two general methods are used to estimate
q_ kW m
_ a;kg=s hi % ho kJ=kg internal sources. The load can be based on the equip-
V_ m3 =s #kg=m3 hi % ho kJ=kg ment nameplate rating. Alternatively, tables of typical
# $ values can be used. Such tables are helpful in estimat-
kg _ ing the fractions of each load that are sensible and
* 1:2 3 V m3 =s h i % ho kJ=kg latent.9 The sensible heat supplied by permanent
m
HVAC
# $ machinery and lighting should be subtracted from the

kg _ heating load.
* 0:0012 V L=s hi % ho kJ=kg SI) 42:7 a
L
Some equipment is rated in horsepower; other equip-
q_ Btu=hr m
_ a;lbm=hr hi % h o Btu=lbm ment is rated by wattage.10 The service factor, SF, used
! " in Eq. 42.8 is the fraction of the rated power being
min _ developed. Service factors greater than 1.00 are possible
60 V ft3 =min #lbm=ft3 hi % h o Btu=lbm
hr in overload conditions.
! "
lbm-min _
* 4:5 3
V ft3 =min h i % ho Btu=lbm
ft -hr 8
Residential heating sources such as toasters and coffee brewers are
U:S:) 42:7 b sometimes referred to as domestic heat sources.
9
In the absence of tabular data, simple, logical rules of thumb can be
used. For example, when cooking under a hood, all moisture is cap-
tured, the latent load is zero, and the sensible load transferred due to
Special accounting for infiltrated air is necessary when radiation is taken as some assumed fraction of the nameplate rating. If
the conditioned space supplies combustion air. This not cooking under a hood, two-thirds of the load is sensible and one-
normally is the case for residential fireplaces and space third is latent. However, tables are usually essential when determining
heaters. Each volume of gaseous fuel gas burned uses the heat gain for esoteric sources such as doughnut machines, deep-fry
kettles, and waffle irons for ice cream sandwiches.
approximately nine volumes of heated air. Unless the 10
The watt density (strictly, the linear watt density) for baseboard
face of the fireplace is blocked off, heated air continues heaters, heat tracing, and similar devices is the amount of heating
to be lost up the flue, even after combustion stops. generated per foot (meter). It is not based on area.
$ # $#
kW P hp M-factor method has been developed. This method
q_ kW 0:7457 SF correlates a factor, M, with the degree-days and mass
hp "
# $ per unit wall area (lbm/ft2 or kg/m2). (See Fig. 42.1.)
P The M-factor modifies the overall coefficient of heat
SF kW SI) 42:8a
" transfer, U. The actual heat transfer is
# $ # $
Btu P hp
q_ Btu=hr 2545 SF
hp-hr " q_ M U AT i % T o 42:9
! " # $
Btu P
3413 SF kW U:S:) 42:8b
kW-hr "
As written, Eq. 42.9 is appropriate for analyzing the
heat loss through a wall. For design, particularly when
wall construction with a maximum heat loss coefficient,
The equipment efficiency, ", is included in the denomi- U, is specified by the building code, a wall may be
nator in Eq. 42.8. This is appropriate when the motor designed to have an instantaneous heat loss coefficient
and equipment being driven are both in the condi- of U/M and still be up to code.
tioned space. If the motor is not actually in the space
but the driven equipment is, then the efficiency should
be omitted.11 (An example of this configuration would
be an in-duct fan that is driven by a motor located Figure 42.1 M-Factor
outside of the duct.) Typical motor efficiencies are 80%
for 1 hp motors and 90% for 10 hp and higher motors. correction
factor, M
1.00
kg/m )
2
For fluorescent lights, the rated wattage should be t2 (49
bm/f
increased by 20% to 25% to account for wound (trans- 10 l 2)
kg/m
former type) ballast heating. (No increase is used with t2 (98 2)
/f
lbm g/m 2 )
incandescent lights or fluorescent lights with power- 0.90 20 95 k g/m
1
saving, electronic ballasts.) However, it may be inap- /ft
2 ( 3 k m2 )
(29 kg/ /m2 ) 2 )
lbm /ft2 1 kg
propriate to assume that all heat generated enters the 40 ( 9
3 /m
0 lbm /ft2 2 (488 6 kg
conditioned space. If the air space above the lights in a 6 m ft (58
lb m/ ft2
dropped ceiling is not directly conditioned, then only 0.80 80 0 lb m/
b
10 20 l
some fraction (e.g., 60%) of the heat enters the occu- 1
pied space.
0.70
Unless the room is reasonably occupied on a permanent
basis, the heating load should not be reduced by the
metabolic heat of the occupants.
0.60
Some buildings have internal sources generating large 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000
amounts of energy. Under no circumstance, however, degree-days
HVAC
should the theoretical heating load be reduced by these Source: Mass Masonry Energy, Masonry Industry Committee,
internal heat gains to a point where the inside temper- ca. 1979.
ature would be 40 ! F (4.4 ! C) or lower in the absence of
these internal sources.
12. FURNACE SIZING

. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
11. THERMAL INERTIA

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
A furnace must be capable of keeping a building warm
on the coldest days of the heating season. Therefore, a
Buildings with massive masonry (including concrete) furnace should be sized based on the coldest tempera-
walls are thermally more stable than those with thin ture reasonably expected (i.e., on the outside design
walls. However, the effect of thermal lag (thermal iner- temperature). However, not all days in the heating sea-
tia or thermal flywheel effect) is difficult to incorporate son will have temperatures that cold, and the entire
in most studies. A simplified approach known as the capacity will rarely be utilized.
Pickup load is the furnace capacity needed to bring a

11 cold building up to the inside design temperature in a
There is a third, less likely alternative. The conditioned space may
contain only the motor, with the driven machinery being someplace reasonable time. Since the outside design temperature
else. In that case, only the energy lost in the energy conversion appears provides excess capacity most of the year, a pickup
in the load. The nameplate power is multiplied by (1 %")/". allowance may not be necessary. However, churches,
auditoriums, and office buildings needing to be ready average monthly temperature usually is available
at specific times need special attention.12 If a building is from meteorological data. Hitchins formula (1983)
heated during the day only, a 10% increase in the rated can be used to estimate degree-days from the average
furnace size is sometimes added as the pickup load to weekly or monthly temperature. The average number
allow for starting up. If a building is left unheated for of degree-days per day during the heating period is
extended periods, the increase should be 25% or higher. calculated from Eq. 42.11. The empirical exponent k
has a value of 0.39 1/ ! F (0.71 1/ ! C).
Some furnaces have nameplate ratings for both fuel
input and output heating. The furnace efficiency is
incorporated in a rating for output Btus. Output rat-
HDD Tb % T
ings apply to newly installed furnaces. Output can be 42:11
expected to decrease with time. N 1 % e%kT b % T
The degree-day concept is intended to help in estimat-

