C++ are compatible with Turbo C++.

It is better to use Visual

Compiler :
Before providing a technical explanation a
compiler in laymans language is a program which will read
through the C++ program code (code refers to the
program written by the programmer) line by line. The
compiler will read each and every character that has been
typed in the program code. After reading the entire code,
the compiler will convert the code into machine level
format (i.e. 0s and 1s). The compiler is very dedicated and
hard working since it will meticulously read each and every
character.
Technically speaking, the microprocessor in a computer
can understand only binary numbers (only 0s and 1s). It is
not possible for us to write programs in binary numbers.
Compilers will convert the coding for a program into
machine understandable form (i.e. it will convert the
instructions we type into machine understandable form).
The instructions we type (in something similar to English),
is known as the source code. The compiler converts the
source code into the object code (which the
microprocessor understands and we cannot understand).
There is a detailed discussion on this topic in the chapter
Advanced Topics.
C++ because advanced features like namespaces and
exception handling are not available in older versions of
Turbo C++. All compilers will support the basic features of
C++.
If you are using Linux/Unix then you will be having the
GNU C++ compiler in your Linux distribution CD (this
compiler is freeware but it doesnt have a graphical user
interface- it can only be used from the command line;
refer to the Appendix section).
Keywords :
Keyword is a word that the compiler already knows, i.e.
when the compiler sees a keyword somewhere in the
program it knows what to do automatically.
For example, when the compiler encounters the keyword
int, it knows that int stands for an integer. Or if the
compiler reads a break, then it knows that it should
break out of the current loop.

Variable and Constant :

If you are new to programming you might wonder as to
where you should type your C++ program?
First of all you should have a C++ compiler. There are many As the name suggests, a variable is something whose value
compilers available for free on the Net and they can be can be changed throughout the program. It is not fixed. On
downloaded from the Net. After downloading the the other hand, a constant is one whose value remains the
compiler, create a new C++ source file and type the C++ same (constant) throughout the program.
code in the compiler. Later on in this book, we shall see
how to run a C++ program in the compiler.

A few compilers available on the Net are : Operators and Operands:

