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EXAMPLES
Hugh Dougherty
September 2017
Copyright 2017
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLES .....................................................................................................1
1.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Comparison of step response of a PID and Optimal controller for inertia plant ....................................1
CHAPTER 2 - DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION EXAMPLES ................................................................................ 13
2.0 Overview of Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................................... 13
2.1. Differential Equation: with zero initial conditions at time t = 0 ................13
2.2 with zero initial conditions at time t = 0. ......................... 15
2.3. , for t 0 with zero initial conditions at time t =
0 and r(t) = 1 u-1(t). ............................................................................................................................................... 17
2.3.1 Solution for Impulse Response .............................................................................................................. 18
2.3.2 Step Response ........................................................................................................................................ 19
2.3.3 Total solution ......................................................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER 3 - LAPLACE TRANSFORM EXAMPLES ....................................................................................... 23
3.0 Overview of Chapter 3 ............................................................................................................................... 23
3.1 Solve where c(t) = 1, = 1, = 2 ................................... 23
s2 + 3 s + 2
3.2 Solve for c(t) given C(s) = 2000 ............................................................................ 25
s (s + 4) (s2 + 5 s +1000)
3.3 Solve with initial conditions c(0) = 0.01,
= 0.3, = 0.4 ........................................................................................................................................... 27
3.3.1 r(t) is a unit step ..................................................................................................................................... 27
3.3.2 r(t) is a Parabolic Input .......................................................................................................................... 28
s2 +1.012 s + 0.012
3.4 Invert C(s) = 281.25 ....................................................................................... 30
s (s + 0.015) (s 2 +15 s + 225)
3.5 Inverse Laplace transformation of transfer functions in Chapter 1, Section 1.1 .................................. 31
CHAPTER 4 - STATE SPACE EXAMPLES ......................................................................................................... 37
4.0 Overview of Chapter 4 ............................................................................................................................... 37
4.1 State Differential Equation for Coupled Spring Mass System ............................................................... 37
4.1.1 Solution to Part a. State Equations ........................................................................................................ 37
4.1.2 Solution to Part b. Laplace transform from state equations .................................................................. 38
x (0)
4.2 Find the solution of with initial conditions 1 .................................. 39
x (0)
2
4.3 Obtain the transfer function Y(s)/U(s) for the vector differential equation
...................................... 40
4.4 Obtain a state space representation of the system from the block diagram .......................................... 41
4.6 Controller and Observer for Simple Spring Mass System ...................................................................... 42
4.6.1 Controller with full state measurement. ................................................................................................. 44
4.6.2 State Space Approach to ControllerObserver Design .......................................................................... 47
4.6.3 Conventional PID Controller Design. .................................................................................................... 57
Preface
This book contains sample problems to illustrate the control techniques developed in the main volume Control
System Synthesis.
1.0 Introduction
Example 1.1 is a comparison of an optimal controller and a PID controller for a rotational inertia plant.
1.1 Comparison of step response of a PID and Optimal controller for inertia plant
Consider the two control systems in Figure 1.1-1 with command input r(t), output c(t) and disturbance u(t). The
control systems are equivalent in the sense that they have the same linear characteristic equation, and, actuators
and sensors with the same characteristics. The PID controller incorporates limiters to control the response when
either the actuator or sensor saturate. The optimal control, reference: IEEE Control Magazine, August 2013,
Preclassical Tools for Postmodern Control, uses a lead network, but it does not have the structure to allow
mitigating sensor saturation in the event of actuator saturation.
Figure 1.1-1 Equivalent optimal and PID controllers for inertia plant
The conditions on b are b > 1 and (b 1)/2 < 1, or equivalently 1 < b < 3, ensuring a stable pair of complex
conjugate roots.
A. Draw the linear block diagram. Write the linear system closed loop transfer functions C(s)/R(s) and C(s)/U(s) for
each controller configuration.
B. Write the linear differential equations from the above transfer functions using the operator notation s = d()/dt,
s2 = d2()/dt2 and s3 = d3()/dt3. Sketch the closed loop pole-zero patterns.
C. Based on the linear differential equations, what are the character of the zero steady state tracking (step, ramp, and
parabolic inputs), and the steady state step disturbance response of the two control systems?
D. Solve the differential equations corresponding to C(s)/R(s) for each controller using the time domain approach
of a homogeneous and particular solution for a unit step input r(t) = 1 u1(t) and zero initial conditions, i.e.,
c(0) = dc(0)/dt = d2c(0)/dt2 = 0 with u(t) = 0. Set = 2 /2 = 0.707 for the complex conjugate roots.
E. Solve the differential equations corresponding to C(s)/U(s) for each controller using the time domain approach
of a homogeneous and particular solution for a unit step disturbance u(t) = 1 u1(t) and zero initial conditions, i.e.,
c(0) = dc(0)/dt = d2c(0)/dt2 = 0 with r(t) = 0. Set = 2/ 2 = 0.707 for the complex conjugate roots.
Solution. A. The linearized control system block diagrams are shown in Figure 1.1-2.
1 bs +1
C(s) = J ( R(s) - C(s)) 1.1-1
Js 2 s + b
Solving for C(s)
bs +1 bs +1
C(s) 1+ = R(s) 1.1-2
2 2
s (s + b) s (s + b)
or
s3 + bs 2 + bs +1
C(s) = R(s) bs +1 1.1-3
2 2
s (s + b) s (s + b)
The closed loop transfer function is
C(s) bs +1
= 1.1-4
R(s) s + bs2 + bs +1
3
Optimal Controller Closed Loop Transfer Function C(s)/U(s). The closed loop expression written from Figure 2 is
1 bs +1
C(s) = U (s) + J (-C(s)) 1.1-5
Js 2 s+b
Solving for C(s)
bs +1 1
C(s) 1+ = U (s) 1.1-6
2 2
s (s + b) Js
or
s3 + bs 2 + bs +1 1
C(s) =
U (s) 1.1-7
2 2
s (s + b) Js
The closed loop transfer function is
C(s) 1 s+b
= 1.1-8
U (s) J s3 + bs2 + bs +1
PID Controller Closed Loop Transfer Function C(s)/R(s). The closed loop expression written from Figure 2 is
1 1
C(s) = J bs + b+ ( R(s) - C(s)) 1.1-9
Js 2 s
or
s3 + bs2 + bs +1 2
C(s) = R(s) bs + bs +1 1.1-11
s3 s3
C(s) bs2 + bs +1
= 1.1-12
R(s) s3 + bs2 + bs +1
PID Controller Closed Loop Transfer Function C(s)/U(s). The closed loop expression written from Figure 2 is
1 1
C(s) = U (s) + J bs + b+ (-C(s)) 1.1-13
Js 2 s
or
s3 + bs 2 + bs +1 1
C(s) =
U (s) 1.1-15
3 2
s Js
The closed loop transfer function is
C(s) 1 s
= 1.1-16
3 2
U (s) J s + bs + bs +1
B. Differential Equations.
The equations derived from the closed loop transfer functions are in Table 1.1-1.
Table 1.1-1 Differential Equations
Characteristic Equation. All the differential equations (and transfer functions) have the same characteristic
equation.
The symmetry of the coefficients indicate that one root is s = 1. The characteristic equation factors into
The damping and undamped natural frequency of the complex roots are = (b 1)/2 and n = 1, respectively. All
roots are at a radius of 1 from the origin in the s-plane. The roots are (writing the quadratic roots as complex
conjugates).
3 2 b -1 b -1 2 b -1 b -1 2
s + bs + bs +1= (s +1) s + + j 1- s+ - j 1-
2 2 2 2 1.1-23
= (s + n ) s + n + j n 1- 2 s + n - j n 1- 2
Note that the real and imaginary parts set the limits on b, given as 1 < b < 3 in the problem statement.
Closed Loop Zeros of Transfer Functions.
Optimal Controller Input Response. The zero is at s = 1/b.
PID Controller Input Response. The quadratic equation for the zeros is s2 + s + 1/b. The zeros are complex
conjugates at s = 0.5 j(1/b 0.52 )1/2 based on 1 < b < 3.
Optimal Controller Disturbance Response. The zero is at s = b.
PID Controller Disturbance Response. The zero is at s = 0.
C(s)/U(s)
2 2
b-1 j 1- b-1 t b-1 - j 1- b-1 t
- t - t
2 2
ch (t) = k1e-t + k2 e 2 e + k3 e 2 e 1.1-24
- n t - n t j n 1- 2 t - n t - j n 1- 2 t
= k1e + k2 e e + k3 e e
Alternately, the solution can be written in term of a sine and cosine term.
b-1 b-1
- b -1 2 - b -1 2
2 sin t
t t
-t
ch (t) = k1e + k2 e 1- 2 + k3 e
2 cos t 1-
2 1.1-25
- t - t - t
= k1e n + k2 e n sin nt 1- 2 + k3 e n cos nt 1- 2
The ki, i = 1, 2, 3, are determined by the initial conditions once the particular solution is obtain. Note that the values
of the ks in equations 1.1-24 and -25 are not the same value, but are used as the generic unknown in each equation.
The particular solution consists of both a step and an impulse input. The solution for the unit step input is straight
forward, but the impulse requires getting equivalent initial conditions for its solution. That is, while the given initial
conditions are zero, the response due to the impulse can be mathematically represented in terms of an equivalent
initial condition.
Consider first the step input. Assume the particular solution is a constant, cp(t) = d. Substituting in equation 1.1-17
results in d = 1, yielding
c p (t) =1 1.1-26
Since both the optimal controller and PID controller have the same characteristic equation and the input r(t) is a step,
the evaluation to this point applies to both control systems. Their closed loop zeros are different so the values of the
ks are different.
Optimal Controller
The equivalent initial conditions are obtained by expanding the solution for c(t) in a Taylor series about t = 0 and
taking the derivatives.
1.1-27
where i, i = 1, 2, 3, 4, are constants, and, u1(t), u0(t), u1(t), u2(t) are the unit step, impulse, doublet, etc.
Substituting into equation 1.1-17, where the right hand side is the impulse due to the dr(t)/dt term, and grouping
terms
1u2 (t) + u1(t)[ 2 + b1]+ u0 (t)[3 + b 2 + b1]+ u-1(t)[...]+ ... = bu0 (t) 1.1-28
Equating right and left hand sides of the equation yields 1 = 0, 2 = 0, 3 = b. Based on equation 1.1-27, the
equivalent initial conditions are
1.1-29
The total solution, c(t), is the sum of equations 1.1-25 and -26 with the initial conditions in equation 1.1-29.
- n t - nt - t
c(t) = 1+ k1e + k2 e sin nt 1- 2 + k3 e n cos nt 1- 2 1.1-30
The 1st and 2nd derivatives are
1.1-31
1.1-32
k1 + k3 +1 = 0
-k1 n + k2 n 1- 2 - k3 n = 0 1.1-33
k1 n2 - 2k2 1- 2 n2 (2 2 -1) = b
or in matrix form
1 0 1
k1 -1
- 2
n 1- 2
- n k =
n 2 0 1.1-34
2 2 2 2 2 k b
n -2 1- n n (2 -1) 3
1 k1
-1
0 1
-1 0.707 -0.707
2 k = 0 1.1-35
1
-1 0 k3
2.414
1.1-39
Note that since there were 2 zeros there are two initial conditions. The total solution, c(t), and the 1 st and 2nd
derivatives are in equations 1.1-30, -31 and -32. Using the equivalent initial conditions in equation 1.1-39 at time
t=0
k1 + k3 +1 = 0
-k1 n + k2 n 1- 2 - k3 n = b 1.1-40
k1 n2 - 2k2 1- 2
n2 (2 2 -1) = b - b 2
or in matrix form
1 0 1
k1 -1
- 2 n 1- 2 - n k =
n 2 b 1.1-41
2 2 2 2 2 k b - b2
n -2 1- n n (2 -1) 3
Substituting the numeric values of n = 1, = 2 /2 and b = 2 + 1 = 2 +1 yields
1 k1
0 1
-1
-1 0.707 -0.707 k2 = 2.414
1.1-42
1
-1 0 k3 -3.414
Figure 1.1-3 Comparison of Optimal controller and PID controller unit step response
The Optimal control system has an overshoot of approximately 35% and a time to peak of approximately 2.9 sec.
The PID control system has an overshoot of approximately 25% and a time to peak of approximately 1.5 sec.
E. Time Domain Solution for the Step Disturbance u(t) = 1 u-1(t).
Optimal Controller
The particular solution consists of both a step and an impulse input. The solution for the unit step input is straight
forward, but the impulse requires getting equivalent initial conditions for its solution.
Consider first the step input. Assume the particular solution is a constant, c p(t) = d. Substituting in equation 1.1-18
results in d = b/J, yielding
b
c p (t) = 1.1-45
J
The Taylor series of the solution about t = 0 in equation 1.1-27 substituted into equation 1.1-18, where the right
hand side is the impulse due to the dr(t)/dt term, and grouping terms, yields
1
1u2 (t) + u1(t)[ 2 + b1]+ u0 (t)[3 + b 2 + b1]+ u-1(t)[...]+... = u0 (t) 1.1-46
J
Equating right and left hand sides of the equation 1.1-yields 1 = 0, 2 = 0, 3 = 1/J. Based on equation 1.1-27, the
equivalent initial conditions are
1.1-47
The total solution, c(t), is the sum of equations 1.1-25 and -45 with the initial conditions in equation 1.1-47.
c(t) =
b
J
- t - t
( - t
)
+ k1e n + k2 e n sin nt 1- 2 + k3 e n cos nt 1- 2 ( ) 1.1-48
Using the 1st and 2nd derivatives in equations 1.1-31 and -32 and the equivalent initial conditions in equation 1.1-47
at time t = 0 yields
b
k1 + k3 + =0
J
-k1 n + k2 n 1- 2 - k3 n = 0 1.1-49
1
k1 n2 - 2k2 1- 2
n2 (2 2 -1) =
J
or in matrix form
1 0 1
k -b
1 J
- 2 n 1- 2 - n k =
n 2 0 1.1-50
2
n -2 1- 2
n2 n2 (2 2 -1) k3 1
J
1 k1 -2.414
0 1
1
-1 0.707 -0.707 2 =
k 0 1.1-51
1 -1 J
1
0 k3
1.1-55
-k1 n + k2 n 1- 2 - k3 n = 0 1.1-57
1
k1 n2 - 2k2 1- 2
n2 (2 2 -1) =
J
or in matrix form
1 0 1
k1 0
- 2
n 1- 2
- n k = 1
n 2 J 0 1.1-58
2 2 2 2 2 k 1
n -2 1- n n (2 -1) 3
Substituting the numeric values of n = 1, = 2 /2 and b = 2 + 1 = 2 +1 yields
1 k1 0
0 1
1
-1 0.707 -0.707 k2 = 0 1.1-59
1 -1 J
1
0 k3
1
c(t) = [1.707 e-t + 0.707 e-0.707t sin(0.707t) -1.707 e-0.707t cos(0.707t)] 1.1-61
J
Summary of Unit Step Disturbance Response.
The unit disturbance responses of the Optimal and PID controllers are shown in Figure 1.1-4.
Figure 1.1-4 Comparison of Optimal controller and PID controller unit disturbance responses
Solve the differential equations using the homogeneous and particular solution method. Sketch the response c(t).
Solution.
The total solution is given by a combination of the homogeneous and particular solutions.
Homogeneous Solution: Assume a solution, ch(t), of the form
ch (t) = ki es t
Substitute it into the homogeneous differential equation
s 2 +10 s + 100 = 0
Solving
( s + 5+ j 75) (s + 5- j 75) = 0
The roots are 5 j8.6603, indicating an underdamped sinusoidal homogeneous solution where
= 0.5 , n = 10
Closed loop pole, i.e., closed loop root, locations are shown in Figure 2.1-1.
2nd order j
2 1/2
closed n (1 )
loop root
-n
(
- 5 + j 75 t
ch (t) = k1 e
) + k2 e
(
- 5 - j 75 t )
The constants ki, i = 1, 2, are used to adjust for the initial conditions once the particular solution is determined.
Particular Solution. The assumed particular solution, cp(t), consists of the input and all its derivatives. Since the
input is a constant, the assumed particular solution is also a constant
c p (t) = B
ej 75 t
- e- j 75 t
ej 75 t
- e- j 75 t
sin 75 t = , cos 75 t =
j2 2
yields
75 - 5 t
c(t) = - e sin 75 t - e- 5 t cos 75 t +1
15
The response c(t) is shown in Figure 2.1-2.
14 Hugh Dougherty, September 2017
Control System Examples Chapter 2 Differential Equations
Solve the differential equations using the homogeneous and particular solution method. Sketch the response c(t).
Solution. The total solution is given by a combination of the homogeneous and particular solutions.
Homogeneous Solution. Assume a solution of the form
ch (t) = ki es t
Substituting into the homogeneous differential equation
yielding
( )
ki es t s3 +110 s2 +1100 s + 10000 = 0
Since the exponential term cannot be zero, the polynomial must be zero.
( s +100) ( s + 5+ j )(
75 s + 5- j 75 = 0 )
Note that the complex conjugate roots are the same as for problem 2.1where
= 0.5 , n = 10
with the addition of a "fast root", i.e., "fast" closed loop pole, at s = 100.
"Fast" Closed
Loop Root
100 - n
ch (t) = k1 e
(
- 5 + j 75 t ) + k2 e
(
- 5 - j 75 t) + k3 e- 100 t
The constants are used to adjust for the initial conditions once the particular solution is determined.
Particular Solution. The assumed particular solution consists of the input and all its derivatives. Since the input is
a constant, the assumed particular solution is also a constant
c p (t) = B
Solving
k - 1 99
- 100 -0.4956 - j 0.34546
1 1 1 1
k = - 5- j 75 - 5+ j 75 -100 = -0.4956 - j 0.34546
2
0
k3 - 50 + j 2 1875 - 50 - j 2 1875 10000 -0.010879
0
ej 75 t
- e- j 75 t
ej 75 t
- e- j 75 t
sin 75 t = , cos 75 t =
j2 2
yields
c(t)
time (sec)
Difference
in c(t)
for Prob. 2.1
and Prob. 2.2
time (sec)
where u0(t) is the unit impulse, and the step response given by
where u-1(t), u0(t), u1(t), and u2(t) are the unit step, impulse, doublet and triplet function, respectfully, and the 's are
constants. Substituting into the differential equation
1 u2 (t) + 2 u1(t) + 3 u0 (t) + ...+100 (1 u1(t) + 2 u0 (t) + 3 u- 1(t) + ...)
+ 200 (1 u0 (t) + 2 u- 1(t) + 3 t +...) + 500 1 u- 1(t) + 2 t + 3 t 2 + ... = 50 u0 (t)
2
Grouping
1 u2 (t) + ( 2 +100 1 ) u1(t) + (3 +100 2 + 200 1 ) u0 (t) + ... = 50 u0 (t)
Equating coefficients associated with the impulse, doublet and triplet functions on the right and left hand side of the
equation, yields
1 = 0 , 2 = 0 , 3 = 50
The initial conditions are
The particular solution is zero since the impulse forcing function has been replaced by an equivalent initial
condition. The homogeneous solution of
c(t) = ki es t
yields the characteristic equation
Evaluating using the initial conditions to solve for the constants A1, A2 and A3.
In matrix form
1 0 1 k1 0
- 98.0115 2.0280 - 0.99426 k2 = 0
9606.25 - 4.03278 - 3.1243 k 50
3
Solving for the constants
k
1 0.0053098
k = 0.254014
2
k3 - 0.0053098
yields
c(t) = 0.0053098 e- 98.0115 t - 0.0053098 e- 0.99426 t cos 2.0280 t + 0.254014 e- 0.99426 t sin 2.0280 t
The response is given in Figure 2.3.1-1.
c(t)
time
is
where k0, k1, k2 and k3 are constants. k0 is set by the particular solution and k1, k2 and k3 are determined to satisfy
the zero-valued initial conditions. Since the coefficients of the c(t) and r(t) term are equal, k 0 = 1. The relationships
for the initial conditions are
In matrix form
1 0 1 k1 1
- 98.0115 2.0280 - 0.99426 k2 = 0
9606.25 - 4.03278 - 3.1243 k 0
3
Solving
k
1 0.00054176
k = 0.51618
2
k3 0.99946
c(t) = 0.00054176 e- 98.0115 t - 0.999458 e- 0.99426 t cos 2.0280 t - 0.51618 e- 0.99426 t sin 2.0280 t +1
The step response is shown in Figure 2.3.2-1.