13. DEGREE-DAYS AND KELVIN-DAYS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . ing heating cost during the heating season. There may
be times during some days when the heating system
The degree-day (kelvin-day) concept can be used to esti- does not operate, and for that reason, the degree-day
mate heating costs during the heating season.13 The accumulation does not represent a complete record of
assumption is made that the heating system operates the exterior temperatures encountered. Only the cold
when degree-days are being accumulated, and there is parts of the heating season are represented. Degree-days
an indoor base temperature, Tb, that triggers the heating cannot be used to determine the average temperature
system to turn on. In the past, the base temperature was during the entire heating season. However, Hitchins
typically 65! F in the United States (19! C in Europe), formula can be extended to the entire heating season
although other temperatures such as 50! F and 15.5! C are and used to calculate the average outside temperature.
used. The base temperature affects the estimate materi- For regions where heating is continuous throughout the
ally, so it should not be selected casually. The base heating season (as represented by large differences
temperature depends on the temperature that a building between the base and average temperatures), this is
is heated to and the sources of internal heat gain. For equivalent to Eq. 42.12.
example, if a building was going to be heated to 19! C,
and if the average internal heat gain from people, lights,
and equipment in a building was estimated to increase HDD
the temperature by 3.5! C, it would be appropriate to use Tb % T 42:12
N
19! C 3.5! C = 15.5! C as the base temperature.
The heating season is assumed to last for N days, differ-
ent for each geographical location, and determined from
meteorological data. Each day whose 24-hour average 14. FUEL CONSUMPTION
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
temperature, T , is less than the base temperature, Tb,
will accumulate T b % T degree-days (kelvin-days), DD. The design heating load used to size the furnace is not the
The sum of these degree-day terms over the entire heat- average heating load over the heating season. However,
ing season of N days is the total heating degree-days when combined with degree-days, the design heating load
HVAC
(heating kelvin-days), HDD, also known as winter can be used with smaller, simple structures to calculate
degree-days, for that location.14 the total fuel consumption and heating costs during the
entire heating season. (This method assumes that there
will be no heating when the outside temperature is equal
N
to the base temperature or higher. This assumption is
HDD T b % T i 42:10 appropriate, particularly in residential buildings, even
i 1
though the interior temperature is maintained at 68 ! F
to 72 ! F (20 ! C to 22.2! C) because of the existence of
internal heat sources.) The units of fuel consumption in
Ultimately, use of the degree-day concept comes down Eq. 42.13 depend on the units of the heating value.
to the meteorological data that are available. Degree- Equation 42.13 does not include factors for operating
day information is not always available, although pumps, fans, stokers, and other devices, nor are costs of
maintenance, tank insurance, and so on, included.15 The
12
There is not much information on this subject. The increase for
15
pickup load is largely a matter of judgment. Equation 42.13 appears to imply that the lower To is, the lower the
13
Although the degree-day concept continues to appear in ASHRAE fuel consumption will be. This is obviously untrue. The temperature
publications, ASHRAE stopped promoting the method in the 1980s in difference in the denominator actually cancels the same temperature
favor of more accurate surface-by-surface heat loss calculations. _ Thus, q_ is put
difference used to calculate the heat transfer terms in q.
14
A similar concept for cooling degree-days (summer degree-days), on a per-degree basis. The average temperature difference used in the
CDD, exists for use in estimating average cooling costs during the calculation of degree days converts the per-degree heat loss to an
cooling season. average heat loss.
minimum efficiency, ", of gas- and oil-fired residential If a building is to be maintained at two different tem-
furnaces is approximately 70% to 75%. peratures during different parts of the day, the average
heating can be found from the duration-weighted aver-
fuel consumption in units=heating season age of the two inside temperatures. Alternatively, sepa-
! " rate calculations can be made for the periods of different
s
86 400 q_ HDD temperatures.
d kW
T i % T o HVkJ=unit "furnace
SI) 42:13a 16. FREEZE-UP OF HEATING AND
PREHEATING COILS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
fuel consumption in units=heating season
# $ Coil freeze-up (freezing of the coils) has two different
hr causes. In the winter, cold make-up (ventilation) air
24 q_ HDD
day Btu=hr from outside may cause water to freeze inside the heat-

T i % T o HVBtu=unit "furnace ing coils. In the summer, coils with effective surface
U:S:) 42:13b
temperatures of 32 ! F (0 ! C) or less can cause moisture
(humidity) in the air to freeze on the outside of the
Equation 42.13 has traditionally been used to estimate cooling (evaporator) coils.
fuel consumption. In recent years, various improve- Steam is usually the source of heating in coils because
ments to the model have been made. Specifically, the heat of vaporization is so much larger than the
Eq. 42.13 is multiplied by an empirical correction, CD, sensible energy available from hot water alone. Steam
to correct for the difference between calculated values in the coil condenses as it releases the heat of vaporiza-
and actual performance.16 Values of CD range from tion. To prevent freezing inside the coil, the condensate
about 0.60 to 0.87 and are correlated with the number must drain from the coil rapidly, before the cold outside
of degree-days. Also, the furnace efficiency, ", is air can reduce the waters temperature to freezing. A
replaced with an efficiency factor, k, that includes the rapid-drain plumbing design includes a vacuum breaker,
effects of rated full-load efficiency, part-load perfor- large trap, long drip line, drain line below the supply
mance, over-sizing, and energy conservation devices. A line, adequate drain line slope, and clean strainers,
value of 1.0 should be used for k for electric heating. among other features. Regular maintenance is required
Values of 0.55 and 0.65 are appropriate for older and to ensure everything works as designed.
energy-efficient houses, respectively.
In the winter, when the outside air temperature is below
freezing, coil freeze-up can be avoided by ensuring cold
15. CONSERVATION THROUGH make-up air is thoroughly mixed with warm return air
THERMOSTAT SETBACK
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . before the mixture enters the coils.17 In the event that
the mixture is still too cold, freeze-resistant heating coils
A variety of conservation methods are used to reduce with adequate piping should be used. In rare cases, some
energy consumption during the heating season. These form of electric air preheating can be provided prior to
include installing insulation, weather stripping, and the steam coils.
reducing the thermostat setting for all or part of the
day. An extreme case of thermostat setback occurs when
the heating system is turned off entirely at night.
HVAC
16 17
It has been shown that Eq. 42.13 overestimates the fuel requirement Mixing louvers can fail. So, proper coil protection should always be
in most cases. CD simply reduces the estimate. provided.
43 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cooling Load
. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . ... . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .
43-1 RSHR room sensible heat ratio

2. Source of Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-2 S building envelope surface ft2 m2
3. Refrigeration System Size and Ratings . . . . 43-2 area
4. Energy Star Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-3 SC shading coefficient
5. Inside and Outside Design Conditions . . . . . 43-3 SCL solar cooling load factor Btu/hr-ft2 W/m2
6. Instantaneous Cooling Load from Walls and SHR sensible heat ratio
Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-3 SEER seasonal energy-efficiency Btu/W-hr n.a.
7. Instantaneous Cooling Load from ratio
Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-4 t time (duration) hr h
43-4 ! !
8. Cooling Load from Internal Heat Sources . . T temperature F C
9. Ventilation and Infiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-4 T# mixture temperature !
F !
C
10. Heat Gain to Air Conditioning Ducts . . . . . 43-5 U overall coefficient of Btu/ W/m2" ! C
11. Degree-Days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-5 heat transfer hr-ft2- ! F
3
12. Seasonal Cooling Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-5 V building volume ft m3
13. Latent and Sensible Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-6 V voltage V V
14. Recirculating Air Bypass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-6 V_ volumetric flow rate ft3/min L/s
15. Freeze-Up of Cooling Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-9
16. Reheating Cooled Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-10 Symbols
! efficiency
Nomenclature " density lbm/ft3 kg/m3
A area ft2 m2 # specific volume ft3/lbm m3/kg
ACH50 air changes per hour at 1/hr 1/h
50 Pa Subscripts
ACHnat air changes per hour at 1/hr 1/h c cooling
4 Pa co output of air conditioner
BF bypass factor i indoor design
C leakage curve coefficient in in (entering the space)
Cd coefficient of discharge l latent
! !
CDD cooling degree days F-day C"d m mean
CFM50 airflow rate at 50 Pa ft3/min n.a. o outdoor design
CLF cooling load factor ref reference
HVAC
! !
CLTD cooling load temperature F C s sensible
difference t total
COP coefficient of performance te total equivalent
EER energy-efficiency ratio Btu/W-hr n.a.
ELA effective leakage area in2 m2 1. INTRODUCTION
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
gc gravitational constant, lbm-ft/ n.a.
32.2 lbf-sec2 The procedure for finding the cooling load (also referred
GSHR grand sensible heat ratio to as the air conditioning load) is similar in some
h enthalpy Btu/lbm kJ/kg respects to the procedure for finding the heating load.1
h height in m The aspects of determining inside and outside design
I current A A conditions, heat transfer from adjacent spaces, ventila-
LBL energy climate factor tion air requirements, and internal heat gains are the
LF latent factor same as for heating load calculations and are not cov-
n leakage curve exponent ered in this chapter.
NL normalized leakage 1/hr 1/h
Dp pressurization Pa Pa
However, the calculation of cooling load is complicated
P power hp W
considerably by the thermal lag of the exterior surfaces
q_ heat transfer rate Btu/hr W
(i.e., walls and roof). Depending on construction, the
Q airflow ft3/min m3/h 1
The refrigeration load or coil loading is the cooling load expressed in
Q50 air permeability ft3/ft2-min m3/m2"h appropriate units (e.g., tons of refrigeration).
solar energy absorbed by exterior surfaces can take rule of thumb has increased to one ton for every 600 ft2,
hours to appear as an interior cooling load.2 Further 800 ft2, or 1000 ft2 (56 m2, 74 m2, or 93 m2), although
complicating the determination of cooling load are the oversizing is still likely without a detailed analysis.
direct transmission of solar energy through windows and
the facts that the delay is different for each surface, the The theoretical power dissipated by a refrigeration
solar energy absorbed changes with time of day, and cycles single-phase compressor motor is calculated from
instantaneous heat gain into the room contributes to the motors actual measured voltage and current draw
instantaneous and delayed cooling loads. or from the cooling load. Various efficiencies must be
considered.
It is important to distinguish between three terms. The
instantaneous heat absorption is the solar energy that is q_ c;Btu=hr
absorbed at a particular moment. The instantaneous P compressor;watts I amps V volts
3:412!electrical !compressor
heat gain is the energy that enters the conditioned space
43:1
at that moment. Due to solar lag, the heat gain is a
complex combination of heat absorptions from previous Similarly, the theoretical motor horsepower is calcu-
hours. The instantaneous cooling load is a portion (i.e., lated as
is essentially the convective portion) of the instanta-
neous heat gain. q_ c;Btu=hr
P compressor;hp 43:2
2. SOURCE OF COOLING 2544!electrical !compressor
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
Once the cooling load is determined, the source and size In reality, the efficiencies depend on the refrigerant and
of the cooling unit must be considered. Cooling normally its condition. Compressor manufacturers provide charts
comes from liquefied refrigerant passing through a cool- showing horsepower versus cooling load at various suc-
ing coil. Some or all of the airflow passes across the tion pressures for various refrigerants. A general rule for
cooling coil. The refrigerant is continuously vaporized air conditioning is 1 hp per 10,000 Btu/hr (2.9 kW),
in the coil as part of a complete refrigeration cycle. although for colder temperatures (e.g., as required by
Alternatively, cold water may be used in the coil to cool freezers), 1 hp for each 30005000 Btu/hr (0.91.5 kW)
the airflow. In such cases, the water is cooled in a chiller may be required. Power requirements are also affected
running its own refrigeration cycle. by ambient conditions and by the amount of free cooling
used.
An economizer is an electromechanical system that
changes a portion of the cooling process in order to Because of consumer difficulties in evaluating the var-
decrease cost, usually by taking advantage of cold ambi- ious efficiencies and other details affecting operating
ent air. A water-side economizer substitutes natural cool- costs of unitary systems, the energy-efficiency ratio,
ing from a cooling tower for the chillers more expensive EER, is used as a simple, comparable measure to
refrigeration cycle when the ambient air temperature describe the efficiency of cooling systems (see
drops below the desired coil temperature. An air-side Eq. 43.3).3 The total input power, P total , includes the
economizer increases the amount of outside air that is power required to run the compressor as well as fans,
brought into a space when the ambient air characteristics controls, and all other parts of the air conditioning
(temperature, humidity, or enthalpy) are better than the system. EER is typically evaluated at 50% relative
return airflow. The outside air may still be conditioned humidity with a 95 ! F (35 ! C) outside temperature and
HVAC
by passing through coils, but less change will be required. an 80 ! F (27 ! C) inside temperature (return air). EER is
Use of cold ambient air by either type of economizer is equivalent to 3.412 times the coefficient of performance,
known as free cooling. COP, as shown.
3. REFRIGERATION SYSTEM SIZE AND q_ c;Btu=hr