1. Borland C++ compiler Operator is something that performs operation on a

: www.borland.com/bcppbuilder/freecompiler/ variable. For example + is an operator that performs the
2. Bloodshed Dev C++ compiler addition operation. The terms on which the operator
: www.bloodshed.net/devcpp.html operates are known as the operands. In the expression
3. DJGPP C++ compiler
4. For Linux/Unix the GNU C++ compiler is available x+y
in standard installations of the operating system.
x and y are known as the operands and + is the operator.
Most compilers nowadays provide an Integrated
Development Environment (IDE), i.e. they have an editor, a
compiler, a linker and some extra tools (like a debugger).
In schools and colleges the most commonly used compiler
Expression:
is Turbo C++. Most of the programs written in this book
Expression performs an operation and consists of
operators and operands (or variables).
a>b
This is an expression in which a and b are the operands. >
is the operator.
Binary and Unary:
Binary means two and unary means one. A binary
operator operates on two operands (or two values)
whereas a unary operator operates on just one operand.
Definition and Declaration :
In C++ these two terms are used frequently. Declaration of
a variable means telling the compiler that this variable is
an integer, or this variable is a character. A declaration will
inform the compiler about the type of a variable. Defining
a variable means allocation of memory space by the
compiler for that particular variable.
In the case of variables, a single statement performs both
declaration and definition. For example: the statement
int x;
declares and defines x as an integer.
Remember that declaration is just declaring the type of
something (telling the compiler what data type it belongs
to) but definition means allotting space to it. It may seem
as if both are one and the same; in many cases they are
but in a few places they are not (these cases will be dealt
with later).
Initialization :
Initialization refers to the first (initial) assignment of a
value to a variable.
x = 50;
This initializes the value of x to 50.
Always remember that the value to the right of the equal
sign will be assigned (or stored) to the value on the left of
the equal sign.
For example:
a = b;
This means that value of b is assigned to a.
Parentheses, braces, angle and square brackets
:
There are different type of brackets:
Parentheses are just the
normal brackets ( ).
Braces are { }.
Angular brackets are < >.
Square brackets are [ ].
All of these brackets are used in C++ but each one is used
for different purposes.
Character:
Characters include alphabets, numbers and other special
symbols as well (like *, /, - etc). Usually one tends to
think of characters as only alphabets; but remember a
character could be anything (an alphabet, a number, a
special symbol on your keyboard or even a blank white
space is a character).
Syntax :
Every language has its own syntax. By the
term syntax we refer to the structure of a language and
use of correct language. English has its own set of rules
while French has slightly different rules. The vocabularies
of both the languages are also different. Programming is
also another language (thats it is called programming
language). Just like any other language it has its own set of
rules that must be complied with. This is known as the
syntax. Only if the programmer adheres to the syntax will
the compiler understand the instructions.
Errors:
This is a very common term in programming
languages. In fact it is very common to hear someone say,
"Syntax Error". Error means a mistake and syntax error
means that there is a mistake in the syntax. The compiler
reads the entire program before execution. While reading
the program, if the compiler discovers that it cant
understand some instruction it will display an error
message. Till the error is cleared, the program cannot be
executed. The compiler will give a syntax error if the
syntax has not been adhered to properly. Errors generated
by the compiler are known as compile-time errors.
There are other types of errors as well. The compiler is not
intelligent to detect all types of errors. For instance if the
programmer make a logical error, the compiler will never
know it. Suppose a program is written for adding two
numbers and in the coding, instead of the + operator, the
operator has been used. The compiler will not recognize
any error during compilation and the program will execute
(but the programmer will not get the desired output). This
is a logical error and as a programmer you have to be very
careful while coding. The compiler is not brilliant enough
to know what is in the programmers mind!
Executable file and linkers:
Executing refers to the process of running a program.
Weve talked about object file, but can we execute object
files directly? The compiler produces an object code but
this object code generally depends on some other external
files. For example: if you are using complex mathematical
functions, you might make use of functions which have
been defined by some other programmer. That
programmer would have created a library which you can
include in your source code (instead of creating those
functions in your program). A library is a collection of
object files. Thus your program will actually depend on the
other object files for some of the complex mathematical
functions which youve used. Someone now has to link up
all these object files to produce an executable file. This
work is done by the linker. Most modern compilers have
a linker included in them. Linkers are discussed in detail
later.
Remember: Each C++ source code needs to be compiled
separately to produce an object code (ten source codes
mean that well have ten object codes). Finally the linker
has to combine these ten object codes to produce one
single executable module.
Debugging:
is the process of troubleshooting a program (of course its
done when the program doesnt work up to your
expectation!). Debugging is the process of identifying bugs
in the code. A bug is a programming term for an error.
Some extra details:
An interesting point (about Kilo, Mega etc.):
You might have read that 1Kilobyte = 1024 bytes and