1.4
1.2
c(t)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
time
c(t) = 0.004768 e- 98.0115 t -1.0048 e- 0.99426 t cos 2.0280 t - 0.2622 e- 0.99426 t sin 2.0280 t +1
1.4
c(t) 1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
time
Solution:
Laplace transforming the equation
(
C(s) s3 +5 s2 + 7 s + 3 - s2 - 4 s = 20 ) 2
1
s +1
Solving for C(s)
1 s (s - 4)
C(s) = 20 +
(s +5 s + 7 s + 3 ) (s +1) s + 5 s2 + 7 s + 3
3 2 2 3
The first term is the forced response and the second term is due to the initial conditions. Collecting terms
s (s + 4) (s2 +1) + 20
C(s) =
(s +1)2 (s + 3) (s2 +1)
Partial fraction expansion yields
b g h s+l
C(s) = + + +
s + 3 (s +1) 2 s +1 s2 +1
where the form of the last term is that of a sine and cosine term with the root at s = j1 Equating the two
expressions for C(s)
s (s + 4) (s 2 +1) + 20 b (s + 3) g (s + 3) h s + l
= + + + (s + 3)
2 2
(s +1) (s +1) (s +1)2 s +1 s 2 +1
To determine the values of h and l, multiply by s2+1 and evaluate at the complex root s = j1.
s (s + 4) (s2 +1) + 20 (s 2 +1) b (s 2 +1) g (s 2 +1)
= + + +h s + l
(s + 3) (s +1)2 s+3 (s +1)2 s +1
s =- j s =- j
The sum of the real and the sum of the imaginary parts must both be zero, hence, l = -1 h = -
The partial fraction expansion is
1 1 7 1 17 1 3 s +1
C(s) = - + + -
4 s + 3 2 (s +1) 2 4 s +1 s2 +1
Inverse transforming
1 7 17
C(s) = - e- 3 t + t e- t + e- t - sin t - 3 cos t
4 2 4
The response c(t) is shown in Figure 3.1-1.
c(t)
time
s2 + 3 s + 2
3.2 Solve for c(t) given C(s) = 2000
s (s + 4) (s2 + 5 s +1000)
Solution: The form is ideal for inversion to an exponentially damped sine and cosine by making the numerator term
with the s contain a factor equal to n of the quadratic denominator term. Completing the square in the
denominator term yields the roots
5 1 5 1
s + + j 3975 s + - j 3975
2 2 2 2
The transform can be rewritten as
s2 + 3 s + 2
C(s) = 2000
2
5 3975
(s + 4) s + +
2 4
Partial fraction expanding
h b s +g
C(s) = + +
s s + 4 5 2 3975
s + +
2 4
Equating these two expressions for C(s)
s2 + 3 s + 2 h b s +g
2000 = + +
5 3975 s s + 4 5 3975
2 2
(s + 4) s + + s + +
2 4 2 4
2 2
2 h 5 3975 5 3975
2000 s + 3 s + 2 = s + + + s + + + b s + g
(s + 4) s = 5 - j 3975 s 2 4 s + 4 2 4
2 2
s = 5 - j 3975
2 2
yielding
5
- g + b +1993+ j
2
1
2 ( 3975 b -126.9 = 0 )
Setting the real and imaginary terms to zero, yields
5
b = 2.012 , - g + b +1993 = 0
2
Evaluating, g = 1998. The coefficient to the 1/s term is evaluated from
s2 + 3 s + 2 h
2000 b s +g
+ +
5 3975
2
= s s + 4 5 3975
2
(s + 4) s + +
2 s + +
4 2 4 s = 0
s = 0
3975
1 250 1 2 s
C(s) = - + 63.22 + 2.012
s 83 s + 4 2
5 3975 2
5 3975
s + + s + +
2 4 2 4
Inverse transforming
5 5
- t 3975 - t 3975
-4t
C(s) = 1- 3.012 e + 63.22 e 2 sin t + 2.012 e 2 cos t
2 2
Note that as time increases, the solution approaches the steady state value 1. The response c(t) is shown in Figures
3.2-1 and -2.
c(t)
time (sec)
where a.) r(t) = u-1 (t); the unit step function, and b.) r(t) = 0.5 t2; a parabolic input
The Laplace transform of the differential equation is
or
The first term on the right hand side is the forcing due to r(t) and the second term is due to the initial conditions.
Substituting the initial conditions into the equation
A B D D*
C(s) = + + +
s s + 0.01 s + 4 - j 9.165 s + 4 + j 9.165
where D* is the complex conjugate of D.
Thus
1 0.01089 - 0.5104 + j 0.20639 - 0.5104 + j 0.20639
C(s) = + + +
s s + 0.01 s + 4 - j 9.165 s + 4 + j 9.165
Inverse transforming
c(t) = 1+ 0.0108 e- 0.01 t - 0.5104 (e(- 4 + j 9.165) t + e(- 4 - j 9.165) t ) - j 0.20639 (e(- 4 + j 9.165) t - e(- 4 - j 9.165) t )
or
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (sec)
Figure 3.3.1-1 Step response
A B CC D E E*
C(s) = + + + + +
s3 s 2 s s + 0.01 s + 4 - j 9.165 s + 4 + j 9.165
where E* is the complex conjugate of E. Evaluating the coefficients
- 0.01 s3 + 0.2199 s 4 +1.0022 s3 +100.08 s +1
A= =1
(s + 001) (s + 4 - j 9.165) (s + 4 + j 9.165)
s=0
d - 0.01 s3 + 0.2199 s4 +1.0022 s3 +100.08 s +1
B = =0
ds (s + 001) (s + 4 - j 9.165) (s + 4 + j 9.165)
s=0
1 d - 0.01 s + 0.2199 s +1.0022 s +100.08 s +1
2 3 4 3
CC = = - 8.01
2 ds 2 (s + 001) (s + 4 - j 9.165) (s + 4 + j 9.165)
s=0
- 0.01 s3 + 0.2199 s4 +1.0022 s3 +100.08 s +1
D = = 8.016
s3 (s + 001) (s + 4 - j 9.165) (s + 4 + j 9.165)
s = -0.01
- 0.01 s3 + 0.2199 s 4 +1.0022 s3 +100.08 s +1
E = = - 0.0082 + j 0.01716
s3 (s + 001) (s + 4 + j 9.165)
s = -4+ j 9.165
c(t) = 0.5 t 2 -8.01 + 8.01 e- 0.01 t - 0.0164 e- 4 t cos 9165 t + 0.0343 e- 4 t sin 9165 t
The error in tracking the input is shown in Figure 3.3.2-1. The error is given by
e (t) = 8.01 -8.01 e- 0.01 t + 0.0164 e- 4 t cos 9165 t - 0.0343 e- 4 t sin 9165 t
10
Error
8
0
0 500 1000 1500
Time (sec)
Figure 3.3.2-1 Error in tracking parabolic input
s2 +1.012 s + 0.012
3.4 Invert C(s) = 281.25
s (s + 0.015) (s 2 +15 s + 225)
Partial fraction expansion of the expression yields
1 1 1 s
C(s) = + 0.2465 + 262.6 -1.2465
s s + 0.015 2
s +15 s + 225 2
s +15 s + 225
Each term can be inverted using a table of transforms, yielding
C(s) = 1+ 0.2465 e- 0.015 t + 20.93 e- 7.5 t sin 12.99 t -1.2465 e- 7.5 t cos 12.99 t
The graph of the response is shown in Figure 3.4-1. The plot of the pole-zero pattern is given in Figure 3.4-2. The
large overshoot and undershoot are due to the poor pole-zero geometry.
12
10
6
c(t)
4
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
time (sec)
A B D F
C(s) = + + + 3.5-7
s s + n s + + j 1- 2 s + - j 1- 2
n n n n
Table 3.5-1 Closed loop transfer functions
C(s)/U(s) 1 s+b 1 s + 2 +1
=
J s3 + bs2 + bs +1 J (s + )(s2 + 2 s + 2 ) 3.5-2
n n n
PID Controller
C(s)/R(s)
bs 2 + bs +1 (2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1
= 3.5-3
s3 + bs 2 + bs +1 (s + n )(s2 + 2 ns + n2 )
C(s)/U(s) 1 s 1 s
=
J s3 + bs2 + bs +1 J (s + )(s2 + 2 s + 2 ) 3.5-4
n n n
To simplify the evaluation of the residues D and F for the complex conjugate terms, the numeric values for and n
are used.
Evaluating
(2 +1)s +1
A= =1 3.5-8
(s + )(s2 + 2 s + 2 )
n n n
s=0
n =1
2
=
2
(2 +1)s +1
B= = 2.414
s(s2 + 2 s + 2 ) s=-n 3.5-9
n
n =1
n
2
=
2
(2 +1)s +1
D= = -1.707
2 s=- n - j n 1- 2 3.5-10
s(s + n )(s + n - j n 1- ) =1
n
2
=
2
(2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1
C(s) = 3.5-14
s(s + n )(s2 + 2 ns + n2 )
To simplify the evaluation of the residues D and F for the complex conjugate terms, the numeric values for and n
are used.
Evaluating
(2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1
A= =1
(s + )(s2 + 2 s + 2 ) s=0 3.5-16
n n n =1
n
2
=
2
(2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1
B= = -1.707
s(s2 + 2 s + 2 ) s=- n 3.5-17
n n =1
n
2
=
2
(2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1
D = = 0.3536 + j8536
2 s=- n - jn 1- 2 3.5-18
s(s + n )(s + n - j n 1- ) =1
n
2
=
2
To simplify the evaluation of the residues D and F for the complex conjugate terms, the numeric values for and n
are used.
Evaluating
1 s + 2 +1 2.414
A= =
J (s + )(s 2 + 2 s + 2 ) s=0 J 3.5-24
n n n n =1
2
=
2
1 s + 2 +1 -2.414
B= =
J s(s2 + 2 s + 2 ) s=- n J 3.5-25
n n n =1
2
=
2
1 s + 2 +1 - j1.707
D= =
J s(s + )(s + - j 1- 2 ) s=-n - j n 1- 2 J 3.5-26
n n n =1
n
2
=
2
The individual complex conjugate terms are grouped above in the form of the damped sinusoidal terms, but as
observed there is no transform corresponding to the damped cosine term. Using the inverse Laplace transform table
c(t) =
1
J (
2.414 - 2.414e-t - 3.414e-0.707t sin(0.707t) ) 3.5-28
PID Controller C(s)/U(s) Unit Step response. The unit step response transform is
1 s 1 1
C(s) = = 3.5-29
J s(s3 + bs2 + bs +1) J s3 + (2 +1)s2 + (2 +1)s +1
B D F
C(s) = + + 3.5-31
s + n s + + j 1- 2 s + - j 1- 2
n n n n
To simplify the evaluation of the residues D and F for the complex conjugate terms, the numeric values for and n
are used.
Evaluating
1 1 1.707
B= =
J s2 + 2 + 2 s=- n J 3.5-32
n n n =1
2
=
2
1 1 -0.836 + j0.3536
D= =
J (s + )(s + - j 1- 2 ) s=- n - j n 1- 2 J 3.5-33
n n n =1
n
2
=
2
The individual complex conjugate terms are grouped above in the form of the damped sinusoidal terms. Using the
inverse Laplace transform table
c(t) =
1
J (
1.707e-t + 0.707e-0.707t sin(0.707t) -1.707e-0.707t cos(0.707t) ) 3.5-35
f2 k2
m2
k1
y2 b1
m1
y1
f1
For mass m2
In matrix formulation
X1(s)
2
(m2 s + b1 s + k2 ) F1(s) + b1 s F2 (s)
X 2 (s) 1 s (m2 s 2 + b1 s + k2 ) F1(s) + b1 s2 F2 (s)
=
X 3 (s) b s F (s) + (m s 2 + b s + k ) F (s)
1 1 1 1 1 2
X 4 (s) 2 2
b1 s F1(s) + s (m1 s + b1 s + k1 ) F2 (s)
where
Solving for the Laplace transform of the displacements, where X1(s) = Y1(s) and X3(s) = Y2(s)
Y1 (s) = X1(s) =
1
( ) 1
(
(m2 s2 + b1 s + k2 ) F1 (s) + b1 s F2 (s) , Y2 (s) = X 3 (s) = b1 s F1(s) + (m1 s2 + b1 s + k1 ) F2 (s)
)
x (0)
4.2 Find the solution of with initial conditions 1
x (0)
2
4.3 Obtain the transfer function Y(s)/U(s) for the vector differential equation
(s + 2) (s + 3) 0 s+2
1 0
= s+3 (s +1) (s + 3) 1 0 U (s)
(s +1) (s + 2) (s + 3)
0 0 (s +1) (s + 2) 1
s+ 2
1
= 1 U (s)
(s +1) (s + 2) (s + 3)
(s +1) (s + 2)
Substituting into the expression for y using the fact that both y and u are scalars
s+ 2
Y (s) 1 s+3 1
= 1 1 0 1 = =
U (s) (s +1) (s + 2) (s + 3) (s +1) (s + 2) (s +1) (s + 2) (s + 3) (s +1) (s + 2)
4.4 Obtain a state space representation of the system from the block diagram
The block diagram is shown in Figure 4.4-1
u + e m y
s+z 1
s+p s2
Collecting the highest derivative of y with the derivatives of u on the left hand side, results in
The differential equation is used to construct the block diagram in Figure 4.4-2, where the state variables are defined
as the output of the integrators.
u
zp 1
x3 x2 x1
+
yu
yu + y y y
1 1 1
s + s s
+
p
+ +
Rearranging
Using this relationship, the block diagram in Figure 4.4-1 can be redrawn a shown in Figure 4.4-3.
x3 x2 x1
u + e + me me +m y
y
1 1 1
zp
s + s s
Note that the state variables are not unique as the two methods resulted in different definitions of the square matrix.
Y(s) 1 s s
= 1 0 =
s +5 s + 7 s + 7 s + 5 s + 7
U(s) 2 2
b k
y(t)
u(t) fd(t)
or in matrix formulation
X (s) s -1 - 1 0 0
1 = k x1(0)
b + 1 u(t) + 1 f d (t)
X (t) s+
2 m m x2 (0) m m
No Controller. Solving for X(s) with U(s) = 0
X (s) s -1 - 1 0
1 = k x1(0)
b u(t) + 1 f d (t)
X (t) s+
2 m m x2 (0) m
Evaluating the inverse matrix
s -1 - 1 s+ b 1
1 m
k s+
b = k
2 b k
m m s + s+ - s
m m m
Without the control force, U(s), to modify the dynamics, the uncontrolled spring-mass plant has the second order
parameters
k 1 b
n = , =
plant m plant 2 km
Assume the problem is consistent with a 5 Hz undamped natural frequency and 15% overshoot, i.e., the value of
k, b and m provides low damping and a frequency less than 5 Hz requiring the control system to modify the
response. Hence, relative to the controller design parameters
k 1 b
n >> , >>
m 2 km
b k
m
fd u
Control
signal
m y = x1
k1
Position
Measurement k2
x2
s
A. Physical Block Diagram Velocity
Measurement
fd
ycmd = 0 e u+ +
+ y = x2
k1 +
m 1 1 1 y = x1
+ x1 m s s
+
k2 b
m
x2 Control
s
Signal k
Velocity m
Measurement
The block diagram of the control system is shown in Figure 4.6.1-1. Figure 4. 6.1-1A shows a block diagram with
the physical representation of the spring-mass-damper while Figure 4.6.1-1B shows the mathematical block
diagram.
Laplace Transforming with initial conditions on the state variables x1(0) and x2(0)
X (s) 0 1 0 x (0)
X1(s)
s 1
= + 1 Fd (s) + 1
X (s) - k1 - k - k2 - b
X (s) x (0)
2 m m 2 m 2
X (s) s -1 - 1 0 x (0)
1 = X1(s)
+ 1 Fd (s) + 1
X (s) k1 + k s + k2 +
b
X (s) x (0)
2 m m 2 m 2
or
b
s + k2 +
1 m 1
2 b k 2 b k 2 b k
X (s) s + k2 + m s + k1 + m s + k2 + s + k1 +
m m
s + k2 + m s + k1 + m
1 = 1 F (s) + x (0) + x (0)
X (s) m s d k 1 s 2
2 k1 +
m
s2 + k + b s + k + k - s 2 + k + b s + k + k
2
m 1
m s 2 + k + b s + k + k
2
m 1
m
2 1
m m
Setting the denominator equal to the standard second order parameters, i.e.,
b k
s2 + k2 + s + k1 + = s2 + 2 n s + n2
m m
yields
k b
k1 = n2 - , k2 = 2 n -
m m
substituting into the transform
s + 2 n
1 1
X (s) s + 2 n s + n2
2 s + 2 n s + n2
2 s + 2 n s + n2
2
1 = 1 Fd (s) + x1(0) + x2 (0)
X (s) m s n2 s
2 -
s2 + 2 s + 2 2 2 s2 + 2 s + 2
n n s + 2 n s + n n n
Initial Condition Response. Assuming fd(t) = 0, and using the initial conditions x1(0) 0 and x2(0) = 0
s + 2 n
X (s) s 2 + 2 s + 2
1 = n n
x1 (0)
X (s) 2
2 - n
2 2
s + 2 n s + n
The zero at s = 2 n will increase the overshoot relative to a second order system with no zero, hence the
damping ratio must be chosen to compensate for this increase in overshoot. Using the Figures in Chapter 2, section
2.4.2, choose = 0.65 and n = 31.4. Hence
s + 40.841
Y (s) = x1(0)
2
s + 40.841 s + 986.96
Let x1(0) = 1. Partial fraction expanding
40.841 s
Y (s) = +
2 2
s + 40.841 s + 986.96 s + 40.841 s + 986.96
Inverting
y(t)
time (sec)
m
Disturbance Response. Assume zero initial conditions. For a step disturbance of amplitude m, i.e., Fd (s) =
s
1
1 = (
X (s) s s 2 + 2 s + 2
n n )
X (s) 1
2
2 2
s + 2 n s + n
Inverting
1 1 - n t - n t
y(t) = - e cos n 1- 2 t - e sin n 1- 2 t
n2 n2 1- 2
n
1
The response y(t) has a non-zero steady value, , indicating a proportional-derivative (PD) controller cannot
2n
provide zero steady state error for a step disturbance. Evaluating the expression for y(t)
y(t) = 0.001- 0.001 e- 20.42 t cos ( 23.87 t ) - 0.00087e- 20.42 t sin ( 23.87 t )
c(t)
1
n2
time (sec)
where
0 1
1 0 1 0
A= k b , B = m , C= , H = 1 0
- m - m 1 m 1
An observer is used to construct the state variables x1(t) and x2(t). The estimated state vector, x(t) , is the output of
the observer whose state differential equation is
dx(t)
= A x(t) + B u(t) + G ( y(t) - y(t)) = A x(t) + B u(t) + G ( x1(t) - x(t)) = ( A - G H ) x(t) + B u(t) + G y(t)
dx
where G = [g1 g2]T is the observer gain vector selected by the designer. The observer is "driven" by the error,
y(t) H x(t) , between the measured output y(t) and the estimated output x1(t) .
dx(t)
= ( A - G K - G H ) x(t)+ G y(t)
dx
The form of the controller-observer system is shown in Figure 4.6.2.1-1. The analogy with the conventional
proportionalintegralderivative (PID) controller paths is shown.