EER 3:412COP 43:3
RATINGS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . P total;watts
Refrigeration equipment for HVAC use is typically The seasonal energy-efficiency ratio, SEER, of the Air-
rated in tons of cooling, where a ton of cooling is equal Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute
to 12,000 Btu/hr (3517 W). Prior to the emphasis on (AHRI) has the same definition as the EER, but is
energy conservation and detailed energy analyses, a averaged over a range of outside temperatures using a
common rule of thumb, particularly in residential and standardized cooling season. This is unlike the EER,
small commercial installations, was to size refrigeration which is evaluated at a specific operating point.4
systems at one ton for every 400 ft2 (37 m2) of condi- Although subject to local and future legislation as well
tioned space. For modern homes meeting minimum
insulation, window, and sealing code requirements, the
3
Other details affecting energy usage include the local ambient air
2
That is, the instantaneous heat gain is the heat that enters the conditions, ducting and sealing, type of unit (unitary or split), and the
conditioned space. Due to thermal lag, it is not the same as the differences between air-cooled and water-cooled units.
4
instantaneous heat absorption by the building at that same moment. ANSI/AHRI 210/240: Standard for Performance Rating of Unitary
This terminology is not rigidly adhered to. Air-Conditioning & Air-Source Heat Pump Equipment, AHRI.
C O O L I N G L O A D 43-3
as exceptions by type of unit, by U.S. law, all newly tabulations. The instantaneous heat gain consists of
manufactured and installed air conditioning equipment stored radiant and convective portions. In the TETD/
must be at least 13 SEER. High efficiency units are TA (time averaging) method, weighting factors are used
14 SEER and higher. Commercially available units up to average the radiant portions from current and pre-
to approximately 20 SEER are available, but most vious hours. The sum of the convective portions and the
newly installed equipment is 16 SEER or lower. Equa- weighted average of the series of radiant portions are
tion 43.4 gives an approximate relationship between taken as the cooling load. Computer analysis and con-
EER and SEER. siderable judgment are required to use this method.
EER 1:12SEER ' 0:02SEER2 43:4 q_ heat gain U ADT te 43:5
The transfer function method is similar to the total

4. ENERGY STAR CONSTRUCTION
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . equivalent temperature difference method. A series of
Energy Star is a joint program of the U.S. Environmen- weighting factors, known as room transfer functions, is
tal Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Department applied to cooling load values from the current and
of Energy (DOE) that promotes and rewards energy- previous hours. The transfer functions are related to
efficient construction and remodeling, primarily for spatial geometry, configuration, mass, and other
residential houses. For construction to be Energy Star characteristics.
certified, it must have energy-efficient features that The only modern method of calculating the cooling load
enable the structure to reduce total energy consump- suitable for quick (manual) analysis is the cooling load
tion by 1520% (depending on climate) compared to a temperature difference method, CLTD, using the related
structure built according to the local energy code. Such solar cooling load factor, SCL, and cooling load factor,
features typically include high-performance windows, CLF, covered in subsequent sections. For exterior sur-
increased insulation levels, high-efficiency heating, faces, the cooling load is calculated by Eq. 43.6. Tables of
cooling and water heating equipment, fluorescent light- CLTD are needed. Values depend on time of year, loca-
ing, Energy Star appliances, duct sealing, and air seal- tion and orientation, type, configuration, and orientation
ing of the building envelope. of the surface, as well as other factors. Using the CLTD/
Certification is performed by a Home Energy Rating SCL/CLF method, the instantaneous cooling load for
System (HERS) rater. The rater determines the struc- conduction through opaque walls and roofs is
tures characteristics via computer modeling, inspects
the insulation and sealing of the structure, and tests q_ c U ACLTDcorrected 43:6
the structures duct and building envelope tightness.
The base conditions used to calculate the values of
CLTD are
5. INSIDE AND OUTSIDE DESIGN
CONDITIONS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
. a clear sky on July 21
It is impossible to maintain the air passing through a . exposed, sunlit, flat roofs
conditioned space at a particular temperature. Cool air . walls at 40 ! N latitude based on roof and wall con-
enters a space, and warm air leaves. The inside design struction and orientation
HVAC
temperature, Ti, is understood to be the temperature of
the air removed from the conditioned space. Indoor . an indoor temperature of 78 ! F
design temperatures for summer use are generally a . an outdoor maximum temperature of 95 ! F with a
few degrees warmer than winter design temperatures mean temperature of 85 ! F
approximately 75 ! F (23.9 ! C).
. a daily temperature range of 21 ! F
6. INSTANTANEOUS COOLING LOAD FROM These base conditions generally dont coincide precisely
WALLS AND ROOFS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
with actual conditions during the study period, so
CLTD is corrected according to Eq. 43.7. T i is the
Three general methods are used to determine instanta- indoor design temperature, and T m is the mean outdoor
neous cooling load: (1) total equivalent temperature temperature.
difference method, (2) transfer function method, and
(3) cooling load factor and temperature difference CLTDcorrected CLTDtable 78! F ' T i
methods.
T m ' 85! F 43:7
The total equivalent temperature difference (TETD)
method determines the instantaneous heat gain. The
T m T outdoor;max ' 12daily range 43:8
total equivalent temperature difference, DTte, depends
on the type of construction, geographical location, time
of day, and wall orientation. It is read from extensive
7. INSTANTANEOUS COOLING LOAD FROM into an exterior door opening. The instrumentation in the
WINDOWS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
blower door gives a direct reading of CFM50, the leakage
in cubic feet per minute, which can also be calculated
Using the CLTD/SCL/CLF method, the cooling load from ACH50 as shown in Eq. 43.12. Once the pressuriza-
due to solar energy received through windows is calcu- tion level is reached, leaks are subsequently located by a
lated in two parts.5 The first is an immediate conductive smoke puffer or an infrared camera.
part; the second is a radiant part. Appropriate tables
are needed to evaluate the shading coefficient, SC, and ACH50V structure;ft3
the SCL for the radiant portions. CFM50 43:12
min
60
q_ c q_ conductive q_ radiant hr
U ACLTDcorrected ASCSCL 43:9
CFM50 can be used to determine the effective leakage
area, ELA (or EfLA). ELA was defined by the Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory in its infiltration model as the area
8. COOLING LOAD FROM INTERNAL HEAT of a nozzle-shaped orifice (with rounded edges, similar to
SOURCES
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . the inlet of a blower door fan) that leaks the same
amount of air that the building leaks at a pressure differ-
Latent loads (including metabolic latent loads) are con-
ence of 4 Pa.7 The coefficient of discharge, C d , for a
sidered instantaneous cooling loads. Only a portion,
smooth, rounded orifice is 0.970.98, essentially 1.00.
given by the CLF, of the sensible heat sources show up
The coefficient C and exponent n are the same as in
as instantaneous cooling load. CLF is a function of time
Eq. 43.11. The approximate density, ", of dry air is
and depends on zone type, occupancy period, interior
0.075 lbm/ft3 (1.2 kg/m3).
and exterior shading, and other factors. Although tables
are usually necessary to evaluate CLF, there are some r
cases where CLF is assumed to be 1.0. These include "
Q
when the cooling system is shut down during the night, 2gc Dp
when there is a high occupant density (as in theaters and ELAin2 consistent units*
Cd
auditoriums), and when lights and other sources are " #
operated for 24 hours a day. in 2
C DpnPa 12
ft
v
q_ c;internal sources q_ l q_ s CLF 43:10 u "lbm=ft3
+uu 0 1
u " lbf
u #
u2 32:2 lbm-ft Dp B ft2 C
9. VENTILATION AND INFILTRATION t 2 Pa @0:02089 A
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
lbf-sec Pa
Since all air passes through the air conditioner, sensible " #
and latent loads from ventilation and infiltration air are sec
C d 60
instantaneous cooling loads. Building air leakage, Q, is a min
function of the pressure differential, Dp, between the CFM50
inside and outside of a building. The building leakage ,
18
curve is defined by a coefficient, C, and an exponent, n, 43:13
HVAC
both obtained from a curve fit correlation of at least