perhaps you thought about it as well, Shouldnt 1Kilobyte
= 1000 bytes?
Lets start with our familiar decimal system. In the decimal
system, 1 Kilo unit = 1000 units.
For example:
1 Kilometer = 1000 meters =
103 meters
1 Kilogram = 1000 grams =
103 meters
1 Megawatt = 1000 Kilowatts
= 1000000 watts = 106 watts
Computers only understand binary language (1s
and 0s).
8 bits form a byte.
The different types of storage are: internal
CPU registers, RAM, ROM and secondary
storage.
RAM is used as main memory and data is
present only as long as the computer is switched
on.
Main memory is directly accessible by the
computer whereas secondary memory is not.
During execution programs should be
present in the main memory.
Word-size of a machine depends on the size
of the processors internal registers.
Machine level language is written in 1s and
0s.
Assembly level languages make use of
mnemonics (mnemonics are abbreviated English
words used to represent instructions).
High level languages like BASIC are in
simple English but they are far away from the
real hardware of the system.
C has the advantages of both high level and
low level languages. But it doesnt support
Object Oriented Programming (OOP).
C++ is actually C with classes (i.e. it
supports OOP).
A compiler is required to convert the source
code (i.e. the instructions we type in English)
into the object code (i.e. the machine language
which the computer understands).
1 kilobyte = 1024 bytes (and not 1000
bytes).
 Cint Converts a variant to an integer
CLng Converts a variant to a long
Visual basic
CSng Converts a variant to a single
Keyword/Feature Description CStr Converts a variant to a string
Array handling DateSerial Converts a variant to a date
IsArray Returns True if a variable is an array DateValue Converts a variant to a date
Erase Reinitilizes a fixed-size array Hex Converts a variant to a hex string
LBound Returns the lower bound of an array Oct Converts a variant to an octal string
UBound Returns the upper bound of an array Fix Converts a variant to a fixed string
Assignments Int Converts a variant to an integer string
= Assigns a value to a variable Sgn Converts a variant to a single string
Let Assigns a value to a variable TimeSerial Converts a variant to a time
Set Assigns an object to a variable TimeValue Converts a variant to a time
Comments Dates/Times
` Includes inline comments in your script Date Returns the current date
Rem Includes comments in your script Time Returns the current time
Constants/Literals DateSerial Returns a date from its parts
Empty Indicates an uninitialized variable DateValue Returns a date from its value
Nothing Disassociates a variable with an object Day Returns day from a date
Null Indicates a variable with no data Month Returns month from a date
True Boolean True Weekday Returns weekday from a date
False Boolean False Year Returns year from a date
Control flow Hour Returns hour from a time
Do...Loop Repeats a block of statements Minute Returns minute from a time
For...Next Repeats a block of statements Second Returns seconds from a time
For Each...Next Repeats a block of statements Now Returns current date and time
If...Then...Else Conditionally executes statements TimeSerial Returns a time from its parts
Select Case Conditionally executes statements TimeValue Returns a time from its value
While...Wend Repeats a block of statements Declarations
Conversions Dim Declares a variable
Abs Returns absolute value of a number Private Declares script-level private variable
Asc Returns the ASCII code of a character Public Declares public-level public variable
AscB Returns the ASCII code of a character ReDim Reallocates an array
AscW Returns the ASCII code of a character Function Declares a function
Chr Returns a character from an ASCII code Sub Declares a subprocedure
ChrB Returns a character from an ASCII code Error Handling
ChrW Returns a character from an ASCII code On Error Enables error handling
CBool Converts a variant to a boolean Err Contains information about last error
CByte Converts a variant to a byte Input/Output
CDate Converts a variant to a date InputBox Prompts the user for input
CDbl Converts a variant to a double MsgBox Displays a message to the user
Math Strings
Atn Returns the Arctangent of a number Instr Returns index of a string in another
Cos Returns the cosine of a number InStrB Returns index of a string in another
Sin Returns the sine of a number Len Returns the length of a string
Tan Returns the tangent of a number LenB Returns the length of a string
Exp Returns the exponent of a number Lcase Converts a string to lowercase
Log Returns the logarithm of a number Ucase Converts a string to uppercase
Sqr Returns the square root of a number Left Returns the left portion of a string
Randomize Reseeds the randomizer LeftB Returns the left portion of a string
Rnd Returns a random number Mid Returns the mid portion of a string
Operators MidB Returns the mid portion of a string
+ Addition Right Returns the right portion of a string
- Subtraction RightB Returns the right portion of a string
^ Exponentiation Space Pads a string with spaces
Mod Modulus arithmetic StrComp Compares two strings
* Multiplication String Pads a string with a character
/ Division Ltrim Removes leading spaces from a string
\ Integer Division Rtrim Removes trailing spaces from a string
- Negation Trim Removes leading and trailing spaces
& String concatenation Variants
= Equality IsArray Returns True if variable is an array
<> Inequality IsDate Returns True if variable is a date
< Less Than IsEmpty Returns True if variable is empty
<= Less Than or Equal To IsNull Returns True if variable is null.
> Greater Than IsNumeric Returns True if variable is a number
>= Greater Than or Equal To IsObject Returns True if variable is an object
Is Compares expressions VarType Indicates a variable's type
And Compares expressions
Or Compares expressions
Xor Compares expressions
Eqv Compares expressions
Imp Compares expressions
Objects
CreateObject Creates reference to an OLE object
IsObject Returns True if object is valid
Options
Option Explicit Forces explicit variable declaration
Procedures
Call Invokes a subprocedure
Function Declares a function
Sub Declares a subprocedure