Since the characteristic equations of the controller and observer error are decoupled, the observer and controller
gains can be selected independently.
Observer Plant
Plant Model Controller
for Estimator
Position
Disturbance y = x1
"derivative"
k2 fd
y = x2
^ ^ u
u + x x1 + 1
1 1 2 1 k1 1 1
s m m
m s +
+
s s
+ b
+ "proportional" b
+ m + m
k + Damper
m Control k
g2 g1 ^ Signal m
x1
Spring
+ y
error = y x^ 1
1 g
1 0 0 1 0 b b k
s I 2 - ( A- G H )) = s - k +
b = s2 + g1 + s + g2 + g1 +
0 1 - - g 0 m m m
m m 2
"Arbitrarily" make the observer "a" times faster, where, a > 1, than the controller, i.e., make the observer undamped
natural frequency "a n", while maintaining the same damping, , as for the controller
b b k
g1 + = 2 ( a n ) , g2 + g1 + = a 2 n2
m m m
Solving for the observer gains
b b b2 k
g1 = 2 ( a n ) - , g2 = a 2 n2 - 2 a n + +
m m 2 m
The observer gain is
b
2 ( a n ) -
m
G = 2
a2 2 - 2 b a + b + k
n n
m 2 m
s 2 + 2 a n s + a 2 n2
Controller Design. The controller characteristic equation is
1 -1
1 0 0 0 0
s
2 b k
s I 2 - ( A- B K ) = s - k b + = k b = s + k2 + s + k1 +
0 1 - - k k
1 2 k + s + k + m m
m m 1
m 2
m
s I 2 - ( A- B K ) = s2 + 2 n s + n2
( )
-1
U (s) = - K X (s) = - K s I 2 - ( A- B K - G H ) G Y(s)
where U(s) and Y(s) are scalars. This can be written as the transfer function
U (s)
( )
-1
= - K s I2 - ( A - B K - G H ) G
Y (s)
Hugh Dougherty, September 2017 49
Chapter 4 State Variables Control System Examples
s + g1 -1 - 1
U (s) g1
= - m k1
k2 = - m ( k g + k g ) s + k b - k k g + k g
k b
g2
1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1
Y (s) g2 + k1 + s + k2 + (s) m m
m m
where
b b k
(s) = s2 + k2 + g1 + s + k1 + g 2 + k2 g1 + g1 +
m m m
Using the grouping of terms as a "position" and "rate" path yields the controller structure in Figure 4.6.2.1-2. The
rate path has a zero in the right-half plane.
"position path"
b ^
g2 + k 2 + x1
g1 (s + m
k1 Position
g1
Disturbance y = x1
s2 + (g1 + k2 + b ) s + g2 + k1 + g1 k2 fd
m y = x2
u
+
+ 1 + 1 1
"rate path" m m s
s
g1
g2 (s (k1 + k ) ) x^2 b
g2 m k2 + m
+ Damper
s2 + (g1 + k2 + b ) s + g2 + k1 + g1 k2
m Control k
Signal m
Spring
y
Note, relative to the standard form of the state equation, = A x(t) + B u(t), y(t) = H x(t), the augmented matrices
are
0 1 0 0
k b 1 , B = 1 , H =
A= -
m -m m m 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
An observer is used to construct the two unobserved state variables x2 and x3. The estimated state vector, x(t) , is
the output of the observer whose state differential equation is
dx(t)
= A x(t) + B u(t) + G ( y(t) - y(t)) = A x(t) + B u(t) + G ( x1(t) - x(t)) = ( A - G H ) x(t) + B u(t) + G y(t)
dx
g
1
G = g2
g3
where G, the observer gain vector, is selected by the designer. The observer is "driven" by the error y(t) x1(t)
between the measured output y(t) and the estimated output y(t) = H x(t) .
where the designer selects the row vector of gains, K. Substituting the control into the observer equation and using
the relationship y(t) = H x(t) , results in
dx(t)
= ( A - B K - G H ) x(t) + G y(t)
dx
The form of the controller-observer system is shown in Figure 4.6.2.2-1. The analogy with the conventional
proportionalintegralderivative (PID) controller paths is shown. Since x 3 (t) = fd (t) , i.e., x 3 (t) is the estimate of
the disturbance that the controller is to null, choose k3 = 1/m.
Since the characteristic equations of the controller and observer error are decoupled, the observer and controller
gains can be selected independently.
Observer Plant
Torque Plant Model Controller
Estimate for Estimator
"integral"
k3 Position
Disturbance y = x1
u "derivative"
k2 fd
+ y = x2
^x ^
x
^
x1 u
1 3 1 + 1 2 + 1
1
s k1 m
1
m
1
s + m+ s + s s
+
b "proportional" b
+ m m
+
k + Damper
m Control k
g3 g2 g1 m
^ Signal
x1
Spring
+ y
error = y x^ 1
By analogy with the conventional PID, the integral term is "slow." Hence, assuming one root is slower than the
second order response yields the approximate factors of the equation as
g3
b b k g b b k
s3 + g1 + s2 + g2 + g1 + s + 3 s2 + g1 + s + g2 + g1 + s + m
m m m m m m m b k
g2 + g1 +
m m
To make the extra terms added by the approximation "small", the gain g3 is chosen such that
2
b k
g2 + g1 +
g3 b b k g m m
<< g1 + g2 + g1 + and 3 <<
m m m m m b
g1 +
m
Using the approximate quadratic term, "arbitrarily" make the observer "a" times faster, where, a > 1, than the
controller, i.e., make the observer undamped natural frequency "a n", while maintaining the same damping, , as
for the controller
b b k
g1 + = 2 a n , g2 + g1 + = a 2 n2
m m m
Solving for the observer gains
b b b2 k
g1 = 2 a n - , g2 = a 2 n2 - 2 a n + -
m m m2 m
Using these values, the relationship for the gain g3 to be "small" given above is
g3 g 1 3 3
<< 2 a3 n3 and 3 << a n
m m 2
Let the exponential root in the approximation for the observer error characteristic equation be l a n. Then g3/m is
given by
g3 b k
= l a n g2 + g1 + = l a3 n3
m m m
where l is selected to be "small" to satisfy the inequality relationship for g3/m. The approximate observer gain is
b
2 a n -
m
b b2 k
G = a 2 n2 - 2 a n + -
m m2 m
m l a3 n3
( s + 2 a s + a ) ( s + l a )
2
n
2 2
n n
(
s I3 - ( A - B K ) = s s2 + 2 n s + n2 )
Form of the Controller. The controller in Laplace notation is given by
( )
-1
U (s) = -K X (s) = -K s I3 - ( A - B K - G H ) G Y (s)
where U(s) and Y(s) are scalars. This can be written as the transfer function
U (s)
( )
-1
= -K s I3 - ( A - B K - G H ) G
Y (s)
Substituting the values for gains
s + g1 -1 0 - 1
g1
U (s) k b 1
= - m k1 k2 k3 g2 + k1 + s + k2 + k3 - g
Y (s) m m m 2
g3 0 s g3
m g b k k bg k g
=- k1g1 + k2 g2 + 3 s2 + k1 - k2 g1 + k1g2 + k2 + + 3 s + k1 + 3
(s) m m m m m m m m
where
b k b
(s) = s s2 + k2 + g1 + s + k1 + + g2 + k2 + g1
m m m
Using the approximations that b/m and k/m are "small" relative to the other terms.
U (s)
= - m
( )
2 + l a 2 + 2 a a 3 s2 + 1+ 2 l a a 2 4 s + l a3 5
n ( ) n n
Y (s)
( 2
(
s s + 2 n ( a +1) s + a + 4 a +1 n
2 2 2
) )
Using the approximations b/m and k/m are smaller relative to the other terms
s
+1
2 1
(
X1(s) a a + 4
=
2
)
n a + 4 2
Y (s) a 2 + 4 2 a +1 s2 2 a +1
+ s +1
n2 ( )
a 2 + 4 2 a +1 n a + 4+ a +1
2 2
Rate Estimate Path. Note the zero in the right half of the s-plane
k
g2 s - k1 + g1
X 2 (s) m
=
Y (s) b b k
s 2 + g1 + k2 + s + g2 + k2 + g1 + k1 +
m m m
Using the approximations b/m and k/m are smaller relative to the other terms, obtain
s
-1
2
n
X 2 (s) 2 a n a
=
Y (s) a 2 + 4 2 a +1 s2 2 ( a +1)
+ s +1
n2 ( ) ( )
a 2 + 4 2 a +1 n a 2 + 4 2 a +1
Integral: Disturbance Estimate Path. Note the integration "s" in the denominator.
b k
g1 s2 + k2 + s + k1 +
X 3 (s) m m
=
Y (s) 2 b b k
s s + g1 + k2 + s + g2 + k2 + g1 + k1 +
m m m
Using the approximations b/m and k/m are smaller relative to the other terms, obtain
s2 2
+ s +1
X 3 (s) l a n 3
n2 n
=m
Y (s) a + 4 2 a +1
2
2 ( a +1)
s2
s + s +1
2 2
(
n a + 4 a +1 n a + 4 a +1
2 2 2
)
( )
Figures 4.6.2.2-2 and -3 show the control system with the position, rate and integral paths.
"integral path"; disturbance estimate
k
g3 (s2 + (k2 + b ) s + k 1 + ) k3
m m
^ Position
s x3
Disturbance y = x1
"position path" fd
y = x2
b ^ u
g2 + k 2 + x1 + 1
g1 (s + m ) k1 1 1
m m
g1 s s
b
"rate path" + m
g1 + Damper
g2 (s (k + k ) ) ^
x2 Control k
g2 1 m k2 Signal m
Spring
y
b
= s2 + (g1 + k 2 + ) s + g 2 + k1 + g1( k2 + b ) + k
m m m
s2 2 (a + 1)
= + s+1
n2(a2 + 4 2 a + 1) n
(a2 + 4 2 a + 1)
where the error is given by e(t) = r(t) y(t). For comparison with the other controllers, let Kp = m k1, Kr = m k2, and
Ki = m k3. The command input to the control system is denoted by r(t) and is assumed to be zero, i.e., the control
system is a regulator control system designed to hold the mass m at its zero position. The position gain K p is
selected to modify the undamped natural frequency, the rate gain Kr to improve the damping, and the integral gain
Ki to yield a small residue of the "slow" closed loop pole. The block diagram of the compensated system is shown
in Figure 4.6.3-1 where it is assumed that position and velocity measurements are available.
The plant differential equation is
Substituting the control signal u(t) with r(t) = 0 into the equation yields
Differentiating once to remove the integral results in the 3rd order differential equation
or
if the conditions
2
k
( )m k1 +
2
Kp +k m m n3
= =
Kr + b b 2
K i << k2 +
m
( K p + k ) ( Kr - b) = m k + k k b 3
= 2 m n
1 2+
m m m
are satisfied. Choose the slow root to be at n, where << 1. The transform for Y(s) using these
approximations is
y(0)
Y (s)
s + n
and
- n t
y(t) = y(0) e
The initial condition response is dominated by the integral term.
Disturbance response. The disturbance input transform is approximately
Y (s) s s
=
1
m
Fd (s) 2 b
s + k2 + s + k1 +
k
k
2
(
k s + 3 s + 2 n s + n ( s + n )
2
)
m m k1 +
m
For an undamped natural frequency of 5 Hz, n = 31.416 r/s and for 15% overshoot 0.52.
The gains are
k b
k1 = 31.416 2 - , k2 = 32.673-
m m
k3/m must satisfy
2
k
m k +
1
m 3
= n = 29813.7
k3 b 2
<< k2 +
m m
k b
m k1 + k2 + = 2 m n3 = 32246.5
m m
Inverse transforming
The response y(t) to a unit step disturbance goes to zero as time approaches infinity, i.e., is zero in the steady state.
The response is shown in Figure 4.6.3-2. Note the "fast" second order response followed by the "slow exponential
root", which causes a "tail" on the response.
y(t)
0.0025
0.002
0.0015
0.001
0.0005
time (sec)
U (s) k k s2 + k s + k
= - m k1 + 3 + k2 s = - m 2 1 3
Y (s) s s
Since k1, k2 >> k3, the zeros can be approximately factored as
s s
k k +1 +1
U (s) s + s +
1 3 k k
= - m k2 k k = - m k3 1 3
Y (s) 2 1
k k1
s 2
s
Using the approximation b/m and k/m are small relative to the other terms
k b
k1 = n2 - n2 , k2 = 2 n - 2 n , k3 = n
m m
Therefore
s s
+1 +1
U (s) s + n s +
= - m 2 n 2 = - m n n
Y (s) n
2 n
s
s
Observer
including
g
k1 g1 + k2 g2 + 3 s 2
m
( 2 + l a 2
)
+ 2 a a n3 s2
External 1(s)
Disturbance 1(s)
Estimate b k +
( 2 l a +1) a 2 n4 s + l a3n5
k1 - k2 g1 + k1 g2 1(s)
m m
+
1(s)
where
k g
k2 + 3 k + k (
1(s) = s s2 + 2 n ( a +1) s
m m 1
m g3
+
1 (s) s+
1(s) m (
+ a 2 + 4 2 a +1 n2) )
where
(
1(s) = s s2 + ( k2 + g1 ) s
(
+ a 2 + 4 2 a +1 n2 ) )
Table 4.6.4-2 Comparison of controller pole-zero locations (using approximations k/m and b/m are small
relative to other terms)
"integral" "rate"
"position"
X
0
n n n
2 n n 2
Full State j 20 log U(j)mY(j)
Feedback "rate"
"position"
20 log n2
0
n n
2
2
Observer for j 20 log U(j)mY(j)
States X "roll
1 "rate" off"
2 2
n (a2 + 4 a + 1) "position"
20 log g 2
0
n n a
( a ) ( )
2 a+1 2 a+1
a n (1 + 4 2 + 1/a2 )
Observer j 20 log U(j)mY(j)
including X 1 "roll
External n (a2 + 4 2a + 1) 2 "integral" "rate"
off"
Disturbance "position"
Estimate
0
a n b l a n
l a n a n b
2 1+2al
1+2al 2
1+2al 2
b= 2 l a3 n
1+a+a l a2 + 4 2 +1
2
a n (1 + 4 2 + 1/a2 )
Table 4.6.4-3 Comparison of controller position, rate and integral estimates (for k/m and b/m small relative
to the other terms)
(
a a+ 42 )
2
(
n a + 4 2
)
a 2 +1
s2 2 ( a +1)
+ s +1
(
2 2 2
)
a +1 n a +1 n (
)
Rate Path s
-1
2
n
a a
2 n
a 2 +1 s2 2 ( a +1)
+ s +1
(
n2 a 2 +1 n a 2 +1 ) ( )
Integral Path N/A
Observer including s
External Disturbance +1
2
Estimate
Position Path (
a a+4 2 a+42
n
) ( )
x 1 X1(s) 2 2
a + 4 a +1 (s)
y Y (s)
s2 2 ( a +1)
(s) = + s +1
n2 (a 2 2
+ 4 a +1 ) (
n a 2 + 4 2 a +1 )
Rate Path s
-1
X 2 (s) 2
n
Y (s) a a
2 n
a 2 + 4 2 a +1 (s)
Integral Path s2 2
X 3 (s) + s +1
3
l a n n2 n
Y (s)
a 2 + 4 2 a +1 s (s)
A. Design a conventional PID, PD or PI controller to meet requirements. Explain your selection. Draw the block
diagram of the controller.
B. Design a full state feedback controller. Draw the block diagram of the controller.
C. Design an observer-controller type control system assuming only 1 is available. Explain your choice of
controller-observer implementation. Draw the block diagram of the controller.
D. Compare the controllers obtained above relative to the requirements and their individual characteristics. What
value would you give the structural designer for the structural frequency for your control designs.
control signal Motor 1 = Angle of Body 1
Kt
Ic 2 = Angle of Body 2
Tc = Kt Ic cmd = Angle command for Body 1
1 B1 = Damping on Body 1
cmd 1 , T1
Controller T1 = Disturbance torque on Body 1
I1, B1
Kt = Motor torque constant
1 Tc = Motor torque
Ks, Bs
Ks = Spring constant coupling Body 1 and 2
Bs = Damping coupling Body 1 and 2
2 I1 = Inertial of Body 1
I2
I2 = Inertial of Body 2
Laplace transforming
Tc (s) T1(s)
(s) = +
B B
I1 s s + 1 I1 s s + 1
I1 I1
The torque Tc(t) is derived from control signal u(t), which is the current Ic(t) to the torque motor. Therefore
Tc (t) = Kt I c (t) = Kt u(t)
Differentiating once to remove the integral results in the 3rd order differential equation
Since k3 is typically much less than k1 and k2, the denominator can be approximately factored as
B B k
s3 + k2 + 1 s2 + k1 s + k3 s2 + k2 + 1 s + k1 s + 3
I1 I1 k1
The first term is the dominant second order system response. Hence
B1
k1 = n2 , k2 = 2 n -
I1
Step Response to R(s) = 1/s. Using the approximation B1/I1 << k2, setting T1 = 0 and assuming the two zeros are
significantly separated in magnitude
2 n s + n ( s + b n ) 2 n s + n
(s) 2 n s + n2 s + b n3
2
2 2
R(s)
( )(
s2 + 2 n s + n2 s + b n ) ( )
s2 + 2 n s + n2 ( s + b n ) s2 + 2 n s + n2
The pole-zero pattern is shown in Figure 4.7-2A-2. The "dipole" pole-zero pair near the origin, which canceled in
the approximation above, provides a small residue relative to the dominant second order response. The second order
response is dominated by the second order pole and "lead zero."
2nd order j
pole
n
"lead zero"
n n
"dipole"
2
Figure 4.7-2A-3 Closed loop pole zero pattern for (s) in response to unit step disturbance
The response (t) to a unit step disturbance goes to zero as time approaches infinity, i.e., is zero in the steady state.
The response has a "fast" second order response followed by the "slow exponential root", which causes a "tail" on
the response.
where I1 k1/Kt and I1 k2/Kt are the position and velocity gains, respectively. These gains are normalized by I 1/Kt for
convenience in manipulation.
Scalar Differential Equation. The Laplace transform of (s) can be obtained from the figure
1 T (s)
(s) = 1 + k1 ( cmd (s) - (s)) + k2 s ( cmd (s) - (s))
B I
1
s s + 1
I1
Solving for (s)
k2 s + k1 1 1
(s) = cmd (s) + T1(s)
2
B I B1
1 2
s + k2 + s + k1
1 s + k2 + s + k1
I1 I1
Setting the denominator equal to the standard second order parameters, i.e.,
B
s 2 + k2 + 1 s + k1 = s2 + 2 n s + n2
I1
yields
B1
k1 = n2 , k2 = 2 n -
I1
The transform becomes
B
2 n - 1 s + n2
I1 1 1
(s) = cmd (s) + T (s)
s 2
+ 2 n s + n2 I1 s2 + 2 s + 2 1
n n
Alternate Derivation of Transfer Function Using the State Equations. Substituting the control signal into the
state equations
and
and
or
Z (s) k2 s + k1
1 = 1 (t) + 1 1 T (t)
Z (t) 2
B1
B k1 - k2 k2 + s - k1 k2 cmd
I1 s 1
2 s + k + 1 s + k I
2 I 1
1
1
yields
B1
k1 = n2 , k2 = 2 n -
I1
substituting into the transform
B
2 n - 1 s + n2
I1 1
Z (s) s 2 + 2 n s + n2
2 2
1 = 1 s + 2 n s + n
(t) + T1(t)
Z (t) 2 B B
cmd
I1
( )
2 s
n 1- 4 2 + 2 n 1 s - n2 2 n - 1
2 2
I1 I1
s + 2 n s + n
s 2 + 2 n s + n2
the output (s) is
B
2 n - 1 s + n2
I1 1 1
(s) = cmd (t) + T (t)
s 2
+ 2 n s + n2 I1 s2 + 2 s + 2 1
n n
2nd order j
pole
n
"lead zero"
n
B1 Step
2
I1n Input
Inverting
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
time (sec)
1 1
The response (t) has a non-zero steady value, . If 0.001, then the steady state response to a unit step
I1 2n I1 2n
1
disturbance requirement will be meet. Using n = 16 r/s, I1 must satisfy 0.256. Evaluating the expression
I1 2n
for (t)
(t) =
1
256 I1 (
1- e- 8.8 t cos 13.4 t - 0.66 e- 8.8 t sin 13.4 t )
The response, scaled by I1, to a unit step disturbance is shown in Figure 4.7-2B-4.