12 test points between 1520 Pa and 6075 Pa. In U.S. Specific leakage is the ELA reported per unit floor area
models, the values of C and n are used to determine or per unit building envelope area.8 The air permeability
leakage in ft3/min even though Dp is in pascals. is the leakage rate per unit building envelope area. In
Eq. 43.14, the above-grade surface area, S, includes
Qft3 =min C DpnPa 43:11
floor, ceiling, wall, and window areas. Various units
are used to report air permeability. When reported in
Air leaks can be identified and leakage can be quantified units of m3/m2"h, the designation Q50 is often used.
and minimized by pressure testing.6 It is common to base When reported in ft3/ft2-min, the designation MLR,
leakage testing on ACH50 (also known as ACH-50, the Minneapolis leakage ratio, may be used.
ACH50, or n50), a fan-induced pressurization at 50 Pa
(0.00725 lbf/in2). ACH50 is used to determine the air
change rate, the number of air changes per hour. The ACH50V structure
Q50 43:14
pressurization is accomplished by temporarily inserting a S
blower door, a frame with a built-in fan, pressure and
airflow rate measurements, and other instrumentation, 7
The equivalent leakage area, EqLA, is defined by the Canadian
National Research Council as the area of a sharp-edged orifice (a
5
The term fenestration refers to windows or other openings transpar- sharp, round hole cut into a thin plate with Cd = 0.61) that would
ent to solar radiation. leak the same amount of air as the building does at a pressurization of
6
The greatest accuracy is achieved when results of pressurization and 10 Pa. The 10 Pa EqLA is approximately two times the 4 Pa ELA.
8
depressurization (i.e., negative pressure) tests are averaged. The building envelope is also referred to as the building fabric.
In order to compare buildings with different floor areas 10. HEAT GAIN TO AIR CONDITIONING
and heights, ASHRAE defines the normalized leakage, DUCTS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
NL, as a measure of the tightness of a building envelope
relative to the building size and number of stories.9 The The calculation of heat absorbed by air conditioning
normal reference condition is a new, 1100 ft2 (100 m2), ducts that pass through unconditioned spaces is not
single-story, non-energy efficient, slab-on-grade, non- sophisticated. The heat transfer is generally estimated
low income house. The reference height, h ref , in from tables or figures of standard configurations (e.g.,
Eq. 43.15 is 98 in (2.5 m). the heat loss per fixed length of duct per 10 degrees of
temperature difference). Extrapolation is used for other
$ %$ % duct lengths and temperature differences.
ELAin2 h building;in 0:3
NL 1000 43:15
The logarithmic mean temperature difference (generally
Afloor;in2 href;in
used when the temperature difference varies along the
length) is seldom used in the HVAC industry.11 Rather,
Pressurization to 50 Pa corresponds to a 20 mph the heat transfer is based on the temperature difference
(32 km/h) wind impacting all sides of a structure. Since between the environment and the midlength temperature
infiltration from all exterior surfaces would not occur of the duct. If the temperature of the duct at its mid-
naturally, an estimate of the natural infiltration rate, length is not known, one or more iterations will be needed
ACHnat (also known as ACHn or ENIR), is estimated to calculate the temperature drop and heat transfer.
from the LBL factor (also known as the N factor or the
energy climate factor), which is dependent on the cli-
mate region, the number of stories of the structure, and 11. DEGREE-DAYS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
sheltering from wind.10 LBL factors range from 4 to 40,
with typical values ranging from 10 to 20. Energy Star Some sources present tables of cooling degree-days,
has established a natural infiltration target threshold of CDD (summer degree-days).12 Data in these tables are
0.35 air changes per hour, but well-sealed structures can usually related to a base temperature of 65 ! F (18.3 ! C),
achieve ACHnat values much lower than this. As calcu- but they may be related to a 70 ! F (21.1 ! C) base. Cool-
lated, ACHnat is only a rough estimate, and true values ing is considered to occur only when the temperature is
can range from 50% lower to 100% higher. Table 43.1 higher than 65 ! F (18.3 ! C).
uses ACHnat and other factors to categorize the air-
tightness of moderately sized houses.
12. SEASONAL COOLING ENERGY
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
ACH50 The approximate total energy used during the cooling

ACHnat 43:16
LBL season can be calculated from the cooling degree days.
SEER is the seasonal energy-efficiency ratio, which
Table 43.1 Approximate Air-Tightness of Moderately Sized Houses
incorporates various equipment and process efficiencies
as well as the conversion from Btus to kilowatt-hours.
tight moderate leaky SEER for electrically driven refrigeration is typically in
CFM50 5 1500 15004000 44000 the range of 10 Btu/W-hr to 12 Btu/W-hr (2.9 W/W to
ACH50 55 510 410 3.5 W/W). The seasonal cooling cost is determined from
ACHnat 5 0.35 0.351 41 the cost per kilowatt-hour.
HVAC
energykW"h=season
The annual cost of the additional cooling load due to air " #
leakage with a SEER-rated appliance can be estimated h _
24 q CDD
from Eq. 43.17. " d #design cooling;W
W
1000 T o ' T i SEERW=W
kW
q_ c;Btu=hr t hr=yr cost$=kW-hr SI* 43:18a
annual cooling cost " #
W
1000 SEER
kW energykW-hr=season
$ %
0:26CDDCFM50cost$=kW-hr hr _
, 24 q CDD
LBLSEER day design cooling;Btu=hr
" #
43:17 W
1000 T o ' T i SEERBtu=W-hr
kW
U:S:* 43:18b
9
ASHRAE Standard 119: Air Leakage Performance for Detached
11
Single-Family Residential Buildings, ASHRAE. This is probably because the accuracy of other data does not warrant
10
The LBL factor is named after Lawrence Berkeley Labs, where the a high level of sophistication.
12
correlations between a structures characteristics and leakiness were Tables of cooling degree-days are far less common than tables of
first evaluated in the 1980s. heating degree-days.
13. LATENT AND SENSIBLE LOADS