I1
1
2
n
time (sec)
where
0 1
1 0 1
A= B1 , B= , C= 0
0 -I I1 K t I1 1
1
An observer is used to construct the state variables x1 and x2. The estimated state vector, x(t) , is the output of the
observer whose state differential equation is
dx(t)
= A x(t) + B u(t) + G ( y(t) - y(t)) = A x(t) + B u(t) + G ( x1(t) - x1 (t)) = ( A - G H ) x(t) + B u(t) + G y(t)
dt
g
where G =
1
, the observer gain vector, is selected by the designer. The observer is "driven" by the error,
g
2
y(t) - x1(t) , i.e., y(t) - H x(t) , between the measured output y(t) and the estimated output y(t) = H x(t) .
The error driven controller uses the command input and the estimated state and is of the form
where the row vector of gains K = I1 [k1 k2] is selected by the designer. Let
Substituting the control (with r(t) = 0) into the observer equation and using the relationship y(t) = H x(t) , results in
dx(t)
= ( A - B K - G H ) x(t) + G y(t)
dt
The block diagram of this error driven control system is shown in Figure 4.7-2C-1. Looking at the error equation
between the actual state and the estimate of the state
The error is seen to depend on the reference input. Hence, the designer can either 1.) ignore the reference input and
solve for the homogeneous roots of the error observer as in the case of observer without a reference input, or
2.) reformulate the control and observer to remove the reference input from the error equation.
To decouple the error equation from the reference input, assume a control of the form
u(t) = -K x(t) + g r(t)
where both g and r(t) are scalars. r is cmd(t). The associated observer is assumed to be of the form
dx(t)
= A x(t) + B u(t) - G H x(t) + G y(t) + G r(t)
dt
where G is an nx1 matrix (the same dimension as x). Both g and G are selected by the designer. Forming the error
equation
If
G =g B
the error equation is independent of the reference input. The block diagram of this system is shown in Figure 4.7-
2C-2.
Since the characteristic equations of the controller and observer error are decoupled, the observer and controller
gains can be selected independently for both approaches.
Observer Plant
Plant Model Controller
for Estimator
cmd Position
Disturbance y = x1
"derivative" +
k2 T1
u Ic y = x2
^ ^ + Tc
+ x2 x +
1 1 1 1 k1 I1 1 + 1 1
s Kt
I1 s +
+ + + Kt + I1 s s
+ B1 cmd B1
I1 I1
"proportional"
Control
g2 g1 ^ Signal
x1
u
+y
error = y x^ 1
Observer Plant
Plant Model Controller
for Estimator
cmd
Position
g Disturbance y = x1
"derivative"
I1 k2 Ic T1
y = x2
u ^ ^
+ x x1 + I1 Tc +
1+ 1 2 1 k1 1 + 1 1
I1 s s Kt I1
+
+ + Kt + s s
+ g
B1 cmd B1
I1 I1
"proportional"
Control
g2 g1 ^ Signal
x1 u
+y
error = y x^ 1
"Arbitrarily" make the observer "a" times faster, where, a > 1, than the controller. That is, make the observer
undamped natural frequency "a n", while maintaining the same damping, , as for the controller.
B1 B
g2 + g1 = a 2 n2 , g1 + 1 = 2 a n
I1 I1
Solving for the observer gains
B1 B B2
g1 = 2 a n - , g2 = a 2 n2 - 2 a n 1 + 1
I1 I1 I 2
1
s 2 + 2 a n s + a 2 n2
I1 B1
K= k k = I1 2 2 n -
Kt 1 2 Kt n I1
s 2 + 2 n s + n2
( ) ( )
-1
U (s) = K R(s) - X (s) = K R(s) - K s I 2 - ( A - B K - G H ) G Y (s)
where U(s) and Y(s) are scalars. Examining the transfer function U(s)/Y(s)
U (s)
( )
-1
= -K s I 2 - ( A - B K - G H ) G
Y(s)
Substituting the values for gains
s+ g -1 -1
I1 1 g
I g s + g k + B1 + g
U (s) = - I1 2
k1 k2
1 1 1 2
= - k1 k2 B 1
Y (s) Kt g2 + k1 s + k2 + 1
g2 Kt (s)
I1 g2 s + g1 k1
B
( k1 g1 + k2 g2 ) s + k1 g1 1 + k1 g2
I I1
= - 1
Kt (s)
where
B B
(s) = s 2 + k2 + g1 + 1 s + k1 + g2 + k2 g1 + g1 1
I1 I1
Using the grouping of terms as a "position" and "rate" path yields the controller structure in Figure 4.7-2C-3. The
rate path has a zero in the right-half plane.
"position path" cmd
B1 ^ +
g2 + k 2 + x1
g1 (s + I1
Position
g1
= x1
I1 k1 Disturbance
s2 + (g1 + k 2 + B1 ) s + g2 + k1 + g1 k2 T1
I1 Kt = x2
+
+ 1 + 1 1
"rate path" Kt I1 s
Tc s
g1 B1
g2 (s k ) I1 k2
g2 1 Kt I1
^
s2 + (g1 + k 2 + B1) s + g2 + k1 + g1 k2 x2
I1 +
cmd
The state equations for a simple spring-mass system are shown in 5.1. The elemental block diagram for a coupled
spring mass system is given in Example 5.2. Example 5.3 shows the elemental block diagram for an electrical
circuit. Example 5.4 demonstrates the elemental block diagram for a table positioning system. Examples 5.5, 5.7
and 5.9 are the elemental block diagram and state equations for an air-bearing table, carriage control system and
spray head control system, respectively. Examples 5.6 and 5.8 are the control system design for a lift controller and
elevation gimbal controller, respectively.
k1 u1
m1 u2
k2
y1
b1
m2
y2
For mass m2
In matrix formulation
Laplace transforming the differential equations with zero initial conditions, and writing in matrix formulation.
2
M1s + k1 - k1 X1(s) 0
Y(s)
=
- k1 M 2 s2 + b s + k1 + k2 X 2 (s) b s + k2
The elemental block diagram in Figure 5.2-2 is started by (A), integrating the left hand side of the second equation,
, to obtain (B), the term . The term b y(t) is subtracted to obtain . The
process is then straight-forward to integrate and obtain x2(t). The adder, denoted by (C), sums the right hand side of
the second equation. The first equation is solved once x2(t) is obtained as shown in the figure.
y(t)
Equation
at M2
k2 b M2 x2 k1 ( x2 x1 )
x2
+ (A) 1 + x2 x1 x1 x1
1 1 + 1 1 1
(C) s k1
+ (B) M2 s M1 s s
M2 x2 b y Solves
+ Equation
b
+ k2 x2 at M1
+ k2
k1 ( x2 x1 ) +
k1
L
Figure 5.3-1 RLC circuit
a.) Write the loop equations.
b.) Write the node equations.
c.) Write the state equations.
d.) Determine the transfer function Vb/e.
e.) Draw the block diagram with input e and output Vb. Use only elemental blocks. No differentiators.
The loop equations for the first loop, denoted by A in Figure 5.3-3 are
To eliminate , multiply the equation for loop A by R3 and the equation for loop B by R1, yielding
Solving the two equations above for and , and writing in matrix notation
e + Va + VR3 I2 Vb
1 1
R3 Cs
Vb
VR1
+ I
+ VL 1 I1 I2 1
R1
Ls +
VR2
R2
VR1 VR2 VL I I + I Vb
I1 I2 2
e + 1 + 1 1 2 1
R2 Ls Cs
R1
I1 I2 +
Va
R3
Va
+ VR3
+
Item Equations
Summer at K2 Vb = Kb b Vcmd = Kcmd b cmd
Table (Plant) J t b + B t b = T b + T dist
Gyro
For small angle :
Since Jgimbal ~ 0:
Kb
In matrix notation
Parameter Definition
kbmf CMG back emf constant, v/rad/s
kcmd Gain converting table command angle to volts, v/rad
kcmg CMG torquer motor torque constant, N-m/amp
kdot Gain converting CMG angle to volts, v/rad
kemf Rate-integrating gyro torquer back emf constant, v/rad/s
kg Rate-integrating gyro control loop power amplifier gain, v/v
kr Gain converting table rate command to voltage, v/rad/s
kT Rate-integrating gyro torquer motor torque constant, N-m/amp
ks Structural mode spring constant, N-m/rad
kz Gain converting table angle encoder angle to volts, v/rad
k Gain converting rate-integrating gyro output axis angle to volts, v/rad
La Inductance of CMG torquer motor windings, Henries
Lg Inductance of rate-integrating gyro torquer motor windings, Henries
Ri Op amp resistances i = 0, ... ,16, megohms
Ra Resistance of CMG torquer motor windings, Ohms
Rg Resistance of rate-integrating gyro torquer motor windings, Ohms
Ta CMG torquer motor electrically generated torque, N-m
Tcmg Back-to-Back CMG xHcmg torque onto table, N-m
Tg Rate-integrating gyro torquer motor electrically generated torque, N-m
Va Voltage from CMG gimbal rate loop power amp, v
Vc Voltage equivalent to table command angle cmd, v
Vg Voltage from rate-integrating gyro control loop power amp, v
V Voltage equivalent to rate-integrating gyro output axis angle g, v
V Voltage equivalent to rate-integrating gyro measured rate z, v
V_dot Voltage equivalent to CMG measured gimbal rate , v
Vi Voltage of op amps, i = 1,,12, v
x,y,z Coordinate frame of air-bearing table
g Angle of rate-integrating gyro rotation about output axis, rad
cmd Air-bearing table angle command, rad
cmd Air-bearing table angle rate command, rad/s
RB Table rigid body angle about z-axis, rad
s Structural mode angle about z-axis, rad
z Air-bearing table angle, rad.
, 1, 2 CMG measured gimbal angle ( = 1 = 2), rad
, 1, 2 CMG measured gimbal angle rate ( = 1 = 2), rad
z Air-bearing table rate about z-axis, r/s. z = z
Item Equations
Op Amp #1: Inverter Vz = kz z ; Vz/R0 + V1/R0 = 0 -> V1 = Vz
Op Amp #2: Summer with Vc = kcmd cmd
gain V1/R1 + Vc/R1 + V2/R2 = 0 -> V2 = R2/R1 (Vc + V1)
Op Amp #3: Proportional V2/R4 + V3/R5 = 0 -> V3 = R5/R4 V2
Op Amp #4: Integral V2/R3 + C1 s V4 = 0 -> V4 = (1/(R3 C1 s)) V2
Op Amp #5: Derivative (rate- V = (1/Hg) V11
integrating gyro path) V/R6 + V12/R6 + V5/R7 = 0 -> V5 = R7/R6 (V + V12)
Op Amp #6: PID Summer V3/R8 + V4/R8 + V5/R8 + V6/R9 = 0 -> V6 = R9/R8 (V3 + V4 + V5)
Op Amp #7: _dot Summer V7 = (1/(2 Hcmg cos )) V6 ; V_dot = kdot
V_dot/R10 + V7/R10 + V8/R10 = 0 -> V8 = (V_dot + V7)
Op Amp #8: Lag-Lead V8/R11 + C2 s V8 + V9/R12 + C3 s V9 = 0
1/Zi = 1/R11 + C2 s -> Zi = R11/(R11 C2 s + 1)
1/Zo = 1/R12 + C3 s -> Zo = R12/(R12 C3 s + 1)
-> V9 = (R12/R11) (R11 C2 s + 1)/(R12 C3 s + 1) V8
Op Amp #9: PID in gyro loop V = k g
V (1/R13+ C4 s) + V10 (1/(R14 + 1/(C5 s))) = 0
1/Zi = 1/R13 + C4 s -> Zi = R13/(R13 C4 s + 1)
Zo = R14 + 1/(C5 s) -> Zo = (R14 C5 s + 1)/(C5 s)
-> V10 = (1/R13 C5) ((R13 C4 s + 1) (R14 C5 s + 1)/s) V
Op Amp #10: Lag in gyro loop V10/R15 + V11/R16 + C6 s V11 = 0
Zi = R15
1/Zo = 1/R16 + C6 s -> Zo = R16/(R16 C6 s + 1)
-> V11 = (R16/R15) (1/(R16 C6 s + 1)) V10
Angle encoder Vz = kz z
Rate-integrating Gyro Loop Vg = kg V11
Vg VRg VLg Vemf = 0 -> Vg Ig Rg Lg s Ig kemf =0
Tg = kT Ig
Back-to-Back CMGs Va = ka V9
Va VRa VLa Vbmf = 0 -> Va Ia Ra La s Ia kbmf =0
Ta = kcmg Ia
z = z
5.5.1-2
5.5.1-3
This equation defines k1 that is used to draw the block diagram for the lag-lead network.
The transfer function for Op Amp #9, the PID network, and Op Amp #10 are combined to ensure that the number of
zeros is equal to the number of poles in realizing the differential equation. The transfer function is
V10 (s) V11(s) V11(s) R16 (R13C4 s +1) (R14C5s +1) R16 R13 R14C4C5s 2 + (R13C4 + R14C5 ) s +1
= = = 5.5.1-4
V (s) V10 (s) V (s) R13 R15C5 s (R16C6 s +1) R13 R15C5 s (R16C6s +1)
5.5.1-5
Collecting the derivatives of the right hand side on the left hand side
5.5.1-6
Compare equation 5.5.1-5 with the form of the equation in Chapter 4 of Control Synthesis given below
4.5-10
where from equation 5.5.1-5
1 R C R C +R C 1
a= , b = 0 , c = 14 4 , d = 13 4 14 5 , e = 5.5.1-7
R16C6 R15C6 R13 R15C5C6 R13 R15C5C6
Based on Chapter 4, equations 4.5-1 and 4.5-5 in Control Synthesis
A= 0 1 , H = 1 0 , B = b1 , L = b
0
-b -a b
2 4.5-11
where b0 = c, b1 = d - a c , b2 = e - b c - a (d - a c)
As for the lag-lead network, the state variables may also be obtained by rewriting equation 4.5-10, retaining the
highest derivative of x and terms with all the derivatives of m on the left hand side. The coefficients to be
determined are denoted with an asterisk superscript in equation 4.5-12 from Control Synthesis.
4.5-12
Expanding
4.5-13
Comparing with equation 4.5-10 to determine the coefficients
c* = c , d * + a c* = d d * = d - a c* , a d * + b c* + e* = e e* = e - b c - a (d - a c) 4.5-14
Evaluating for PID plus lag network
R14C4 R C +R C 1 R14C4 1 1 R13C4 + R14C5 1 R14C4
c* = , d * = 13 4 14 5 - , e* = - -
R15C6 R13 R15C5C6 R16C6 R15C6 R13 R15C5C6 R16C6 R13 R15C5C6 R16C6 R15C6 5.5.1-8
The block diagram in Figure 5.5.1-1 represents the PID plus lag network.
Figure 5.5.2-1 Elemental Block Diagram (k1, c*, d* and e* defined in text)
A. Determine your derived Low, Mid and High Frequency requirements, if any, for requirements i through v (e.g.,
determine , n, etc.); use a table-format to display results.
B. Determine the block diagram for the plant.
C. Design a conventional PID, PD or PI controller to meet requirements. Explain your design choice for the
controller. Explain the assumptions/decisions you make for your design.
D. Draw the block diagram for your control system including the values for your controller.
E. Evaluate how your design compared to the requirements in a table-format. Discuss any requirements you cannot
meet.
F. Sketch the response to: 1.) a unit step command, xcmd, and, 2.) a unit step torque disturbance T d. Construct the
sketches using superposition of the Low, Mid and High Frequency components. Your reasoning to obtain sketch is
required; computer generated results not acceptable.
G. Implement your controller using op amps and a power amplifier of gain 1 v/v. The power amplifier drives the
motor. The resistor and capacitor values are on the scale of megohms (10 6 = 1 M) and microfarads (10 6 f = 1
f), respectively.
Parameter Definition
d Diameter of pulley, m
D Diameter of drum, m
F Force in cable due to lift, N
Fnom Offload force M0 g, N
g Gravity constant, m/s2
Gc(s) Compensation, N-m/m
I Effective inertia of motor, drum, lift and load, Kg-m2
M Mass of lift and load, Kg
M0 Mass of counter balance, Kg
Tcmd Control torque, N-m
Td Effective disturbance torque, N-m
Tm Motor torque, N-m
x Displacement of lift, m
xcmd Commanded displacement of lift, m
x cmd Commanded lift rate, m/s
Angle of drum, rad
Angular rate of drum, r/s
5.6.1 Requirements
The requirements are summarized in Table 5.6.1-1. The damping ratio, , can be increased and the undamped
natural frequency, n, decreased as shown in the Table if a "lead" zero is added to compensate the system.
Table 5.6.1-1 Requirements
5.6.2-1
The control signal is Tcmd and the disturbance is Td.
Laplace transforming
Figure 5.6.2-2 Idealized PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for X(s)/X cmd(s)
The approximate closed loop transfer function is
2 n (s + n ) (s + b ) 2 n (s + n )
X (s) 2 n s2 + n2 s + b n2 2 2
5.6.2-3
X cmd (s) (s + 2 s + ) (s + b ) (s + 2 s + ) (s + b ) (s + 2 s + 2 )
2 2 2 2 2
n n n n n n
Based on the approximate system equation, the low frequency pole-zero pair cancels; this is not true for the exact
transfer function. The approximation for the dominant second order poles and Mid frequency zero are illustrated in
Figure 5.6.2-2 along with the alpha angle, , used to estimate the response of the second order system with a Mid
frequency zero. The values of L1, L2 and alpha () based on the figure are
n -L
y = cos- 1 , L1 = cos y = n , L2 = n sin y = n 1- 2 , = tan-1 n 1 = tan-1 5.6.2-4
2 2 2 2 L2 1- 2
Note that alpha () only depends on . The relationship is shown in Figure 5.6.2-3.
Figure 5.6.2-4 Evaluation of the factors of 2 and 0.7 used for overshoot and time to peak, respectively
Figure 5.6.2-5 Evaluation of 2nd order response with mid frequency zero
5.6.3-1
5.6.3-2
Since x(t) = () (D/2), = (2/D). The differential-integral equation can be written in terms of x.
5.6.3-3
Differentiating once to remove the integral results in the 3rd order differential equation
5.6.3-4
Since the coefficients of x(t) and xcmd(t) are equal up to and including the second derivative, this system follows a
parabolic input command with zero steady state error.
Laplace transforming with zero initial conditions
k D s 2 + k p s + ki D s
X (s) = X cmd (s) + T (s) 5.6.3-5
3 2
s + k D s + k p s + ki 2 I s + k s + k s+k d
3 2
D p i
Since kI/kp is typically chosen to be much less than kp and kD, the denominator can be approximately factored as
k
s3 + k D s2 + k p s + ki (s2 + k D s + k p ) s + i 5.6.3-6
kp
The first term is the dominant second order system response. Hence
k p = n2 , k D = 2 n 5.6.3-7
k D s 2 + k p s + ki
X (s) = 5.6.3-11
s (s3 + k D s2 + k p s + ki )
The closed pole-zero pattern is shown in Figure 5.6.3-2. The "dipole" pole-zero pair near the origin that canceled in
the approximation provides a small residue value relative to the residue value for the dominant second order
response. The second order response is dominated by the second order pole and "lead zero."