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
terms of volumetric flows, making use of flow rates that
are typically known at each branch. Using volumetric
Latent loads increase the cooling load. The main sources flow rates is sufficiently accurate for situations that do
of residential latent loads are infiltration, perspiration not involve large temperature differences (i.e., Ti ' To is
and exhalation by occupants, cooking, laundry, shower- not too large). In situations where this assumption is
ing, and bathing. The often quoted rule of thumb is that inappropriate, Eq. 43.20, Eq. 43.22, and others should
residential latent load is 30% of the total load, although be reformulated in terms of mass flow rates.
the actual latent load varies widely depending on infil-
tration rate, climate, and occupancy. step 1: Locate the indoor, i, and outdoor, o, design con-
ditions on the psychrometric chart. Read hi, ho,
The sensible heat ratio, SHR (also known as the sensible and #o.
heat factor, SHF), is the sensible load divided by the
total load (including the latent load). The latent factor, step 2: Draw a line between the indoor and outdoor
points. This line represents all possible ratios of
LF, is the reciprocal of the SHR. Most air conditioning
mixing indoor and outdoor air. The ratio of out-
equipment is designed to operate at a sensible heat ratio
door ventilation air, V_ o, to the fraction of con-
in the range of 0.700.75. According to ASHRAE, a
ditioned recirculating air, V_ 1, determines the
latent factor of 1.3 or a sensible heat ratio of 0.77
actual mixture point, *. For an initial estimate,
matches the performance of typical residential vapor
assume that the densities of the two air streams
compression cooling systems.
are the same. Then, the air masses are propor-
tional to the air volumes. Calculate the temper-
1 q_ sensible cp DT
SHR 43:19 ature T* from Eq. 43.20.15 (See Fig. 43.2.)
LF q_ sensible q_ latent Dh
T # ' T i V_ o
43:20
T o ' T i V_ 1
14. RECIRCULATING AIR BYPASS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
Some of the return air may be bypassed around the air Figure 43.2 Adiabatic Mixing of Inside and Outside Air
conditioner through a bypass channel in the air
handling unit. Figure 43.1 illustrates such a recirculat-
ing air bypass configuration.13 o
Figure 43.1 Recirculating Air Bypass . V1
exfiltration Ti Ti conditioned
.
Vo
losses . . . . space
.
Vo V1 V1 + V2 V1
. . . *
V1 Vo V2 Ti
To T* Tco Tin i
.
air Vo
. . . . .
Vo V1 conditioner Vin = V1 + V2
HVAC
step 3: If the sensible and latent loads in the conditioned

The inside design temperature, Ti , and the sensible and space are known, calculate the room sensible
latent loads are generally known, as are the outside heat ratio, RSHR. The latent and sensible loads
design conditions. The temperature, Tin, and flow rate from outside ventilation air are not included.
of the air entering the conditioned space are generally
not known. The following procedure can be used to q_ s cp DT
determine these unknowns.14 This procedure can also RSHR 43:21
be used when there is no bypass (i.e., straight recircula- q_ s q_ l Dh
tion) by setting V_ 2 = 0. The procedure is presented in step 4: Draw a line with the slope RSHR (based on the
psychrometric charts sensible heat ratio scale)
13 through point i. Since the air conditioner must
The separate bypass duct shown in Fig. 43.1 does not actually exist.
Bypassed air actually flows unchanged through a separate channel in bring the air through a process that takes
the air conditioner.
There is a variation of this configuration in which the outdoor air is
mixed with the return air before the bypass takeoff. The primary
difference between the variations is when the V_ o term is used.
14 15
Slight modifications of the procedure may be necessary, depending Though dry-bulb temperatures are commonly used in Eq. 43.20, they
on what is known. need not be. Since all of the temperature scales are linear on the
Care must be taken in distinguishing between subscripts i, in, psychrometric chart, wet-bulb and dew-point temperatures could be
and 1. used.
nonbypassed air from condition i to condition V_ in;L=s V_ 1 V_ 2

co, the co point must be somewhere along
this line. q_ s;W
" # SI* 43:23a
J
1:20 ! T i ' T in
Alternatively, if the condition of the air leaving L" C
the air conditioner is known, draw a line from
that point (co for conditioner output) to point V_ in;ft3 =min V_ 1 V_ 2
i. (See Fig. 43.3.)
q_ s;Btu=hr
" #
Btu-min
1:08 T i ' T in
Figure 43.3 Adiabatic Mixing of Conditioned and Bypass Air hr-ft3 -! F
U:S:* 43:23b
. i step 8: Locate point in corresponding to Tin on the

V in
e RSHR condition line from step 4.
o n lin
diti
con step 9: Knowing Tin establishes the ratio of V_ 1 and V_ 2
in
. in Eq. 43.22. Calculate V_ 1 and V_ 2.
V1
co
. V_ 2 BFsystem V_ in
V2
BFsystem V_ 1 V_ 2 43:24
V_ 1 V_ in ' V_ 2 43:25
step 5: The condition of the air entering the conditioned
space lies along the line drawn in step 4. The line step 10: Draw a line through the mixture point * and
represents all possible ratios of mixing condi- the conditioner output point co. This line
tioned and bypassed air. The amounts of condi- represents the process occurring in the air con-
tioned air, V_ 1, and bypassed air, V_ 2, determine ditioner. Heat from outside air and from within
the mixture point in. For an initial estimate, the space are both removed by the air condi-
assume that the densities of the two air streams tioner. Therefore, the slope of this line is the
are the same. Calculate the temperature Tin. grand sensible heat ratio, GSHR, also known as
The ratio of air flows determines the system the coil sensible heat ratio and grand sensible
bypass factor. heat factor. If this slope is known in advance, it
can be used (with the sensible heat ratio scale
on the psychrometric chart) to draw a line
T in ' T co through either * or co, thereby establishing
BFsystem
T i ' T co point co or *, respectively. If it is not known
in advance, it can be determined from the sen-
V_ 2 43:22 sible heat ratio scale.

V_ 1 V_ 2
q_ s;room q_ s;outside air
HVAC
GSHR 43:26
q_ t;room q_ t;outside air
step 6: If neither Tin nor V_ in is known, Tin should be
chosen such that it is 15 ! F to 20 ! F (8 ! C to The air will be cooled and dehumidified as it
11 ! C) less than Ti. The temperature of the air passes through the coil. (See Fig. 43.4.) The coil
entering the conditioned space and the flow rate apparatus dew point (ADP) is determined by
through the space are related; one determines extending the line containing points co and *
the other. The larger the temperature difference to the saturation line. The ADP should be
Ti ' Tin (representing the temperature rise as greater than 32 ! F (0 ! C) so that moisture does
the air flows through the conditioned space), not freeze on the coil.
the lower the flow rate. However, very large
temperature differences require extremely effi- step 11: The required air conditioning capacity is
cient mixing within the space, and very low Tin
temperatures are uncomfortable for occupants q_ t q_ t;room q_ t;outside air
near the discharge registers. Therefore, the tem- ho ' h i V_ o
perature difference should not exceed 15 ! F to q_ s;room q_ l;room 43:27
#o
20 ! F (8 ! C to 11 ! C).
Equation 43.28(a) expresses the air condition-
step 7: If V_ in is known, calculate Tin from the sensible ing capacity in traditional HVAC units. The
heating relationship, Eq. 43.23. (Also, see constant 4.5 lbm-min/ft3-hr is the product of
Eq. 43.20.) air density (0.075 lbm/ft3) and 60 min/hr. The
constant 1.2 kg/L is the product of air density Locate the indoor, i, and outdoor, o, design conditions
(1.2 kg/m3) and conversions 1000 W/kW and on the psychrometric chart. Draw a line with the slope
0.001 m3/L. 0.89 through point i. Extend the line to the left to
11.9 ! C on the saturation line. This is Tco. Since the air
q_ t;W q_ t;room q_ l;room leaves the conditioner saturated, the coil apparatus dew
$ % point coincides with the conditioner output.
kg
1:2 h o ' hi V_ o;L=s SI* 43:28a (b) The dry-bulb temperature of the air as it enters the
L conditioned space is
q_ t;Btu=hr q_ s;room q_ l;room
" # T in T i ' 10:6! C 23:9! C ' 10:6! C 13:3! C
lbm-min
4:5 h o ' h i V_ o;ft3 =min
ft3 -hr
U:S:* 43:28b Calculate the air flow through the space.
q_ s;W
Figure 43.4 Total Heat Removal Process V_ in;L=s " #
J
1:20 T i ' T in
L"! C
o " #
W
46:5 kW 1000
= kW
pe " #
slo R J
*
GS
H 1:20 ! 23:9! C ' 13:3! C
L" C
i slope =
RSHR 3656 L=s
coil co in
ADP
(c) Locate point in corresponding to Tin on the RSHR
condition line from step 4. Read the wet-bulb tempera-
ture at this point as 12.5 ! C.
(d) Calculate the system bypass ratio from Eq. 43.22.
Example 43.1 T in ' T co 13:3! C ' 11:9! C
BFsystem
The inside design condition for a conditioned space with T i ' T co 23:9! C ' 11:9! C
partial recirculation is 75 ! F dry-bulb (23.9 ! C) and 0:117
62.5 ! F (16.9 ! C) wet-bulb. The outside air is at 94 ! F
dry-bulb (34.4 ! C) and 78 ! F (25.6 ! C) wet-bulb. The
sensible space load is 160,320 Btu/hr (46.5 kW). The (e) The flow rates are
latent load from occupants and infiltration, but exclud- " #
ing intentional ventilation, is 19,210 Btu/hr (5.6 kW). A L
V_ 2 BFsystem V_ in 0:117 3656 428 L=s
total of 1275 ft3/min (600 L/s) of outside air is required. s
The air temperature increases 19 ! F (10.6 ! C) as it passes L L
V_ 1 3656 ' 428 3228 L=s
HVAC
through the conditioned space. Air leaves the condi- s s

tioner saturated.
Find the (a) coil apparatus dew point, (b) volume of air Use Eq. 43.20 to locate the point corresponding to the
passing through the space, (c) wet-bulb temperature of air entering the conditioner.
the air entering the space, (d) system bypass ratio, and
(e) dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the L
600
conditioner. V_ o s 0:186