Table 5.6.3-2 Calculation for alpha angle and estimated overshoot and time to peak
The exact values for the residue and time constant are 1x10 4 and 138 seconds, respectively. The exact solution is
x(t) = 1- e- 0.3492 t cos 0.6256 t + 0.5698 e- 0.3492 t sin 0.6256 t - 0.0001 e- 0.00727 t 5.6.6-2
Using the approximate values, obtain the sketch in Figure 5.6.6-1. Since the magnitude of the residue of the low
frequency root has such a small value (~ 7x10 5), it does not appear on the scale of the plot and is not shown.
The approximate values for the components of the response are used to draw the sketch in Figure 2F-2.
Since there is no mid frequency zero the expected step response for the 2 nd order root needs to be evaluated. First,
the overall response x(t) must be zero at time t = 0, so the value of the 2 nd order response terms at time t = 0 is 1.95
AD/2 I. Second, the response is that of the standard form of the second order system, i.e., no Mid Frequency zero.
For the standard form of the second order system with = 0.49, the overshoot is 17% and n tp = 3.6. Since
n = 0.72, then tp = 5 seconds. The 2nd order portion of the response is to a step of magnitude approximately 1.95
AD/2 I; the overshoot is 0.33 A D/2 I. At 5 seconds the magnitude of the slow exponential term is approximately
1.88 A D/2 I. Hence the estimate of the peak is 2.21 A D/2 I.
Using these approximate values the sketch of the normalized response 2 I/A D x(t) to a torque step of magnitude
A is shown in Figure 5.6.6-2.
Figure 5.6.6-2 Sketch of normalized response (2 I/A D) x(t) to torque step command
The exact value for the low frequency root residue is 1.967 AD/2 I. The exact disturbance response in normalized
form is
2I
x(t) = - 1.967 e- 0.3492 t cos 0.6256 t -1.075 e- 0.3492 t sin 0.6256 t +1.967 e- 0.00727 t 5.6.6-4
AD
The exact peak value is 2.24 A D/2 I.
Figure 5.7-1 Deep Space Radio Antenna carriage and azimuth control systems
Table 5.7-1 Parameter definition for carriage and azimuth control systems
Parameter Definition
b Structural mode damping constant, N-m-s/rad
Ci Op amp capacitances i = 1,, 4, microfarads
Fw Carriage drive wheel force, N
I1,2 Motor currents, amp
IA Azimuth gimbal inertia (including motor rotor inertia), Kg-m2
IB Elevation gimbal inertia about azimuth gimbal axis, Kg-m2
J1 Drive motor plus gear 1 inertia, Kg-m2
Jw Drive wheel plus gear 2 inertia, Kg-m2
k Structural mode spring constant, N-m/rad
Kang Command voltage conversion factor, v/rad
Kemf Azimuth gimbal motor back emf constant, v/rad/s
Kemf1 Carriage motor back emf constant, v/rad/s
Km Azimuth gimbal motor torque constant, Nm/amp
Km1 Carriage motor torque constant, Nm/amp
Krate Azimuth gimbal tachometer constant, v/rad/sec
Ky Gain converting carriage displacement to voltage, v/m
K0 Gain converting carriage displacement command to voltage, v/m
K1,2 Power amplifier conversion constants, v/v
L1,2 Inductance of motor windings, Henries
M Mass of carriage plus gimbals, N-sec2/m
n1,2 Number of gear teeth
R Op amp resistors, M
Ri Op amp and motor resistors, i = 1,,20, M
Rw Carriage wheel radius, m
Tm, Tm1 Azimuth gimbal and carriage motor torques, Nm
T1,2 Gear train torques, Nm
U Disturbance torque on elevation gimbal about azimuth axis, Nm
Vang Voltage equivalent to angle A, v
Vcmd Voltage equivalent of command cmd, v
Vrate Voltage equivalent of rate A of angle A, v
Vy Voltage equivalent to carriage displacement y, v
V0 Voltage equivalent to carriage command ycmd, v
Vi Voltage of op amps and power amplifiers, i = 1,,16, v
y Carriage displacement, m
ycmd Carriage displacement command, m
Carriage displacement rate, rad*/s
A Azimuth gimbal angular rate, rad/sec
A Angle of azimuth gimbal, rad
B Angle of elevation gimbal about azimuth gimbal axis, rad
cmd Azimuth gimbal command angle, rad
1,2 Gear angles, rad
Coefficient of friction
Item Equations
Op Amp #1: PI with gain V0 = K0 ycmd; V4/R1 + V0/R1 + V1/(R2 + 1/C1s) = 0
V1 = (R2C1s + 1)/R1C1s (V4 + V0)
= (R2/R1) (1 + 1/R2C1s) (V4 + V0)
Op Amp #2: Gain V1/R3 + V2/R4 = 0 -> V2 = R4/R3 V1
Power Amp #3: V3 = K1 V 2
Motor Drive Circuit V3 I1 L1s I1 R5 Kemf1 d1/dt = 0
Gear train Tm1 = Km1I1; n11 = n22 -> 2 = n1/n2 1; T11 = T22 -> T2 = n2/n1T1
J1 d21/dt2 + T1 = Tm1
Jw d22/dt2 + FwRw = T2 = n2/n1T1
Fw = M d2y/dt2; where y = 2Rw = n1/n2Rw1; Fw M g/4
Solving for a differential equation in terms of 1
Jeq d21/dt2 = Tm1 ; where Jeq = J1 + n12/n22 Jw + n12/n22 M Rw2
Op Amp #4: Integrator = d2/dt; Vydot = KyRw
Vydot/R6 + C4 s V4 = 0 -> V4 = (1/R6C4s) Vydot
End of Carriage control system equations; Start of Azimuth gimbal equations
Op Amp #5: Summer Vcmd/R + V5/R + V9/R = 0 -> V5 = Vcmd + V9
Op Amp #6 - 8: Integrators Vi = (1/R6C2s) Vi1 ; i = 6, 7, 8
Op Amp #9: Summer V6/R8 + V8/R7 + V9/R7 + V10/R8 = 0 -> V9 = R7/R8 (V6+ V10) V8
Op Amp #10: Gain V7/R9 + V10/R10 = 0 -> V10 = (R10/R9) V7
Op Amp #11: Summer plus Vang/R + V8/R + V11/R11 = 0 -> V11 = R11/R (Vang+ V8)
gain
Op Amp #12: PI with gain V11/R12 + V12/(R13 + 1/C3 s) = 0
-> V12 = (R13/R12) (1 + 1/R13C3 s) V11
Op Amp #13: Summer plus V6/R14 + V12/R15 + V13/R16 = 0 -> V13 = R16/R14 V6 R16/R15 V12
gain
Op Amp #14: Summer Vrate/R + V10/R + V14/R = 0 -> V14 = (V10+ Vrate)
Op Amp #15: Summer plus V13/R17 + V14/R18 + V15/R19 = 0 -> V15 = R19/R17 V13 R19/R18 V14
gain
Motor Drive Circuit V16 = K2 V15; V16 I2 L2 s I2 R20 Kemf A = 0; A = dA/dt
Gimbals with structural mode IA d2A/dt2 + b (dA/dt dB/dt) + k(A B) = Tm
IB d2B/dt2 + b (dB/dt dA/dt) + k(B A) = U
5.7.2 Elemental Block Diagrams
C. Design a conventional PID, PD or PI controller to meet requirements. Explain your design choice for the
controller. Explain the assumptions/decisions you make for your design.
D. Draw the block diagram for your elevation control system including the values for your controller. Some values
may be literal, i.e., not explicit numbers.
E. Evaluate in a table-format how your designs capability compares to the requirements. Discuss any
requirements you cannot meet.
F. Sketch the response to: 1.) a unit step command, b cmd, and, 2.) a 0.1 Nm step torque disturbance Td. Construct
the sketches using superposition of the Low, Mid and High Frequency components. Your reasoning to obtain sketch
is required; computer generated results not acceptable.
G. Implement your controller using op amps. Some values may be literal, i.e., not explicit numbers. The resistor
and capacitor values are on the scale of megohms (106 = 1 M) and microfarads (10 6 f = 1 f), respectively.
5.8.1 Requirements
The requirements are summarized in Table 5.8-2. The damping ratio, , is increased and the undamped natural
frequency, n, decreased as shown in the Table if a "lead" zero is added to compensate the system. As shown in the
Table, for the standard form of the 2nd order system, n 0.28 r/s and 0.3. The effect of the residue of the low
frequency root, b * n, is dependent on the constant b * as shown in Figure 5.8-2 (Control System Synthesis, Ch 3,
Fig 3.4-4 where b was used as the variable; note b * is used in-place of b to prevent confusion with the elevation
angle, b). It is desirable to have a reasonably rapid decay of the Low Frequency exponential term. Choose
b* = 0.05. To be conservative, the derived design value for overshoot is set at 35%, which with a mid frequency
zero, becomes 17.5% as shown in column 3 of Table 5.8-2.
* Modified to 35% as shown in column 3 for Mid Frequency zero to provide margin
Figure 5.8-2 Normalized residue of Low Frequency root to a unit step command as a function of the
constant b *, where the root is b * n
where m = Rm/Lm is the frequency of the motor drive circuit; the motor drive time constant is 1/m. The frequency
m is selected to be equal to 20 n to reduce its effect on the control system by moving it to a value that is greater
than 10 n. The transfer function simplifies to Im(s)/VA(s) = 1/Rm.
Hence, Im(s)/Vc(s) = KA/Rm. The generated torque is Tm(s) = Km Im(s) = (KA Km/Rm) Vc(s).
The plant equation is
5.8-4
Rewriting
5.8-5
Laplace transforming
k K K 1
s + s b (s) = A m Vc (s) + Td (s) 5.8-6
J J Rm J
The tachometer (tach) and encoder time constants are each selected to be 1/(20 n) to reduce their effect on the
control system, i.e., 1 = 2 = 1/(20 n). This makes the transfer functions effectively 1 in the control system
design.
The block diagram from the control signal Vc(s) to the output b(s), including the tach and encoder transfer functions
as 1, is shown in Figure 5.8-3.
Figure 5.8-4 Idealized PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for b(s)/b cmd(s)
The approximate closed loop transfer function is
n
2 2 n (s + ) (s + b ) 2 n (s + n )
X (s) 2 ns + n2
s + b n2 2 2
5.8-7
X cmd (s) (s 2 + 2 ns + n2 ) (s + b ) (s + 2 ns + n ) (s + b ) (s + 2 ns + n2 )
2 2 2
Based on the approximate system equation, the low frequency pole-zero pair cancels; this is not true for the exact
transfer function. The approximation for the dominant second order poles and Mid frequency zero are illustrated in
Figure 5.8-4 along with the alpha angle, , used to estimate the response of the second order system with a Mid
frequency zero. The values of L1, L2 and alpha () based on the figure are
n -L
y = cos- 1 , L1 = cos y = n , L2 = n sin y = n 1- 2 , = tan-1 n 1 = tan-1 5.8-8
2 2 2 2 L2 1- 2
Note that alpha () only depends on . The relationship is shown in Figure 5.8-5.
Figure 5.8-6 Evaluation of the factors of 2 and 0.9 used for overshoot and time to peak, respectively
Figure 5.8-7 Evaluation of 2nd order response with Mid Frequency zero
5.8-11
5.8-12
Differentiating once to remove the integral results in the 3rd order differential equation
5.8-13
Since the coefficient of b(t) and bcmd(t) are equal, this system will follow a step input command with zero steady
state error. Also, the term dTd(t)/dt indicates the system has zero steady state error if T d is a step torque disturbance.
Laplace transforming with zero initial conditions
k D s2 + k p s + ki 1 s
b (s) = X cmd (s) + Td (s) 5.8-14
3 2
k J 3 2
ks
s + k D s + k p + s + ki
s s + k D s + k p + s + ki
J J
Since kI/(kp + ks/J) is chosen to be much less than (kp + ks/J) and kD, the denominator can be approximately factored
as
k k ki
s3 + k D s2 + k p + s s + ki (s2 + k D s + k p + s ) s + 5.8-15
J J ks
kp +
J
The first term is the dominant second order system response. Hence
ks
kp + = n2 , k D = 2 n 5.8-16
J
Evaluating the gains using equations 5.8-18 and -19 with b * = 0.05
ks r
kp + = n2 = 0.252 = 0.0625
J s2
r
k D = 2 n = 2 (0.49) 0.25 = 0.245 5.8-19
s
r
ki = b * n3 = 0.05 (0.25)3 = 0.000781
s3
The approximate poles and zeros are tabulated in Table 5.8-3.
Table 5.8-3 Comparison of approximate and exact closed loop poles and zeros
Requirement Estimated
i.) Overshoot 40% 25%
Comply
ii.) Time to peak 12 sec 10 sec
Comply
iii.) Settling time (2 %) 100 sec; 33 sec
4 time constants: 4/( n) Comply
iv.) Zero steady state error to a step Comply
command input, (Type 1 system)
Also, the steady state error to a step torque disturbance is zero.
A 1 A 1 A
Residue = 16.8 5.8-21
J s2 + 2 s + 2 J (-0.0125)2 + 2(0.49)0.25 (-0.0125) + (-0.0125)2 J
n n s = -0.0125
The overall response b(t) must be zero at time t = 0, so the value of the 2nd order Mid Frequency response term at
time t = 0 is 16.8 A/J. The Mid Frequency terms have a response that is the standard form of the second order
system, i.e., no Mid Frequency zero. For the standard form of the second order system with = 0.49, the overshoot
is approximately 17% and n tp = p/(1 2)1/2 = 3.6. Since n = 0.25, tp = 14.4 seconds. The 2nd order portion of the
response is to a step (starting at 16.8 A/J) of magnitude approximately 16.8 A/J; the overshoot is
0.17 (16.8) A/J = 2.9 A/J.
At 14.4 seconds the magnitude of the slow exponential term is approximately 16.8 e 0.0125(14.4) A/J = 14 A/J. Hence
the estimate of the peak value of b(t) at t = 14.4 sec is 16.9 A/J.
Using these approximate values the sketch of the normalized response of J/A b(t) to a torque step of magnitude A
(A = 0.1 Nm, but is not used explicitly as a numerical value in sketch) is shown in Figure 5.8-12.
Figure 5.8-12 Sketch of normalized response (J/A) b(t) to torque step command of A
5.8.7 Op Amp Implementation of the PID Controller
The op amp configuration is in Figure 5.8-12. Note the inclusion of the voltage conversion gains K b and Kbdot and
their cancellation by the controller electronics.
The approximate and exact closed loop poles and zeros are tabulated in Table 5.8-5.
Table 5.8-5 Comparison of approximate and exact closed loop poles and zeros
b (t) = 1- 0.003 e- 0.01314 t -1.4059 e- 0.1159 t cos 0.2145 t - 2.324 e- 0.1159 t sin 0.2145 t 5.8-25
The "dipole" pole-zero pair near the origin that canceled in the approximation provides a small residue value (
0.003) relative to the residue value for the dominant second order response. The second order response is dominated
by the second order pole and "lead zero. Values estimated using Figure 5.8-7 are maintained. b * = 0.05 had little
effect on the Mid Frequency region closed loop pole and zero values. The step response is shown in Figure 5.8-14.
The overshoot is 33% and the time to peak is 9.8 sec. The comparison of approximate and exact values in meeting
requirements is shown in Table 5.8-7.
b (t) = 17.67 e- 0.01314 t -17.67 e- 0.1159 t cos 0.2145 t -8.469 e- 0.1159 t sin 0.2145 t 5.8-29
The low frequency closed loop pole is the dominant response as shown in Figure 5.8-15. The peak value is 18 A/J
at t = 13.5 sec compared to the estimated value of 16.9 A/J at 14.4 sec.
previous product was finished, begins its spray operation that takes a fixed time interval , to complete. At the end
of this fixed time interval, the system autonomously deactivates the solenoid, the spray cart moves to its start
position and the belt is accelerated to maximum speed in preparation to spray the next product when it breaks the
optical beam.
Details are given in Figure 5.9-1 and Table 5.9-1. Note that the control systems have negative feedback. For the
linear motor loop that means the sign of VLC and Vx are opposite. Since VLC is positive, Vx must be negative,
requiring that kx be a negative number although this negative value does not show up explicitly in the block
diagram. Similarly for the belt control system, since the command is negative, i.e., Vcmd, Vxb must be positive.
Therefore, kb is a positive number.
A. Write equations describing the system.
B. Draw the elemental block diagram (No differentiators, one element per block where possible/reasonable).
C. Write the state equations. Start numbering states following op amp #1 (i.e., op amp with output voltage V 1) and
number state variables sequentially.
Figure 5.9-1 Belt and linear motor control systems plus solenoid mechanism
Table 5.9-1 Parameter definition for belt and cart control systems
Parameter Definition
b Structural mode damping constant, N/m/s
bs Solenoid mechanism damping constant, N/m/s
Ci Op amp capacitances i = 1,, 4, microfarads
Fbelt Belt restraining force on motor drive wheel, N
Fdist Disturbance force on spray cart, N
FA Cart linear motor control force, N
Fs Solenoid force, N
Iarm Overall inertia of spray arm, Kg-m2
Ieff Effective inertia belt motor shaft assembly, Kg-m2
ILM Linear motor current, amp
Im Belt motor current, amp
Is Solenoid current, amp
k Structural mode spring constant, N/m
kb Belt sensor scale factor converting xb to volts, v/m; Vxb = kb xb
ks Solenoid mechanism spring constant, N/m
kx Laser sensor scale factor converting xA to volts, v/m; Vx = kx xA
Kemf Belt motor back emf constant, v/rad/s
Kemf_m Linear motor back emf constant, v/m/s
KLM Gain of linear motor control power amplifier, v/v
KLM_T Linear motor force constant, N/amp
Km Gain of belt control power amplifier, v/v
Km_T Belt motor torque constant, Nm/amp
Ks Solenoid force constant, N/amp
K Belt tachometer constant, v/rad/sec; tach output: V = K Rb m
LLM Inductance of linear motor windings, Henries
Lm Inductance of belt motor windings, Henries
Ls Inductance of solenoid windings, Henries
M Total mass of cart, Kg; M = MA + MB
MA Mass of base of cart without spray tower and arm, Kg
MB Mass of spray tower and arm, Kg
MLM Mass of linear motor moving part, Kg
RA Moment arm of solenoid mechanism about arm gimbal, m
Rb Radius of belt drive wheel, m
RLM Linear motor winding resistance,
Rm Belt motor winding resistance,
Ri Op amp resistors, i = 1,,18, M
Rs Solenoid winding resistance,
Tm Belt motor torque, Nm
Vcmd Voltage equivalent to belt position command xcmd, v
Vcmd_dot Voltage equivalent to belt rate command d(xcmd)/dt, v
Vi Voltage of op amps, i = 1,,9, v
VLC Voltage equivalent to linear motor control system command r(t), v
VLM Voltage output of linear motor power amplifier, v
Vm Voltage output of belt power amplifier, v
Item Equations
Op Amp #1: Summer plus VLC/R1 + Vx/R1 + V1/R2 = 0 -> V1 = (R2/R1)(VLC+ Vx)
gain
Op Amp #2: PID with gain V1(1/R3 + C1s) + V2 (1/(R4 + 1/C2s)) = 0
V2 = V1 ((R4C2s + 1)/C2s)/(R3/(R3C1 + 1))
= V1 (1/R3C2s) (R3C1s + 1) (R4C2s + 1)
Op Amp #3: Lag with gain V2/R5 + V3 (1/R6 + C3s) = 0
V3 = V2 (R6/R5) (1/(R6C3s + 1))
Op Amp #4: Gain V3/R7 + V4/R8 = 0 -> V4 = V3 (R8/ R7)
Linear Motor Power Amp VLM = KLM V4
Motor Drive Circuit VLM ILM LLMs ILM RLM Kemf_m dxA/dt = 0
Control Force FA = KLM_T ILM
Cart masses with structural M*A = MA + MLM
mode plus laser sensor M*A d2xA/dt2 + b (dxA/dt dxB/dt) + k (xA xB) = FA + Fdist
MB d2xB/dt2 + b (dxB/dt dxA/dt) + k (xB xA) = 0
Vx = kx xA
End of Linear Motor control system equations; Start of Belt control system equations
Op Amp #5: Summer Vcmd/R9 + Vxb/R9 + V5/R9 = 0 -> V5 = (Vxb Vcmd)
Vxb = kb xb
Op Amp #6: Integrator V6 = (1/R10C4s) V5
Op Amp #7: Gain V5/R11 + V7/R12 = 0 -> V7 = (R12/R11) V5
Op Amp #8: Summer with Vcmd_dot/R13 V/R13 + V8/R14 = 0
gain -> V8 = (R14/R13) (Vcmd_dot V)
Op Amp #9: Summer plus V6/R17 + V7/R16 + V8/R15 + V9/R18 = 0
gain -> V9 = R18/R17 V6 R18/R16 V7 R18/R15 V8
Linear Motor Power Amp Vm = K m V9
Motor Drive Circuit Vm Im Lm s Im Rm Kemf m = 0
Belt drive Tm = Km_T Im
Ieff d2b/dt2 = Tm Fbelt Rb
m = db/dt , V = K Rb m
End of Belt control system equations; Start of Solenoid equations
Solenoid Circuit Vs Rs Is Ls s Is = 0
Solenoid Force Fs = K s I s
Dynamic Equations (Fs 0) Iarm d2g/dt2 + switch*bs RA2 dxs/dt + ks RA2 xs = Fs RA
Where switch = 0 (open when g = stop)
The equation for Op Amp #2 has 2 zeros and 1 pole. To eliminate the use of a differentiator the equation for Op
Amp #3 is combined with that of Op Amp #2.