V_ 1 3228 L
SI Solution s
#
(a) The room sensible heat ratio, RSHR, is T ' Ti
0:186
To ' Ti
q_ s
RSHR T # T i 0:186T o ' T i
q_ s q_ l
23:9! C 0:18634:4! C ' 23:9! C
46:5 kW

46:5 kW 5:6 kW 25:9! C
0:89
Customary U.S. Solution Use Eq. 43.20 to locate the point corresponding to the
air entering the conditioner.
(a) The room sensible heat ratio, RSHR, is
ft3
Btu _ 1275
160;320 Vo min 0:185
q_ s
RSHR hr V_ 1 6875 ft3
q_ s q_ l 160;320 Btu 19;210 Btu min
hr hr
0:89 T# ' Ti
0:185
To ' Ti
Locate the indoor, i, and outdoor, o, design conditions
on the psychrometric chart. Draw a line with the slope T # T i 0:185T o ' T i
0.89 through point i. Extend the line to the left to 75! F 0:18594! F ' 75! F
53.4 ! F on the saturation line. This is Tco. Since the air
leaves the conditioner saturated, the coil apparatus dew 78:5! F
point coincides with the conditioner output.
(b) The dry-bulb temperature of the air as it enters the
conditioned space is 15. FREEZE-UP OF COOLING COILS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
Coil freeze-up (freezing of the coils) has two different

T in T i ' 19! F 75! F ' 19! F causes. In the winter, cold make-up (ventilation) air
56! F from outside may cause water to freeze inside the heat-
ing coils. In the summer, coils with effective surface
temperatures of 32 ! F (0 ! C) or less can cause moisture
Calculate the air flow through the space. (humidity) in the air to freeze on the outside of the
cooling (evaporator) coils.
q_ s;Btu=hr
V_ in;ft3 =min " #
Btu-min In the summer, water (humidity) condensing on the
1:08 T i ' T in outside of a cooling coil is normally removed by a
hr-ft3 -! F
Btu built-in pan and drain. However, frost (rather than
160;320 liquid condensate) will form when the dew point tem-
" # hr perature is below freezing. Coil freeze-up can be pre-
Btu-min
1:08 75! F ' 56! F vented by designing the system so that the coil
hr-ft3 -! F
temperature is above freezing. If the extension of the
7813 ft3 =min line containing points co and * does not intersect the
saturation line above 32 ! F (0 ! C) (or, if the line does not
intersect the saturation line at all), heating may be
(c) Locate point in corresponding to Tin on the RSHR required.
condition line from step 4. Read the wet-bulb tempera-
ture at this point as 54.6 ! F. Having an above-freezing coil apparatus dew point may
not be economical or practical, and with preexisting
HVAC
(d) Calculate the system bypass ratio. From Eq. 43.22,
systems, it may not be possible at all. Freeze-up can be
functionally prevented by ensuring that (a) the cooling
T in ' T co 56! F ' 53:4! F
BFsystem ! load is high, and (b) the refrigerant flow rate is full. Low
T i ' T co 75 F ' 53:4! F cooling load is usually attributable to low airflow or low
0:120 entering temperature. Low airflow can be caused by a
plugged coil, fouled air filter, low blower speed, broken
(e) The flow rates are fan belt, failed blower motor, closed distribution regis-
ter, or undersized ductwork. Low entering air tempera-
$ % tures can be caused by setting the thermostat too low
_ _ ft3 during the noncooling part of the daily schedule or by
V 2 BFsystem V in 0:120 7813
min cold outside (make-up) air. Low refrigerant flow rates
938 ft3 =min are usually attributable to refrigerant leaks and can be
detected by pressure gauges, but low flow rates can also
ft3 ft3 be caused by restricted liquid or suction filter-driers and
V_ 1 7813 ' 938
min min faulty metering devices.
3
6875 ft =min
16. REHEATING COOLED AIR

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
Figure 43.5 Reheat
If the sensible heat load from the occupied region

decreases, or if the air leaving the air conditioner
(co) is too cold for any reason (not necessarily because
of below-freezing temperatures), the air can be reheated
!h
in a reheat coil. Reheating can occur within the air ref
rig
conditioner, in an intermediate distribution box, or in era
tio i
n
an air terminal device. As the moisture content does not
change, sensible reheating is represented on the psychro- !h
reh
metric chart by a horizontal line from the point repre- ea
t
senting the conditioner output (co) toward the right. in
If the air leaves the conditioner saturated, the line will ADP
start at the equipments apparatus dew point on the
psychrometric charts saturation curve. Since the energy
of heating must be removed by the coil when the air
returns through it, the cooling load (refrigeration load)
will be increased by the reheat, as shown in Fig. 43.5.
The additional cooling load can be calculated from
either the enthalpy difference or (since the specific heat
and humidity ratio are known) the dry-bulb tempera-
ture difference.
HVAC
44 1. Types of Air Conditioning Systems . . . . . . .
Air Conditioning Systems
and Controls
. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . ... . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .
44-1 low-voltage thermostats and controllers to control high-

2. Control Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-1 voltage, high-drain devices. For example, a room thermo-
3. HVAC Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-1 stat might energize a relay that, in turn, would provide
4. Typical Controls Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-2 power to a line-voltage fan motor. Alternatively, the
5. Freeze Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-2 thermostat could activate a pneumatic relay (electro-
6. Feedback and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-2 pneumatic switch).
7. Digital Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-5
8. Relay Logic Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-5 Actuators (also referred to as operators and motors)
provide the force to open and close valves and dampers.
The control signal can be electrical, electronic, or pneu-
Nomenclature matic. Actuators are designated as normally open (NO)
! !
R range F C or normally closed (NC) depending on their position
! !
T temperature F C when deenergized. Most actuators act relatively slowly.
Solenoids, however, act quickly in response to signals.
1. TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS A pneumatic actuator is essentially a piston/cylinder

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
arrangement or diaphragm/bellows. With pneumatic
Depending on the medium delivered to the conditioned actuators, a separate compressed-air system is required
space, air conditioning systems are categorized as all-air, to supply the force for changing damper settings. With
air-and-water, all-water, and unitary. All-air systems a typical 18 psig (124 kPa) source, the pneumatic
maintain the temperature by distributing only air, and signal will be approximately 3 psig to 15 psig (21 kPa
most systems rely on internal loads for heating, sending to 100 kPa). Pneumatic actuator performance is essen-
only cold air to the space. Most central units are single- tially linear. The actuator position is proportional to
duct, which means that the cooling and heating coils are the air pressure.
in series. In dual-duct units, the heating and cooling coils
are in parallel ducts. 3. HVAC PROCESS CONTROL
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
In air-and-water systems, air and water are both dis-

tributed to the conditioned space. In all-water systems, Control of basic commercial HVAC systems has tradi-
the cooling and heating effects are provided solely by tionally meant controlling either the amount of bypass
cooled and/or heated water pumped to the conditioned air or the amount of reheat. These two constant volume
space. With unitary equipment, the fan, condenser, and methods are known as face-and-bypass damper control
and reheat control, respectively. Face-and-bypass damper
HVAC
cooling and heating coils are combined in a stand-alone
unit for window and through-the-wall installation. control is normally used to control only the dry-bulb
temperature. Because of the possibility of bringing in
too much moisture (an uncontrolled variable), this
2. CONTROL EQUIPMENT
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
method is generally not used with a high percentage of
outside air unless the outside air can be dehumidified.
Control equipment in HVAC systems consists of sensors, Reheat control is needed when both room temperature
actuators, motors, relays, and controllers. Sensors (trans- and humidity control are needed. Once the proper
ducers) are used to monitor temperature (thermostats or humidity level is achieved, reheat ensures the proper
just stats), enthalpy, and humidity (humidistats or room temperature.
hygrostats). In complex delivery systems, pressure may
also be monitored (i.e., by pressurestats). Thermostats A third method, air volume control, relies on variations
are designated as room, insertion, or immersion in flow rate through the conditioned space. Only one
according to their placement (i.e., in the occupied space, parameter (i.e., dry-bulb temperature) can be ade-
in a duct, or in a water/steam manifold, respectively). quately controlled in this manner. Volume control is
more applicable in the largest systems where the addi-
The signal from a sensor is received by the controller, tional cost and complexity can be economically justified.
which energizes or deenergizes the appropriate equip- Advances in noise control, monitoring of other comfort
ment. Since most control systems operate at low volt- parameters, and ability to provide sufficient outside
ages (e.g., 24 V AC), a relay must be used when the ventilation when volume is low may overcome the criti-
equipment operates at a higher voltage. Relays allow cisms this method has received.
4. TYPICAL CONTROLS INTEGRATION