V3 (s) V3 (s) V2 (s) R6 1 (R3C1 s +1)(R4C2 s +1)
= = 5.9-1
V1(s) V2 (s) V1(s) R5 R3C2 s (R6C3 s +1)
The associated 2nd order differential equation is
5.9-2
Comparing with Control System Synthesis notes, Section 4.5, rewrite the equation as (Note: The subscript b b is
used for b is to keep from confusing it with b, the structural spring constant.)
5.9-3
where
1 R R CC RC +R C 1
a= , bb = 0 , c = 3 4 1 2 , d = 3 1 4 2 , e = 5.9-4
R6C3 R6C3 R6C3 R6C3
The differential equation can be written as
5.9-5
ii.) In response to a unit step command, r(t): Time to peak 0.5 seconds
iii.) Settling time of c(t) to less than or equal to 2% of the unit step value in less than 3 seconds
iv.) Track a ramp input r(t) = A t with zero steady state error
A. Determine and explain your derived Low, Mid and High Frequency requirements (e.g., determine , n, etc.)
for Requirements (i) through (iv). Use a table-format to display results.
B. Part 1: Determine the block diagram for the plant considering all quantities in Figure 5.10-1 (for this part, K emf
is non-zero).
Part 2: As designer you get to choose the hardware specification values, i.e., linear motor drive time constant
and laser sensor time constants m and s, respectively. Explain your rationale for chosen values. Explain and
justify any simplifications that can be made to the block diagram in Part 1 based on your assumptions.
C. Assume Kemf = 0 and design either a conventional PID, PD or PI controller to meet your derived requirements.
Explain your design choice for the controller. Explain the assumptions/decisions you make for your design.
D. Draw the block diagram for your final cart control system including the values for your controller. Some values
may be literal, i.e., not explicit numbers.
E. Evaluate in a table-format how your designs capability compares to the requirements. Discuss any
requirements you cannot meet, if any.
F. Sketch the response to: 1.) a unit step command, r(t) (e.g., label composite overall response as well as
components for Low, Mid and High Frequency regions), and 2.), a 1 N step force disturbance F dist(t). Construct the
sketches using superposition of the Low, Mid and High Frequency components. Your reasoning to obtain sketch is
required; computer generated results not required or acceptable.
G. Implement your controller using op amps. Some values may be literal, i.e., not explicit numbers. Your resistor
and capacitor values are to be on the scale of megohms (10 6 = 1 M) and microfarads (10 6 f = 1 f),
respectively.
Parameter Definition
b Structural model damping, N/m/s
Bs Cart damper, N/m/s
c, dc/dt Cart position and rate, m and m/s; Note: c = xA
Fc Control force, N
Fdist External disturbance force, N
Gc(s) Compensation, v/v
IA Linear motor current, amps
k structural model damping, N/m
k1 Position scale factor, v/m
k2 Rate scale factor, v/m/s
Kamp Power amplifier constant, v/v -> Note: KA = 2.5 v/v
KB Structural influence coefficient; KB = MB/MA = 0.02
Kemf Motor back emf constant, v/m/sec; Kemf = 0
KT Motor torque constant, N/amp
LA Motor inductance, Henries
M Cart mass, Kg; M = MA + MB
MA Cart A mass, Kg
MB Cart B mass, Kg
RA Motor resistance, Ohms
VA Power amplifier output voltage, v
Vo Op amp controller output voltage, v
Vcmd Voltage equivalent to position command, v
Vcmd_dot Voltage equivalent to position rate command, v
Vx Voltage equivalent to cart position c, v
Vx_dot Voltage equivalent to cart rate, v
xA Cart A motion, m; Note: xA = c
xB Cart B motion, m
m Time constant of linear motor, s
s Time constant of laser sensor, s
The assumption is made that the value of Bs/M is suitably small relative to 2 n that the results for the 2nd (Type 2
system) and 3rd (Type 3 system) order equations are suitable approximations.
A. Requirements
The requirements are summarized in Table 5.10-2. As shown in the 1 st column of the Table, for 30% overshoot and
the standard form of the 2nd order system, n 6.7 r/s and 0.36. The damping ratio, , is increased and the
undamped natural frequency, n, slightly decreased as shown in the 2nd column of the Table if a Mid Frequency, i.e.,
"lead", zero is added to compensate the system. For example, with a mid frequency zero, the overshoot is reduced
to 15% and n is reduced by a factor of 0.9.
The sensitivity of the residue and undamped natural frequency of the low frequency root, where the low frequency
root is b n, is a function of the constant b as shown in Figure 5.10-2 (Control System Synthesis, Ch 2, Fig 2.4.3-9
and Ch 3, Fig 3.4-4). It is desired to have a reasonably rapid decay of the Low Frequency exponential term. For
b = 0.02, the value of the magnitude of the residue based on Figure 5.10-2 is negligible. Let b = 0.02. To be
conservative, the derived design value for overshoot is set at 25% (allowing 5% for the exponential tail and
unknown-unknowns [unk-unks]). The damping ratio, , is increased and the undamped natural frequency, n,
decreased as shown in the 3rd column of the Table if a Mid Frequency, i.e., "lead", zero is also added to compensate
the system. For example, with a mid frequency zero the design value of overshoot becomes 12.5% as shown in
column 3.
Note: Based on the standard form of the 2nd order differential equation Control System Synthesis, Section 2.3.1
(where Mp = OS/100):
(ln M p )2 p 4
= , tp = , t2% =
2
p + (ln M p ) 2
n 1- 2 n
Figure 5.10-2 Normalized residue of Low Frequency root to a unit step command as a function of the
constant b, where the root is b n
5.10-1
Laplace transforming
V A (s) - R A I A (s) - LA s I A (s) - K emf s X A (s) = 0 5.10-2
or
1 K emf s
I A (s) = V A (s) - X (s) 5.10-3
LA s + R A LA s + RA A
5.10-4
Laplace transforming
Solving for XA(s) per the technique in Control System Synthesis, Section 5.4.2 using the factor
M = (MA +MB)/MAMB and KB = MB/MA
B
(1+ K B ) s2 + 2 B B - Ms
s + B2
A
X A (s) = ( Fc (s) + Fdist (s))
2
(
M s s + 2 B B s + 2B
2
) 5.10-6
B
s- s
1 1 KB MB
= +
s M s M s2 + 2 s + 2
B B B
where M = MA + MB, B2 = k (MA + MB)/ MA MB and B = b (MA + MB)/ MA MB Bs /MB. The first term in
brackets is in units of rate so that it will provide a feedback in the block diagram that inserts the structural portion of
the rate term through the damper Bs.
Figure 5.10-3 Part 1 (Kemf 0). Block diagram of actuator and plant
Part 2. The transfer function from voltage VA(s) to current IA(s) is
I A (s) 1 1 1 1 1
= = = 5.10-7
V A (s) LA s + R A RA LA
RA s
s +1 +1
RA m
where m = RA/LA is the frequency of the motor drive circuit; the motor drive time constant is 1/m. The frequency
m is selected to be equal to 20 n, i.e., m = 1/(20 n), to reduce its effect (magnitude ~ 1 and phase = arctan (1/20)
~ 2.9) on the control system. The transfer function simplifies to IA/VA = 1/RA.
The laser sensor time constants are also each selected to be 1/(20 n) to reduce their effect (magnitude and phase) on
the control system, i.e., s = 1/(20 n). This limits their effect on magnitude and phase as shown above for the
motor, making their transfer functions effectively 1 for the initial control system design.
The structural mode is at 25 n, KB = 0.02 and = 0.005. The peak amplitude of the structural mode at 25 n is
KB/2 = 2 (6 dB). Since the mode frequency is well above n and the amplitude KB/2 is so small, the mode may be
neglected for the initial synthesis. The plant is therefore a rigid body of mass M = M A + MB.
The block diagram from the control signal Vo(s) to the output c(s), with Kemf = 0, the laser sensor transfer functions
as 1 and the structural mode elimination, is shown in Figure 5.10-4.
The overall transfer function for the simplified actuator and plant equations is
C(s) K amp KT 1
= 5.10-8
V0 (s) RA s ( M s + Bs )
5.10-9
Figure 5.10-4 Simplified block diagram of actuator and plant with Kemf = 0, actuator and sensor transfer
functions = 1 and no structural mode
Review of the implications of the requirements. The actuator and plant combination is Type 1; there is one free
integration. To meet the requirements a PID controller is needed based on the requirement for zero steady state
error to a ramp input (therefore, need for 1/s2 in the overall open loop transfer function). The design uses integral
control with the values in the 3rd column of Table 5.10-2, namely n 6.1 r/s, 0.56 with b = 0.02.
The position, integral and derivative gains are selected in Section C such that the idealized PID controller creates a
Mid Frequency zero and a Low Frequency zero as shown in Figure 5.10-5. Note. Since Bs/M 0, the model is only
an approximation as the control system Mid Frequency zero is not exactly at n/2. The smaller the value of Bs/M,
the better the approximation.
Figure 5.10-5 Idealized PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for C(s)/R(s)
The approximate closed loop transfer function is (Note it assumes the coefficient of the s2 term in the control system
in the numerator polynomial is the same as that for s2 in the denominator polynomial which is not the case for the
system to be designed due to the Bs/M term.)
2 n (s + n ) (s + b ) 2 n (s + n )
X (s) 2 n s2 + n2 s + b n2 2 2
5.10-10
X cmd (s) (s + 2 s + ) (s + b ) (s + 2 s + ) (s + b ) (s + 2 s + 2 )
2 2 2 2 2
n n n n n n
Based on the approximate system equation, the Low Frequency pole-zero pair cancels; again, this is only an
approximation for the exact transfer function. The approximation for the dominant second order poles and Mid
frequency zero are illustrated in Figure 5.10-5 along with the alpha angle, , used to estimate the response of the
second order system with a Mid frequency zero. The values of L1, L2 and alpha () based on the Figure are
n -L
y = cos- 1 , L1 = cos y = n , L2 = n sin y = n 1- 2 , = tan-1 n 1 = tan-1 5.10-11
2 2 2 2 L2 1- 2
Note that alpha () only depends on . The relationship is shown in Figure 5.10-6.
Figure 5.10-7 Evaluation of the factors of 2 and 0.9 used for overshoot and n, respectively
Figure 5.10-8 Evaluation of 2nd order response with Mid Frequency zero
5.10-14
5.10-15
Differentiating once to remove the integral results in the 3rd order differential equation
5.10-16
Since the coefficient of c(t) and r(t) are equal up through the 1st derivative, this system follows a ramp input
command with zero steady state error. Also, the term dFdist/dt indicates the system has zero steady state error for a
step force disturbance Fdist.
Laplace transforming with zero initial conditions
k D s 2 + k p s + ki 1 s
C(s) = R(s) + Fdist (s) 5.10-17
3
Bs 2 M 3 Bs 2
s + k D + s + k p s + ki s + k D + s + k p s + ki
M M
Since kI/kp is chosen to be much less than kp and kD + Bs/M, the denominator can be approximately factored as
B B k
s3 + k D + s s2 + k p s + ki s2 + k D + s s + k p s + i 5.10-18
M M k p
The first term is the dominant second order system response. Hence
Bs
k p = n2 , kD + = 2 n 5.10-19
M
Note that if Bs/(M n) << 2 n, that the approximate transform for C(s) reduces to that used for the 3rd order
system Type 3
2 n s + n (s + b n )
2 1 s
C(s) R(s) + F (s) 5.10-23
( s 2
+ 2 ns + n2 ) (s + b n ) ( n )
M s 2 + 2 s + 2 ( s + b ) dist
n n
Evaluating the gains using equations 5.10-19 and -20 with b = 0.02
Bs
k p = n2 = 6.12 = 37.21 , k D + = 2 n = 2 (0.56) 6.1 = 6.832 , ki = b n3 = 0.02 (6.1)3 = 4.54 5.10-24
M
The approximate poles and zeros are tabulated in Table 5.10-3.
Table 5.10-3 Approximate closed loop poles and zeros
Figure 5.10-10 Block diagram of PID control system (simplified plant, actuator and sensors)
Requirement Estimated
i.) Overshoot 30% 20%
Comply
ii.) Time to peak 0.5 sec 0.4 sec
Comply
iii.) Settling time (2 %) 3 sec; 4 1.2 sec
time constants: 4/( n) Comply
iv.) Zero steady state error to a ramp Comply
command input, (Type 2 system)
Also, the steady state error to a step force disturbance is zero.
F. Sketch of response
Step Response to R(s) = 1/s. Set Fdist(s) = 0. Since the gain b << 1, where b is related to the approximate Low
Frequency root b n, the two closed loop zeros are separated in magnitude, i.e., one is a mid frequency zero the
other is part of the low frequency pole-zero dipole pair.
The time constant of the Low Frequency root using the approximate root value of s = 0.122 is 1/0.122 = 8.2
seconds, which is approximately 16 times the 0.5 second time to peak requirement. The Low Frequency root
response decreases to 95% (e 0.4/8.2 = 0.95) of its maximum value in 0.4 seconds (tp). As derived from Figure 5.10-
2, the value of the Low Frequency residue is very small; therefore, it does not show when added to the Mid
Frequency region step response in determining overshoot.
Using the approximate Mid Frequency overshoot and time to peak values, obtain the sketch in Figure 5.10-11.
The overall response c(t) must be zero at time t = 0, so the value of the 2nd order Mid Frequency response term at
time t = 0 is 0.0275 A/M. The Mid Frequency terms have a response that is the standard form of the second order
system, i.e., no Mid Frequency zero. For the standard form of the second order system with = 0.56, the overshoot
is approximately 12% and n tp = p/(1 2)1/2 = 3.8. Since n = 6.1, tp = 0.62 seconds. The 2nd order portion of the
response is to a step (starting at 0.0275 A/M) of magnitude approximately 0.0275 A/M; the overshoot is
0.12 (0.0275) A/M = 0.0033 A/M.
At 0.62 seconds the magnitude of the slow exponential term is approximately 0.0275 e 0.122(0.62) A/M = 0.0255 A/M.
Hence the estimate of the peak value of c(t) at t = 0.62 sec is 0.029 A/J.
Using these approximate values the sketch of the normalized response of M/A c(t) to a torque step of magnitude A
(A = 1 Nm), but is not used explicitly as a numerical value in sketch) is shown in Figure 5.10-13.
Figure 5.10-13 Sketch of normalized response (M/A) c(t) to torque step of amplitude A
Solution:
Item Equations
Input command V R = KR r
Op Amp #1: Summer with VR/R0 + V3/R1 + V5/R0 + V1/R0 = 0 -> V1 = VR V5 (R0/R1) V3
gain
Op Amps #2 - 4: Integrator Vi/R0 + Vi+1 (C0s) = 0 -> Vi+1 = Vi/(R0C0s); i = 1, 2, 3
Op Amp #5: Summer with V4/R0 + V2/R2 + V5/R0 = 0 -> V5 = V4 (R0/R2) V2
gain
Op Amp #6: Inverter V4/R0 + V11/R0 + V6/R0 = 0 -> V6 = V4 V11
Op Amp #7: Gain V6/R3 + V7/R4 = 0 -> V7 = (R4/R3) V6
Op Amp #8: Integrator V8 = (1/R5C1s) V6
Op Amp #9: Summer with V3/R6 + VT/R7 + V9/R8 = 0 -> V9 = (R8/R6) V3 (R8/R7) VT
gain
Op Amp #10: Summer with V7/R9 + V8/R10 + V9/R11 + V10/R12 = 0 ->
gain V10 = (R12/R9) V7 (R12/R10) V8 (R12/R11) V9
Op Amp #11: Inverter Vc/R0 + V11/R0 = 0 -> V11 = Vc
Op Amp #12: Summer with VT/R14 + V3/R13 + V12/R15 = 0 ->
gain V12 = (R15/R13) V3 (R15/R14) VT
Op Amps #13: High pass filter V13/R16 + V13 (C2s) + V12 (C3s) = 0 ->
V13 = V12 (R16C3s)/( R16C2s + 1); see equation 5.11-8
Op Amps #14: Low pass filter V14 (1/R19 + C4s) + V10/R18 + V13/R17 = 0 ->
V14 = [V10 (R19/R18) + V13 (R19/R17)]/( R19C4s + 1); see 5.11-10
Motor Power Amp VM = KA V14
Motor Drive Circuit VM IM LMs IM RM Kemf dM/dt = 0
Motor Torque T M = KM I M
Laser sensor and Tach Vc = Kc c; VT = KT dM/dt
Motor-Drum-Carriage coupled equations. Define T1 as the drum torque on the motor due to the gear train, T 2 as
the driving torque on the drum and Tc = Fc R as the torque on the drum due to the cable-carriage attachment. The
key equations are
5.11-1
These equations are used to draw the elemental block diagram shown in Figure 5.11-2. Note that there is an
algebraic relationship between M, D and c, and between Tc and Fc so the differential equations for the drum and
carriage are dependent on the differential equation for M.
The equations can be algebraically manipulated to get a reduced expression for the state variables related to the
motor, drum and carriage using
n1 n n n2 5.11-2
D = M ; c = 1 R M ; Tc = Fc R ; define k1 = 1 R 2 and k2 = 12 R 2
n2 n2 n2 n 2
Then
5.11-3
5.11-4
5.11-5
5.11-6
Per the state variable definitions in Figure 5.11-2, x8 = dM/dt, x9 = M, x10 = dxp/dt, x11 = xp. Equation 5.11-5 is
used to write the equation for the state variable x8.
Equation for Op Amp #13 (High Pass Filter). To eliminate a differentiator from the block diagram, the differential
equation for Op Amp #13 is written.
5.11-7
The differential equation is reorganized by moving the derivative of V12 to the left side with that of V13 and clearing
the coefficient of dV12/dt.
5.11-8
This equation is used to draw the portion of the block diagram relating V13 to V12.
Equation for Op Amp #14 (Low Pass Filter). The differential equation for Op Amp #13 is
5.11-9
5.11-10
This equation is used to draw the low pass filter portion of the block diagram.
C. State Equations
The outputs of the integrators are selected as the state variable. The numbering starts at Op Amp #2 with x1
assigned to the integral term associated with V2. The state variable numbering is shown in Figure 5.11-2.