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
of bypass air. Steam or hot water injection is needed for
large humidity changes.
There are numerous variations in equipment layout,
mixing sequence, and control methodology. Figure 44.1 Also not shown is an outside enthalpy controller. This
schematically illustrates a central station air handling controller compares the heat content of the return air
unit (AHU) in a multizone system with reheat control. with that of the outside air. When the refrigeration load
Return air enters from the top; ventilation air enters can be reduced, the enthalpy controller overrides the
from the left. Conditioned air is discharged into the temperature controller and increases the outdoor air
distribution ductwork. The cooling effect may be either damper opening. In smaller installations, an outside air
provided by the evaporator coils of a vapor-compression thermostat can work almost as well.
refrigeration cycle or from liquid chiller cooling coils.
The heating effect (within the individual zone ducts) 5. FREEZE PROTECTION
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
may be provided by hot water or steam coils or from
the condenser section of a vapor-compression heat When the outdoor air is at subfreezing temperature,
pump. The air flow through various components is con- water in preheat, reheat, and chilled water coils can
trolled by remotely actuated dampers. freeze whether or not the coils are in operation. Freezing
Until the fan motor starts, all the dampers are in their is caused by direct contact with or incomplete mixing
deenergized positions. The bypass damper is normally (stratification) of the cold outside air with return air,
open. The outside air damper is normally closed. (Inter- although reduced warm air flows due to clogged filters
locking the outside air damper to the fan motor prevents can also be a contributing factor. In some systems,
induction of cold air by the stack effect and potential freeze-up can be prevented by using antifreeze or by
coil freeze-up whenever the fan is not running.) draining the coils when they are not in use.
The control sequence begins when the fan motor starts. It is appropriate to protect the coils with thermostats
The fan voltage energizes a relay and/or electric- (freeze stats). For example, the face dampers upstream
pneumaticvalve (EP), which provides air to the control- of the coils can be closed down when the plenum tem-
lers. When the fan starts, damper motor (or damper perature drops to approximately 35 ! F (2 ! C) or when
actuator) DM1 opens the outside damper to a predeter- the temperature of the incoming heated water in the
mined minimum position, permitting outside air to enter. heating coils (as determined by an immersion thermo-
stat) drops below 120 ! F to 150 ! F (50 ! C to 65 ! C).
Damper motor DM2 is controlled by two sensors: the Furthermore, when the fan is not running, the outside
return air humidistat (humidity controller, HC) and the air dampers should be closed and minimum heat should
supply air temperature controller (TC), also known as a continue to be provided to the heating coils.
mixing thermostat. The duplex pressure selector (DS)
selects the higher of the two pressure signals from either
the HC or TC sensors and positions damper motor DM2 6. FEEDBACK AND CONTROL
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
appropriately.1
Together, sensors and their controllers constitute a tra-
The cooling coil both cools and dehumidifies the air ditional analog feedback loop and control system. (See
stream. If the latent loads are low, the air is merely Fig. 44.2.) Using temperature as the controlled variable,
cooled to TCs set point temperature. If latent loads the set point, Tset point, is the temperature that the con-
are high, more air is passed through the cooling coil to ditioned space would like to maintain. The control point
HVAC
remove the moisture. Reheating is used to prevent over- is the actual temperature in the room. The offset is the
cooling of the space. Reheating is controlled by room difference between the set and control points. The time
thermostats (TR1, TR2, and TR3). When a TR set required for the room temperature to become estab-
point is reached, the corresponding steam or hot water lished at the set point is known as the settling time.
valve (V) is opened.
Temperature controller TC also acts as a high-limit con- T offset T set point # T control point 44:1
troller, preventing the supply air control from increasing
above what is required for adequate zone cooling. There are several basic control methods. The most simple
is two-position control. The controlled device (e.g., a
When the space has low latent loads, humidification is valve or damper) is either fully on or fully off. Because
required. Figure 44.1 does not show the humidification of thermal inertia and other delays, the temperature will
system and controlling humidistats. Small humidifica- continue to increase for a short time after the heat is
tion increases can be obtained by increasing the amount turned off. This is known as temperature overshoot. Simi-
larly, the temperature will continue to drop for a short
time after the heat is turned on. The room temperature
1
Motor DM2 controls two dampers to vary the air passing through the oscillates around the set point. The range of temperatures
bypass and coil. The bypass damper is normally open; the coil damper
is normally closed. In some systems, the coil damper is a face damper.
experienced by the room is the operating differential,
The face damper is installed immediately before the face of the cooling while the difference between the on and off set point
coil, hence its name. temperatures is the control differential.
A I R C O N D I T I O N I N G S Y S T E M S A N D C O N T R O L S 44-3
Figure 44.1 Bypass Air Handling Unit (reheat control configuration)
TR1
V1
to zone
(in) (u)
1
TR2
V2
to zone
(in) (u)
2
TR3
V3
(u)
to zone (u)
(in)
3
return TC
air DS
(i)
DM2
AHU
(i)
HC normally open
normally
outside closed
air (*) (co) (u) fan fan
(o) motor
normally closed
cooling
DM1 coil EP
air supply
HVAC
(a) layout exhaust
in i
u
co sensible
cooling
TC limit setting
(b) psychrometric plot
Figure 44.2 Response of Temperature Control Methods
heat off heat on

room (cooling on) (cooling off)
temperature
set control operating

point differential differential
time
(a) two-position
temperature without anticipation

room
temperature
with
anticipation
time
(b) timed two-position
heat fully off

partially on
room
temperature
dead band
heat fully on partially off
time
(c) floating action
room
temperature
control point
HVAC
set offset throttling

point range
time
(d) proportional action and
proportion with reset
room
temperature control point
set
point
time
(e) PID
For timed two-position control (anticipation control), a Figure 44.3 Basic Hook-Up Diagrams
small heater is built into the thermostat. While the
room is being heated, the thermostat is also being electrical
power in motor (or
heated, and this turns the thermostat off sooner than solenoid)
otherwise. The overshoot is reduced considerably. "!
low voltage " " high voltage
! !
With floating action control, the controlled device has
stat electrical relay
three positions: fully on, fully off, and a fixed intermediate
position. The controller has three corresponding signals: (a) analog all-electric
fully on, fully off, and a neutral position signal that is
generated while the temperature is within a dead band
range. Within the dead band, there is an intermediate compressed
amount of air heating (or cooling). If the amount of air in
heating (cooling) corresponds to the heat loss (gain), the low voltage " compressed air
temperature remains within the dead band. Otherwise, !
the controller will generate a fully on or fully off signal.
stat electrical- actuator cylinder,
With proportional action, the position (e.g., percentage pneumatic switch valve, or diaphragm
opening) of the damper or valve is proportional to the
(b) analog pneumatic
offset. The throttling range, Rthrottle, is the temperature
range over which the damper or valve changes from fully 24 V
closed to fully open. The throttling range should coin- power in
cide with the normal range of temperatures encoun- "!
tered. (When the temperature is outside of the
twisted pair wire
throttling range, the system is out of control.) Since
digital or control line
the damper or valve should be 50% open at the set analog digital computer digital actuator
point, within the limits of 0 to 1.00, the fraction open is transducer
(c) digital
T offset
fraction open 0:50 44:2
Rthrottle
Proportional action does not provide extra heating twisted pair control wiring. Each device has its own
(cooling) to compensate for changes; it tends to main- address, and the digital signal generated by the controller
tain the existing control point. With proportional includes the device address.
action, the settling time is very long.
Digital controllers are essentially local control computers
Proportional action with automatic reset, also known as (LCC) running algorithms preprogrammed by the man-
proportional plus integral control (PI), attempts to ufacturer. PI and (in some cases) PID control algorithms
return the room temperature back to the set point. In are easily implemented. Changes to the dead band, pro-
effect, the controller overreacts and the signal is more portional band, set points, low- and high-limits, lockouts,
than proportional to the offset. and so on, can be programmed for all the controlled
devices after installation.
With proportional plus integral plus derivative control
HVAC
(PID), the control action responds to three different When installing a digital controller in a system already
parameters: (1) the magnitude of the offset, (2) the equipped with analog (pneumatic or electric) control
duration of the offset, and (3) the rate at which the devices, a digital-to-analog (digital-to-proportional) stag-
temperature is changing. These three aspects corre- ing module is needed. The staging module is essentially
spond to the terms proportional, integral, and an electropneumatic switch that translates digital signals
derivative, respectively, in the name. Because of the into signals compatible with the pre-existing devices.
complexity of the algorithm, and since an accurate time
base is needed, PID control is implemented through
digital control. 8. RELAY LOGIC DIAGRAMS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .
Controllers used for HVAC systems receive analog and