5.11-11
A. Determine and explain your derived Low, Mid and High Frequency requirements (e.g., determine , n, etc.)
for Requirements (i) through (v). Use a table-format to display results.
B. Part 1: Determine the block diagram for the plant considering all quantities in Figure 5.12-1 (for this part, K emf
is non-zero).
Part 2: As designer you get to choose the motor drive time constant 1/m and sensor parameters 1 and 1.
Explain your rationale for chosen values. Explain and justify any simplifications that can be made to the block
diagram in Part 1 based on your assumptions.
C. Assume Kemf = 0. Design either a conventional PID, PD or PI controller to meet your derived requirements.
Explain your design choice for the controller. Explain the assumptions/decisions you make for your design.
D. Draw the block diagram for your azimuth gimbal control system design including the values for your controller.
Some values may be literal, i.e., not explicit numbers.
E. Evaluate in a table-format how your designs capability compares to the requirements. Discuss any
requirements you cannot meet, if any.
F. Sketch the response to: 1.) a unit step command, r(t) (e.g., label composite overall response as well as
components for Low, Mid and High Frequency regions), and 2.), a + T brg Nm step bearing torque. Construct the
sketches using superposition of the Low, Mid and High Frequency components. Your reasoning to obtain sketch is
required; computer generated results not required or accepted.
G. Implement your controller using op amps. Some values may be literal, i.e., not explicit numbers. Your resistor
and capacitor values are to be on the scale of megohms (10 6 = 1 M) and microfarads (10 6 f = 1 f),
respectively.
Parameter Definition
c, dc/dt Azimuth gimbal angle and rate, rad and r/s, respectively.
Gc(s) Compensation, v/v
Hs(s) Frequency sensitive portion of sensor transfer functions
IM Motor current, amps
Jaz Inertia of arm, Kg-m2
k1 Angle scale factor, v/rad
k2 Angle rate scale factor, v/r/s
Ka Power amplifier constant, v/v
KB Structural influence coefficient; KB = 0.05
Kemf Motor back emf constant, v/r/sec
KM Motor torque constant, Nm/amp
L Motor inductance, Henries
r, dr/dt Azimuth gimbal angle and rate commands, rad and r/s, respectively.
R Motor resistance, Ohms
Tbrg Bearing torque, Nm
TM Motor torque, Nm
u Disturbance torque, Nm.
Vcmd Op amp controller output voltage, v
VM Power amplifier output voltage, v
Vr Voltage equivalent to angle command r(t), v
Vr_dot Voltage equivalent to angle rate command, v
Vc Voltage equivalent to measured gimbal angle c, v
Vc_dot Voltage equivalent to measured gimbal angle rate, v
Elevation gimbal angle, rad
1* Rate sensor frequency, rad/s
M* Motor frequency, rad/s; m = R/L
n* Control system undamped natural frequency, rad/s
* Control system damping
1* Rate sensor damping
b Structural mode frequency, rad/s, b = 35 n
b Structural mode damping, b = 0.005
* Determined by designer
Solution:
A. Requirements
The requirements are summarized in Table 5.12-2. As shown in the 1 st column of the Table, for 35% overshoot
and tp 0.1 s the standard form of the 2nd order system yields n 33.2 r/s and 0.32. The damping ratio, , is
increased and the undamped natural frequency, n, slightly decreased as shown in the 2nd column of the Table if a
Mid Frequency, i.e., "lead", zero is added to compensate the system. For example, with a Mid Frequency zero, the
overshoot is reduced to 17.5% and n is reduced by a factor of 0.95 (rather than a smaller factor such as 0.8) to
offset the potential decrease in n due to the low frequency residue.
The sensitivity of the residue and undamped natural frequency to b n, the Low Frequency root, is a function of
the constant b as shown in Figure 5.12-2 (Control System Synthesis, Ch 2, Fig 2.4.3-9 and Ch 3, Fig 3.4-4). It is
desired to have a reasonably rapid decay of the Low Frequency exponential term. For b = 0.02, the value of the
magnitude of the residue based on Figure 5.11-2 is negligible. Let b = 0.02. To be conservative, the derived
design value for overshoot is set at 30% (allowing 5% for the exponential tail and any unknown-unknowns [unk-
unks]). The damping ratio, , is increased and the undamped natural frequency, n, decreased as shown in the 3rd
column of the Table if a Mid Frequency, i.e., "lead", zero is also added to compensate the system. For example, with
a Mid Frequency zero the design value of overshoot becomes 15% as shown in column 3.
Note: Based on the standard form of the 2nd order differential equation Control System Synthesis, Section 2.3.1
(where Mp = OS/100) the equations for and n are
Figure 5.12-2 Normalized residue of Low Frequency root to a unit step command as a function of the
constant b, where the root is b n
or
1 1 1 K emf s 1 1 1 K emf s
I M (s) = V M (s) - C(s) = V M (s) - C(s) 5.12-3
R L R L R s R s
s +1 s +1 +1 +1
R R M M
The generated motor torque is TM = KM IM.
Figure 5.12-3 Part 1 (Kemf 0). Block diagram of actuator and plant
Part 2. Kemf = 0. The transfer function from voltage VM(s) to current IM(s) is
5.12-4
where M = R/L is the frequency of the motor drive circuit; the motor drive time constant is 1/M. The frequency
M is selected to be equal to 20 n to limit the effect of the transfer function (magnitude ~ 1 for n and
phase = arctan (1/20) ~ 2.9 at n) on the control system. The transfer function simplifies to IM/VM = 1/R.
The sensor parameters are selected to the limit the effect of the sensors on magnitude and phase at, and below, n.
The phase lag due to each (independent) sensor is arctan (2/1). Choose 1 = 0.7 and 1 = 30 n
(magnitude ~ 1 for n and phase = arctan (2 (0.7)/30) ~ 2.7 at n) making their transfer functions effectively
1 for the initial control system design (gains k1 and k2 cancelled in design process).
The structural mode is at 35 n, KB = 0.05 and b = 0.005. The peak amplitude of the structural mode is at 35 n
and is approximately KB/2b = 5 (14 dB). Since the mode frequency is well above n and the amplitude KB/2b is
small, the mode is neglected for the initial synthesis.
The block diagram from the control signal Vcmd(s) to the output c(s), with Kemf = 0, the laser sensor transfer
functions as 1 and the structural mode elimination, is shown in Figure 5.12-4.
The overall transfer function for the simplified actuator and plant equations is (with U(s) = 0)
C(s) K K
= a M 5.12-5
Vcmd (s) R J s2
az
5.12-6
Figure 5.12-4 Simplified block diagram of actuator and plant with Kemf = 0, actuator and sensor transfer
functions = 1 and no structural mode
Review of the implications of the requirements. The actuator and plant combination is Type 2; there are two free
integrations. To meet the requirement for tracking (therefore, need for 1/s3 in the overall open loop transfer
function) and zero steady state error to a step disturbance, a PID controller is needed. The design uses the values in
the 3rd column of Table 5.12-2, namely n 31.5 r/s, 0.52 with b = 0.02.
The position, integral and derivative gains are selected (shown in Section C) such that the PID controller creates a
Mid Frequency zero and a Low Frequency zero as shown in Figure 5.12-5.
Figure 5.12-5 PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for C(s)/R(s)
The approximate closed loop transfer function is
2 n s + n (s + b n ) 2 n s + n
C(s) 2 ns + n2s + b n3
2
2 2
5.12-7
R(s) (s2 + 2 ns + n2 ) (s + b n ) (s2 + 2 ns + n2 ) (s + b n ) (s2 + 2 ns + n2 )
Based on the approximate system equation, the Low Frequency pole-zero pair cancels; again, this is only an
approximation for the exact transfer function.
Considering only the effect of the Mid Frequency zero on the 2nd order response. The approximation for the
dominant second order poles and Mid frequency zero are illustrated in Figure 5.12-5 along with the alpha angle, ,
used to estimate the response of the second order system with a Mid frequency zero. The values of L1, L2 and alpha
() based on the figure are
n -L
y = cos- 1 , L1 = cos y = n , L2 = n sin y = n 1- 2 , = tan-1 n 1 = tan-1 5.12-8
2 2 2 2 L2 1- 2
Note that alpha () only depends on . The relationship is shown in Figure 5.12-6.
Figure 5.12-7 Evaluation of the factors of 2 and 0.95 used for overshoot and n, respectively
Figure 5.11-8 Evaluation of 2nd order response with Mid Frequency zero
5.12-10
into the plant equation 5.12-6 with the disturbance u(t) included yields
5.12-11
Differentiating once to remove the integral results in the 3rd order differential equation
5.12-12
Since the coefficient of c(t) and r(t) are equal up through the 2nd derivative, this system follows an acceleration input
command with zero steady state error. Also, the term du(t)/dt indicates the system has zero steady state error for a
step torque disturbance u(t).
Laplace transforming with zero initial conditions
k D s 2 + k p s + ki 1 s
C(s) = R(s) + U (s) 5.12-13
3 2 J az s3 + k s 2 + k s + k
s + k D s + k p s + ki D p i
Since ki/kp is typically much less than kp and kD (or equivalently, b n << n), the denominator can be
approximately factored as
5.12-14
The first term is the dominant second order system response. Hence
k p = n2 and k D = 2 n 5.12-15
2 ns2 + n2s + b n3 1 s
C(s) = R(s) + U (s) 5.12-17
3 2
s + 2 ns + n2s + b n3 J az s + 2 s + 2s + b 3
3
n
2
n n
Evaluating the gains using equations 5.12-15 and -16 with b = 0.02
k p = n2 = 31.52 = 992.25
k D = 2 n = 2(0.52)31.5 = 32.76 5.12-20
ki = b n3 = 0.02(31.5)3 = 625.12
The approximate and exact poles and zeros are tabulated in Table 5.12-3.
Table 5.12-3 Closed loop poles and zeros
Figure 5.12-10 Block diagram of PID control system (simplified plant, actuator and sensors)
Requirement Estimated
i.) Overshoot 35% 20%
Comply
ii.) Time to peak 0.1 sec 0.08 sec
Comply
iii.) Settling time (2 %) 0.5 sec; 4 0.24 sec
time constants: 4/( n) Comply
iv.) Zero steady state error to an Comply
acceleration command input, (Type 3 system)
v.) Zero steady state error to a step Comply
disturbance (Integral control)
F. Sketch of response
Step Response to R(s) = 1/s. Set U(s) = 0. Since the gain b << 1, where b is related to the approximate Low
Frequency root b n, the two closed loop zeros are separated in magnitude, i.e., one is a mid frequency zero the
other is part of the low frequency pole-zero dipole pair.
The time constant of the Low Frequency root using the approximate root value of s = 0.63 is 1/0.63 = 1.6 seconds,
which is approximately 16 times the 0.1 second time to peak requirement. The Low Frequency root response
decreases to 95% (e 0.08/1.6 = 0.95) of its maximum value in 0.08 seconds (tp). As derived from Figure 5.12-2, the
value of the Low Frequency residue is very small; therefore, it does not show when added to the Mid Frequency
region step response in determining overshoot.
Using the approximate Mid Frequency overshoot and time to peak values, obtain the sketch in Figure 5.12-11.
Hugh Dougherty, September 2017 161
Chapter 5 Math Modeling Control System Examples
The overall response c(t) must be zero at time t = 0, so the value of the 2nd order Mid Frequency response term at
time t = 0 is 0.001 Tbrg/Jaz. The Mid Frequency terms have a response that is the standard form of the second order
system, i.e., no mid frequency zero. For the standard form of the second order system with = 0.52, n tp = p/(1
2)1/2 = 3.7 (since n = 31.5, then tp = 0.12 seconds) and the overshoot is approximately 15%. The 2 nd order portion
of the response is to a step (starting at 0.001 T brg/Jaz) of magnitude approximately 0.001 A/M; the overshoot is
0.15 (0.001) Tbrg/Jaz = 0.00015 Tbrg/Jaz.
The magnitude of the slow exponential term is approximately 0.001 e 0.63(0.12) Tbrg/Jaz = 0.00093 Tbrg/Jaz at 0.12
seconds. Hence, the estimate of the peak value of c(t) at t = 0.12 sec is approximately 0.0011 T brg/Jaz.
The sketch of the normalized response of Jaz/ Tbrg c(t) to a torque step of magnitude T brg is shown in Figure 5.12-
13 using these approximate values.
Figure 5.12-13 Sketch of normalized response (Tbrg/Jaz) c(t) to torque step Tbrg
The op amp configuration is in Figure 5.12-14. Note the inclusion of the voltage conversion gains k1 and k2 and
their cancellation by the controller electronics.
No credit given for computer work. Use computer only for sanity check, calculating arithmetic expressions
(e.g., overshoot) or to find roots of polynomials as needed.
5.13 Grappling Cart Control Systems
Consider the single-axis control systems shown in Figure 5.13-1. A linear DC motor drive and gear train move the
cart in the c-direction in response to the user input command generator signal r(t). The command generator also
provides the rate command signal dr(t)/dt. The carriage position c(t) is measured by a Global Positioning System
(GPS) receiver and converted to the voltage Vc(t). The accelerometer measures the carts acceleration d2c/dt2 which
is integrated to provide the rate feedback dc(t)/dt with associated output voltage V6. The camera and gimbal
assembly with mass Mc is attached to the main body of the cart and has c-axis direction linear spring-damper
parameters Ks and B, respectively.
The elevation gimbal contains a motor and angle encoder. It rotates the capture arm in response to user input. The
mass Mm of the main body is much larger than that of any specific captured object.
Details are given in Figure 5.13-1 and Table 5.13-1.
A. Write the equations describing the main body and elevation gimbal control systems.
B. Draw the elemental block diagrams for the Elevation Gimbal and Motor Drive control systems (No
differentiators, one element per block where possible/reasonable).
C. Write the state equations. State variable #1, i.e., x1, is associated with op amp #2 (i.e., op amp with output
voltage V2) and then number state variables sequentially.
Solution:
A. Equations for Systems
The equations are summarized in Table 5.13-2.
Table 5.13-2 Elevation gimbal and drive control system equations
Item Equations
Elevation Gimbal Control System
Input command Vg_cmd = Kg g_cmd
Encoder readout voltage Vg = K g g
Op Amp #1: Unity gain Vg_cmd /R1 + Vg/R1 + V1/R1 = 0 V1 = Vg_cmd Vg
summer
Op Amps #2: PID with gain V2/Zi + V3/Zo = 0, 1/Zi = 1/R2 + C1 s Zi = R2/(R2 C1 s + 1) ,
Zo = 1/C2 s + R3 Zo = (R3 C2 s + 1)/ C2 s ,
V2/V1 = (R3 C2 s + 1) (R2 C1 s + 1) /(R2 C2 s)
Op Amp #3: Low pass filter V2/Zi + V3/Zo = 0, Zi = R4, 1/Zo = C3 s + 1/R5 Zo = R5/(R5 C3 s + 1)
V3/V2 = (R5/R4)/(R5 C3 s + 1)
Power Amplifier V E = KE V 3
Motor Drive Circuit VE Ig Lg s Ig Rg Kg_emf dg/dt = 0
Motor Torque T g = KT I g
Elevator gimbal dynamics J d2/dt2 = Tg
Main Body Drive System
Position input command V r = Kr r
Position feedback V c = Kr c
Rate input command Vr_dot = Kr_dot dr/dt
Op Amp #4: Unity gain Vr /R6 + Vc /R6 + V4/R6 = 0 V4 = Vr Vc
summer
Op Amp #5: PI with gain V4/Zi + V5/Zo = 0, 1/Zi = 1/R7 + C4 s Zi = R7/(R7 C4 s + 1) ,
Zo = 1/C5 s V5 = ( R7 C4 s + 1)/( R7 C5 s) V4
Accelerometer output voltage Va =
Op Amp #6: Integrator V6 = Va/(R8 C6 s)
Op Amp #7: Low pass filter V6/Zi + V7/Zo = 0, Zi = R9, 1/Zo = C7 s + 1/R10 Zo = R10/(R10 C7 s + 1)
V7 = (R10/R9)/(R10 C7 s + 1) V6
Op Amp #8: Summer with V8/R12 + Vr_dot /R11 + V7/R11 = 0 V8 = (R12/R11) V7 (R12/R11) Vr_dot
gain
Op Amp #9: Inverter with gain V8/R13 + V9/R14 = 0 V9 = (R14/R13) V8
Op Amp #10: Summer with V5/R15 + V9/R15 + V10/R16 = 0 V10 = (R16/R15) V5 (R16/R15) V9
gain
Drive motor Power Amp Vm = KC V10
Motor Drive Circuit Vm Im Lm s Im Rm Kemf d1/dt = 0
Motor Torque T m = Km I m
Motor Drive coupled dynamic equations. T1 is the torque on the motor due to the gear train, T 2 is the driving torque
on the gear train output and Tw = FT rw as the torque on the output gear due to the track drive. The equations for the
condition FT 1/2 M g (i.e., no slippage of track assuming equal load on the 2 tracks) are
5.13-1
These equations are used to draw the elemental block diagram shown in Figure 5.13-2. Note that there is an
algebraic relationship between 1, 2 and c, and between T2 and FT so the differential equations for the drum and
carriage are not independent of the differential equation for 1.
The equations can be algebraically manipulated to get a reduced expression for the state variables related to the
motor, drum and carriage using the above relationships.
n1 n n n2
2 = 1 ; c = 1 rw 1 ; Tw = FT rw ; define k1 = 1 rw2 and k2 = 12 rw2 5.13-2
n2 n2 n2 n 2
Then
5.13-3
5.13-4
5.13-5
Per the state variable definitions in Figure 5.13-2, x10 = d1/dt, x11 = 1, x12 = dcc/dt, x13 = cc. Equation 5.13-5 is
used to write the equation for the state variable x10 through x13.
Equation for combined Op Amps #2 (PID) and #3 (Low Pass filter). The transfer function for the combined op
amps is
V3 (s)
=
R5 ( R 2C1 s +1) ( R 3C2 s +1) = 1 R 2 R 3C1C2 s 2 + ( R 2C1 + R 3C2 ) s +1
5.13-6
V1(s) R 2 R 4 R 5C2C3 1 R 2 R 4C2C3
s2 +
1
s
s s +
R 5C3 R 5C3
5.13-7
Comparing with Control System Synthesis notes, Section 4.5, rewrite the equation as
5.13-8
where
1 RC R C +R C 1
a= , b=0 , c= 3 1 , d = 2 1 3 2 , e= 5.13-9
R5C3 R4C3 R2 R4C2C3 R2 R4C2C3
5.13-10
5.13-12
5.13-13
This equation could lead to an algebraic loop since the output V5, which is not a state variable, is feedback. The
block diagram uses equation 5.13-12.
C. State Equations.
The outputs of the integrators are selected as the state variable. The numbering starts at Op Amp #2 with x1
assigned to the 1st integration in the combined PID and lag state equation associated with V2 and V3. The state
variable numbering is shown in Figure 5.13-2.
5.13-14
A. Determine and explain your derived Low, Mid and High Frequency requirements (e.g., determine system type,
, n, etc.) for Requirements (i) through (vi). Use a table-format to display results. Explain/justify your reasons for
choice of parameter values for the transfer functions for the actuator and sensors and the structural frequency b.
B. Synthesize either a conventional PID, PD or PI controller to meet your derived requirements. Explain your
design choice for the controller. Explain the assumptions/decisions you make for your design as it evolves.
C. Draw the block diagram for your drive control system design including the values determined for your
controller, actuator and sensors. Some values may be literal, i.e., not explicit numbers.
D. Evaluate in a table-format how your designs capability compares to the requirements. Discuss how you
evaluated whether your design met requirements.
E. Sketch the response to: 1.) a unit step command, r(t) (e.g., label composite overall response as well as
components for Low, Mid and High Frequency regions), and 2.), a unit step disturbance force. Construct the
sketches using superposition of the Low, Mid and High Frequency components. Your reasoning to obtain sketch is
required; computer generated results not required or accepted.