7. DIGITAL CONTROL
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. .
digital inputs from temperature, humidity, and pressure
sensors, as well as from other devices. Controller out-
Direct digital control (DDC) is an alternative to tradi- puts can be analog (on/off for relays or infinitely vari-
tional analog control. Devices in analog and digital con- able for dampers, valves, and actuators) or digital to
trol systems are analogous. (See Fig. 44.3.) Digital sensors control and communicate with digital devices. Analog
replace analog sensors one for one and are located in the and digital relays can, themselves, be used to implement
same locations. Digital controllers replace analog control- simple control sequences. Contacts in a relay can be
lers. Digital actuators replace analog (electric and pneu- normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC), and relays
matic) actuators. Digital devices are connected by simple may have several sets of contacts in any combination of
NO and NC. Since relay contacts are either off or on Example 44.1
(open or closed), relay logic is binary or Boolean. For
example, two basic relays in parallel constitute a simple Describe the function of the relay logic diagram shown.
OR gate, while two relays in series constitute a simple
AND gate. Figure 44.4 contains the symbols of devices L1 L2
PB2
that primarily behave in a Boolean manner or appear in PB1
HVAC circuit diagrams. 1, 2, 3 turn
1 M1
on M1
The symbols in Fig. 44.4 are combined into relay logic M1
diagrams, also known as ladder logic diagrams, line
diagrams, and elementary diagrams. Each row in the M1
turn on the
diagram is known as a rung. In such a diagram, the 2 G
green pilot light
voltage sources (120 V, 24 V, etc.) are shown as a supply
rail (supply bus), typically labeled L1, and a ground
rail (ground bus) labeled L2. Relay logic diagrams are M1
turn on the
drawn according to the following rules. 3 R
red pilot light
1. A rung is numbered on its left-hand side. Optional

comments and descriptions of a rungs function appear Solution
on the right-hand side.
The appropriate voltage is applied across rails L1 and
2. Control devices (inputs, such as switches) appear to L2. There are three rungs, labeled 1, 2, and 3. The
the left of a rung, while controlled devices (outputs, controlled device on rung 1 is a relay coil. The controlled
such as motors) appear to the right of a rung. Con- device on rung 2 is a green pilot light. The controlled
trolled devices cannot appear between control devices. device on rung 3 is a red pilot light. Both pilot lights are
3. Control devices can be connected in series and are controlled by relay M1 contacts. The physical circuit
shown on the same rung, while control devices con- contains two momentary push-buttons, PB1 and PB2,
nected in parallel are shown on a rung and its sub- a relay M1, and green and red pilot lights. The relay has
rungs. The same control device (i.e., a switch) may two NO (normally open) contacts and one NC (nor-
appear on multiple rungs. mally closed) contact. The numbers to the right of the
first rung show that coil M1 controls contacts on rungs
4. Output devices cannot be placed in series. Each out- 1, 2, and 3. PB1 is normally closed, and pushing it
put device is shown on its own rung or sub-rung. For disconnects the rung from power; PB1 probably acts
example, a switch that controls a motor and a pilot as an off or interrupt switch. Pushing PB2 energizes
light will be represented by either a rung with a sub- the (circled) M1 coil. The energized coil closes the M1
rung, or by two rungs. contacts on sub-rung 1, maintaining continuous power
to relay coil (circled) M1. When relay coil M1 is ener-
5. Rungs can be electrically connected (with a tie line or gized, the NC M1 contacts on rung 2 open, extinguish-
tie bus) vertically, but control and controlled devices ing the green (safe) light. When relay coil M1 is
cannot be connected between rungs in the tie line. energized, the NO contacts on rung 3 close, illuminating
6. When analyzing functionality, the control sequence the red (running) light.
HVAC
(or, alternatively, the current) always moves from

left-to-right (or, occasionally, vertically). The control
sequence never moves right-to-left, not even for a
single sub-rung or component.
7. A relays coil and its contacts are shown on separate
rungs. (For example, a switch may energize a relay
coil that controls a fan. The input switch and output
coil are shown on a single rung. The relay contacts
and the output fan motor would be shown on a
separate rung.) The numbers of the rungs containing
a relays contacts are listed as a comment for the
rung that contains the relays coil.
Figure 44.4 NEMA Boolean Control Element Symbols*
+ DC battery TR time delay relay (coil)
AC power supply NC, instant open, time close
closes on
pressure rise
NO, instant open, time close
opens on
pressure rise
NC, instant close, time open
closes on
flow
NO, instant close, time open
opens on
flow
closes on switch
temperature rise NO contacts
relay
opens on
temperature rise
switch
electric-pneumatic relay NC contacts
EP (interface to pneumatic
controls) relay
control relay solenoid

K DPST switch
(also designated CR)
or contacts
magnetic motor
M1
starter coil DPDT switch
or contacts
pilot light
(color indicated in circle) NC
limit switches
NO
alarm horn F
fuse
ON OFF AUTO
circuit breaker
3-position
rotary switch
HVAC
transformer
ON
3-position switch
OFF
(alternate style)
AUTO
TR time delay relay
NO
push buttons
(momentary contact) motor (or motorized actuator)
NC
*Slight differences exist between NEMA and IEC symbols.

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38 1. Introduction to Psychrometrics . . . . . . . . . . .

pw %psat 4. ENERGY CONTENT OF AIR

5. THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

It is possible to develop mathematical relationships for " #

(c) The psychrometric chart does not go up to 60 ! C.

scales for wet-bulb temperature and enthalpy. How-

Example 38.2 Customary U.S. Solution

hw cp;water vapor T hf g Solution

Calculate the dry air masses.

The two input states are located on the psychrometric ft3

turn, can be approximated by the ratio of air flow V_

ative humidity. Find the mixture dry-bulb temperature.

temperature). The paths of pure humidification and dehu- Example 38.5

Customary U.S. Solution

removes heat and moisture from both the conditioned

!coil 1:0 & BF 38:24 q t q s q l m a h1 & h 2 38:27

Figure 38.4 Cooling and Dehumidification

The energy change during the process can be calculated

(c) The sensible heat ratio is 17. AIR WASHERS

An air washer is a device that passes air through a dense

The difference between a spray humidifier and spray

280 kPa). The spray quantity per bank of nozzles is in the

process. If air is humidified by injecting steam (steam humidifi-

m a !in mw ma !out 38:34

21. HEATING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION

1. WET COOLING TOWERS

drift eliminators As Eq. 39.3 indicates, the actual wet-bulb temperature

cold-water basin Cooling towers are sometimes rated in tower units,

TDSrecirculating (a) direct

Additives should be used to prevent specific problems

3. DRY COOLING TOWERS

Dry cooling is used when environmental protection and

40-1 Ra rate per unit area ft3/min-ft2 L/s!m2

Table 40.1 Representative Minimum Ventilation Rates in Breathing Zonea,b

(Multiply cfm by 0.02832 to obtain m3 /min.)

From ASHRAE Standard 62.1, Table 6-2, copyright 2010, by

Dpstack effect "outside ) "inside gh ) hNPL

The wind pressure, pw, is based on the theoretical veloc-

surface pressure coefficient, Cp, which is a function of

The indoor design condition refers to the thermody-

The airflow required through a room to remove body

13. SENSIBLE AND LATENT HEAT

14. VENTILATION FOR HEAT REMOVAL q_ l;kW

With only a few exceptions, ASHRAE Standard 62.1

16. FUME EXHAUST HOODS

17. DILUTION VENTILATION

! Table 41.1 Pressure at Altitudes

The force of moving or stationary air perpendicular to a

tially, supplying only enough air to meet outside air

Figure 41.1 Typical Fan Curves

% delivery pressure and % efficiency

(a) axial flow

100 tota 100

(b) forward-curved centrifugal

(c) backward-curved centrifugal

sibility that the actual system pressure will be less than

Backward-curved centrifugals are quiet, medium- to high- AHP AkW

The static efficiency, SE, of a fan is defined as

7 kW System dampers downstream of the fan are rarely used

15. SYSTEM CURVE

Only equipment, such as VAV boxes, in the index run

16. SYSTEM EFFECT

Almost all fans are rated under ideal laboratory condi-