F. Implement your controller using op amps and the basic input (r and dr/dt), position sensor (GPS receiver) and
accelerometer sensor (d2c/dt2) shown in Figure 5.13-1. The interface from your op amp design to the actuator is an
amplifier gain (+ Kc) whose output is the command Fcmd and has units of N/v. Your controller design is to replace
the rest of the op amps in the figure. Some op amp values may be literal, i.e., not explicit numbers. Your resistor
and capacitor values are to be on the scale of megohms (10 6 = 1 M) and microfarads (10 6 f = 1 f),
respectively.
Parame Definition
ter
c, dc/dt Drive position and rate, m and m/s, respectively.
cc, dcc/dt Structural mode position and rate, m and m/s, respectively.
cm, Measured position and rate, m and m/s, respectively.
dcm/dt
e, de/dt Error and rate, m and m/s, respectively.
Gc(s), Compensation and actuator transfer functions, respectively
Ga(s)
Hc(s), Position and rate sensor actuator transfer functions, respectively
Hs(s)
Fa Actuator force, N
Fcmd Control signal force command, N
Ka Actuator gain, N/N, Ka = 1 5%
KB Structural mode influence coefficient, KB = 0.15
Kc Position sensor gain, m/m, Kc = 1 0.01%
Ks Rate sensor gain, m/s/m/s, Ks = 1 0.1%
M Total mass of cart, Kg. M is known to 8%
r, dr/dt Drive position and rate commands, m and m/s, respectively.
u Disturbance force, N
c* Position sensor time constant, s
a* Actuator undamped natural frequency, rad/s
b* Structural mode frequency, rad/s
s* Rate sensor undamped natural frequency, rad/s
* Control system damping factor
a* Actuator sensor damping factor
b Structural mode damping. b = 0.005
s* Rate sensor damping factor
* Parameter determined by designer
Solution
A. Requirements. The requirements are summarized in Table 5.14-2. As shown in the 1st column of the Table, for
20% overshoot and tp 2 s the standard form of the 2nd order system yields n 1.8 r/s and 0.46. The damping
ratio, , is increased and the undamped natural frequency, n, slightly decreased as shown in the 2nd column of the
Table if a Mid Frequency, i.e., "lead", zero is added to compensate the system. For example, with a Mid Frequency
zero, the overshoot is reduced to 10%; a potential increase in overshoot due to the Low Frequency exponential
(tail) is discussed below. The design-to value of n is reduced by a (designers choice) factor of 0.95 (rather
than a smaller factor such as 0.8) to balance the increase in n due to the Mid Frequency zero and the potential
decrease in n due to approximation of b n for the Low Frequency pole.
The sensitivity of the residue and undamped natural frequency to b n, the Low Frequency root, is a function of
the constant bas shown in Figure 5.14-2 (Control System Synthesis, Chapter 2, Fig 2.4.3-9 and Chapter 3, Fig 3.4-
4). It is desired to have a reasonably rapid decay of the Low Frequency exponential term. For b = 0.02, the value of
the magnitude of the residue based on Figure 5.14-2 is negligible. Let b = 0.02. To be conservative and provide a
designer margin, the derived design value for overshoot is set at 15% (allowing 5% for the exponential tail and
any unknown-unknowns [unk-unks]). The damping ratio, , is increased and the undamped natural frequency, n,
decreased as shown in the 3rd column of the Table if a Mid Frequency, i.e., "lead", PID zero is added to compensate
the system. For example, with a Mid Frequency zero the design value of overshoot becomes 7.5% as shown in
column 3.
Note: Based on the standard form of the 2nd order differential equation Control System Synthesis, Section 2.3.1
(where Mp = OS/100) the equations for and n are
(ln M p )2 p 4
= n = t2% = 5.14-1
2
p + (ln M p ) 2
t p 1- 2 n
Table 5.14-2 Requirements Allocation
The structural mode parameters are KB = 0.15 and b = 0.005. The peak amplitude of the structural mode occurs at
b and is approximately KB/2b = 15 (~ 24 dB). Since the mode frequency is to be well above n and the controller
is a PID, the high frequency roll-off of the open loop PID transfer function has a slope of 2 (/), so at = b
the attenuation value is 2 (0.46) (/b ). The required attenuation is 36 dB (sum of 12 dB and 24 dB), or a
linear gain of 0.0158 (or 1/63). Therefore the mode frequency b 2 (0.46) 63 = 58 . Due to its high
frequency relative to and the fact that the mode has a (very small) positive phase value at , the mode is not
considered in the initial synthesis and left for the verification phase of the design.
The rate sensor and actuator parameters are selected to the limit the effect of the sensors on magnitude and phase
at, and below, n. The approximate phase lag due to the actuator and rate sensor 2nd order transfer functions is given
by arctan (2 /) and arctan (2 s /s), respectively. Choose a = s = 0.7 and = s = 30 n (magnitude
~ 1 for , s and phase ~ arctan 2 (0.7)/30 ~ 2.7 at n) making their transfer functions effectively 1 for
the initial control system design.
The position sensor time constant is chosen so tan n 3, or 1/ 19 n. Select 1/ = 20 n.
Figure 5.14-2 Normalized residue of Low Frequency root to a unit step command as a function of the
constant b, where the Low Frequency root is b n
The simplified block diagram without the structural mode is shown in Figure 5.14-3.
Figure 5.14-4 PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for C(s)/R(s)
The approximate closed loop transfer function is
2 n s + n (s + b n ) 2 n s + n
C(s) 2 n s + n2 s + b n3
2
2 2
5.14-2
R(s) (s2 + 2 n s + n2 ) (s + b n ) (s2 + 2 n s + n2 ) (s + b n ) (s2 + 2 ns + n2 )
Based on the approximate system equation, the Low Frequency pole-zero pair cancels; again, this is only an
approximation for the exact transfer function.
Considering only the effect of the Mid Frequency zero on the 2nd order response. The approximation for the
dominant second order poles and Mid frequency zero are illustrated in Figure 5.14-4 along with the alpha angle, ,
used to estimate the response of the second order system with a Mid frequency zero. The values of L1, L2 and alpha
() based on the figure are
n -L
y = cos- 1 , L1 = cos y = n , L2 = n sin y = n 1- 2 , = tan-1 n 1 = tan-1 5.14-3
2 2 2 2 L2 1- 2
Note that alpha () only depends on . The relationship is shown in Figure 5.14-5.
requirements. Hence, the values are used for the 1st iteration in the synthesis of the Mid Frequency portion of the
design proceeds using
= 0.72 and n = 1.7 r/s 5.14-4
Figure 5.14-6 Evaluation of the factors of 2 and 0.95 used for overshoot and n, respectively
Figure 5.14-7 Evaluation of 2nd order response with Mid Frequency zero
B. Synthesis of Conventional PID Controller. A PID controller is selected to achieve acceleration tracking and
zero steady state error to a step input. The form of the system with a PID controller is shown in Figure 5.14-8. Due
to the high accuracy of the gains Kc and Ks their value is 1 in the design as they have negligible effect on the static
loop gain variation.
The gain change in the forward path is due to the actual gain changing from the nominal values K a and M to Ka
Ka and M M where Ka and M are 0.05 (5%) and 0.08 (8%), respectively. The range of forward loop gain
variation is
K a + K a 1+ K a
1- 0.05 M + M K a 1+ 0.05
(- 1.1 dB) 0.88 = = = 1.14 (1.1 dB) 5.14-5
1+ 0.08 Ka M 1- 0.08
1+
M M
Due to the small variation in forward gain the design proceeds and parameter variations are evaluated during the
verification phase.
5.14-6
Differentiating once to remove the integral results in the 3rd order differential equation
5.14-7
Since the coefficient of c(t) and r(t) are equal up through the 2nd derivative, this system follows an acceleration input
command with zero steady state error. Also, the term du(t)/dt indicates the system has zero steady state error for a
step torque disturbance u(t).
Laplace transforming with zero initial conditions
k D s 2 + k p s + ki 1 s
C(s) = R(s) + U (s) 5.14-8
3 2 3 2
J az s + k s + k s + k
s + k D s + k p s + ki D p i
Since ki/kp is typically much less than kp and kD (or equivalently, b n << n), the denominator can be
approximately factored as
ki
(s2 + k D s + k p )(s + ) 5.14-9
kp
The first term is the dominant second order system response. Hence
k p = n2 and k D = 2 n 5.14-10
2 n s2 + n2 s + b n3 1 s 5.14-12
C(s) = R(s) + U (s)
s3 + 2 n s2 + n2 s + b n3 M s3 + 2 n s2 + n2 s + b n3
Evaluating the gains using equations 5.14-10 and -11 with b = 0.02
The approximate and exact poles and zeros are tabulated in Table 5.14-3. Note that the approximate and exact Mid
Frequency roots are essentially equal and the exact Low Frequency pole-zero pair essentially cancel.
Table 5.14-3 Closed loop poles and zeros
Figure 5.14-9 Block diagram of PID control system (simplified plant, actuator and sensors)
D. Comparison of Controller Against Requirements
The comparison is made using the approximations. Based on the checks made using Figures 5.14-6 and -7, the
overshoot, time to peak and settling time requirements are met, i.e., overshoot ~ 20% (with negligible tail) = 20%,
tp = 2.2/n = 2.2/1.7 ~ 1.3 sec and ts = 4/( n) = 4/[(0.72)(1.7)] ~ 3.3 sec. Due to the close estimate of the predicted
overshoot to the required value this is further evaluated in the verification phase.
Requirement Estimated
i.) Overshoot 20% 20%
Comply
ii.) Time to peak 2 sec 1.3 sec
Comply
iii.) Settling time ( 2%) 10 sec; 3.3 sec
4 time constants: 4/( n) Comply
iv.) Zero steady state error to an Comply
acceleration command input, (Type 3 system)
v.) Zero steady state error to a step Comply
disturbance (Integral control)
vi.) Suppress structural mode greater Comply
than 12 dB
F. Sketch of responses
Step Response to R(s) = 1/s. Set U(s) = 0. Since the gain b << 1, where b is related to the approximate Low
Frequency root b n, the two closed loop zeros are separated in magnitude, i.e., one is a mid frequency zero the
other is part of the low frequency pole-zero dipole pair.
The time constant of the Low Frequency root using the approximate root value of s = 0.035 is 1/0.035 ~ 29
seconds, which is approximately 15 times the 2 second time to peak requirement. The Low Frequency root response
decreases to 96% (e 1.3/29 = 0.95) of its maximum value in 1.3 seconds (tp). As derived from Figure 5.14-2, the
value of the Low Frequency residue is very small. Checking using the residue with the exact transfer function
values
Therefore, it is a negligible term when added to the Mid Frequency region step response in determining overshoot.
Using the approximate Mid Frequency overshoot and time to peak values, obtain the sketch in Figure 5.14-10.
1 1 1 1 1
Residue = = 0.36
M s2 + 2 ns + n2
s= - 0.035 (
M (- 0.035) + 2(0.72)(1.7)(- 0.035)+1.7
2
)
2 M 5.14-17
The overall response c(t) must be zero at time t = 0, so the value of the 2nd order Mid Frequency response term at
time t = 0 is 0.36 /M. The Mid Frequency terms have a response that is the standard form of the second order
system, i.e., no Mid Frequency zero. The design-to values for and n are used to sketch the expected response
(other values for and n that might result from verification phase will be similar). For the standard form of the
second order system with = 0.72, n tp = p/(1 2)1/2 = 4.5 (since n = 1.7, then tp = 2.7 seconds) and the
overshoot is approximately 3.8%. The 2nd order portion of the response is to a normalized unit step (starting at
0.36/M) of magnitude 0.36/M; the overshoot is 0.038 (0.36) /M = 0.014/M.
The magnitude of the slow exponential term is approximately 0.36 e 0.035 (2.7) /M = 0.33 /M at 2.7 seconds. Hence,
the estimate of the peak value of c(t) at t = 2.7 sec is approximately (0.33 + 0.014 ) /M = 0.34/M.
The sketch of the normalized response of M c(t) to a unit step force is shown in Figure 5.14-12 using these
approximate values.
Figure 5.14-12 Sketch of normalized response M c(t) to unit step force u(t)
F. Op Amp Implementation of the PID Controller. The op amp configuration is in Figure 5.14-13. The
conversion of the input command
5.14.3 Verification
Unit Step Command Input.
The transform with a unit step input 1/s is
c(t) = 1- 0.99955 e- 1.224 t cos (1.1434 t) +1.1016 * e- 1.224 t sin (1.1434 t) - 0.0004506 e- 0.035024 t
5.14-20
The "dipole" pole-zero pair near the origin that canceled in the approximation provides a small residue value (
0.0004506) relative to the residue value for the dominant second order response. The second order response is
dominated by the second order pole and "lead zero. The step response is shown in Figure 5.14-14. The overshoot
is 20.6% and the time to peak is 1.3 sec. While sufficient margin was provided for n to meet the time to peak
requirement, there was no margin for hence the slight outage relative to the overshoot requirement. On the next
iteration the value of would be increase to provide margin.
An automatic welder controller is discussed in 7.1 and 7.2. The analysis of a position control system is in 7.3 and an
inner loop system in 7.4. Sections 7.5, 7.6, 7.7 and 7.8 are the design for an azimuth gimbal control system,
maneuvering supply vehicle, air pad transport system and cart control system, respectively.
7.0.1 Open and Closed Loop Transfer Functions for Example in Chapter 1, Section 1.1
Based on the block diagrams in Figure 1.1-1 the open and closed loop transfer functions are shown in Table 7.0.1-1.
Table 7.0.1-1 Open and closed loop transfer functions
The values are b = 1 + 2, = 2 / 2 and n = 1. The straight-line transfer function for the various transfer functions
are summarized in Table 7.0.1-2.
Table 7.0.1-2 Straight-line approximation for the open loop transfer functions
Lead 1 1 1 7.0.1-8
compensation for ; s for < < b ; b for b
b s= j b s= j b s= j
transfer function
PID Controller
C(s)/E(s); open 1 1 b 1
loop transfer for ; for > 7.0.1-9
3 s
function s s= j b s= j b
PID 1 1 1 7.0.1-10
compensation for ; bs for >
s s= j s= j
transfer function b b
The comparison of the exact and straight-line approximations for the compensation and open loop transfer functions
are shown in Figure 7.0.1-1 and -2, respectively. Figure 7.0.1-3 illustrates the straight-line open loop transfer
functions compared to the closed loop transfer functions; note the 0 dB crossing for the PID open loop and closed
loop are similar.
Figure 7.0.1-1 Comparison of straight-line and exact gain for PID and lead compensation
Figure 7.0.1-2 Comparison of straight-line and exact gain for open loop compensation
Figure 7.0.1-3 Comparison of straight-line open loop and exact closed loop gain for compensation
D. Sketch the root locus for the control system assuming a proportional controller, i.e., Gc(s)=Kp, and that Kemf = 0
1 1 R
and > > m . Note: Use literals for sketch, "numbers" are not needed.
R2C2 R1C1 Lm
Power
R1 Amp
Programmed
Motion C1 Ro Fixed Support
zcmd ,zcmd R2
mc Rm I
Gc(s) KA Linear Motor
+ V1 +
V2 VA Lm
Ri Ks
C2 Kt, Kemf Fc
Fd Spring
z, z
Sensor M
Welding Torch
Welded
Material
y
x z
Item Equations
1st Op Amp Input impedance : Zi(s) = Ri
R1 Feedback Impedance:
Z1 R1
1 1 1
C1 = + C1 s = ( C1R1 s +1) Z1(s) =
Z1(s) R1 R1 C1R1 s +1
Transfer Function:
mc
V1(s) Z (s) R 1
+ V1 =- 1 =- 1
Ri mc (s) Zi (s) Ri R1C1 s +1
R0C2
where = . Rewriting
RiC1
Programmed
Motion
zcmd ,zcmd
Gc(s)
mc
R2 C2 R1 C1
x4 Op
+ 1 + +
Amps
s
1
Fd
R1 C1
x3 x2 x1
Fc +
VA VLm 1 I 1 + z z z
KA Kt 1 1
+ Lm s + M s s
V2
+ Linear Ks
Rm Motor M
+ VRm
Vemf Spring
Kemf Back emf
C. State Equations.
The outputs of the integrators in Figure 7.1-1B-1 are selected as the state variables.
In matrix notation
1 1 R Ks
where z = ,p = , p = m , s = . The closed loop transfer function is
R2C2 1 R1C1 2 Lm M
C(s) K RL ( s + z )
=
4
( 1 2
3
) (
p p
2
s1
2
2 RL) ( s (
R(s) s + p + p s + + s + K + p + p 2 s + 2 + K
p p s
1 z RL
2 ) ) 1 2
1 1 R
Using the ordering > > m or z > p > p , the root locus is sketched in Figure 7.1-1D-2.
R2C2 R1C1 Lm 1 2
KRL 60
KRL
Ks
KRL KRL KRL KRL Xj
M
X X
1 1 Rm
R2 C2 R1 C1 Lm
4. Angle of asymptotes:
n m R
1 1
p1 - z1 - - m+
R1C1 Lm R2C2
5. C.G of asymptotes: i =1 i =1
# p-#z # p-#z
6. Departure from real axis 90
7. Real axis breakaway N?A - Need numbers to complete
8. Angle of departure from complex poles Ks
Complex poles at j ; angle into
M
RHP
9. j axis crossover ce = s4 + a3 s3 + a2 s2 + a1 s + a0
Ks
s= j
M
1 1 K R
Assume the op amps have unity DC gain, K emf = = = 0, s = 0.01 n2 , and m = 10 n where n is the
R1C1 R2C2 M Lm
value you chose for your controller design. Explain/justify any additional assumptions you make in designing your
controller.
A. Design a conventional PID, PD or PI controller to meet requirements. Explain your selection. Draw the block
diagram of the control system.
B. Sketch the compensated root locus calculating key features, e.g., asymptotes, j axis intercept, breakaway, etc.
C. Draw the compensated Bode Diagram. Determine the gain and phase margins.
D. Sketch the output response to a unit step input; to a unit step force disturbance.
Solution.
Requirements. The requirements are summarized in Table 7.2-1. The damping ratio, , could be increased and the
undamped natural frequency, n, decreased as shown in the Table since a "lead" zero is to added to compensate the
system by a PD and PID controller.
Rm Ks
where p = and s = .
1 Lm M
Rewriting in Bode form
K A Kt 1
G p (s) =
K s Rm s 2
+1 s +1
2
p1 s
K A Kt
The DC, or low frequency, gain of the plant is .
K s Rm
K r s2 + s + K i
Gc (s) = K K p
s
Lm M
K is chosen to cancel the plant gain. Hence K = .
K A Kt
The overall forward loop transfer function is
G(s) =
(
K p K r s2 + s + K i
=
) (
K p K r s2 + s + K i )
R
(
K s s + p1 s2 + s2
s s + m s2 + s )( )
Lm M
Since Ki is chosen to provide a zero at a much lower frequency than the lead zero, the numerator can be
approximately factored as
1
( )
K p Kr s2 + s + K i K p K r s +
( s + Ki )
Kr
yielding
1 1
K p Kr s + ( s + Ki ) K p Kr s + ( s + Ki )
Kr Kr
G(s) = =
R K
s s + m s2 + s (
s s + p s 2 + s2
1 )( )
Lm M
Ks R
Using the given data that = 0.01 n2 and m = 10 n , the approximate transfer function is
M Lm
1
K p Kr s + ( s + Ki )
Kr
G(s) = r
(
s ( s +10 n ) s 2 + (0.1 n )2 )
The root locus sketch is
Asymptote
j
n
X j 0.1 n
X X
Rm
= 10 n
Lm
"integral"
1 Ki Fd
s
zcmd
"proportional" + Fc + 1
+ e + mc KA Kt M z
1 K* Kp
+ Rm + s2 + Ks
M
z(t) Kr
"derivative"
s
K p Ki
To meet the requirements, Kv 100, therefore 1, the closed loop transfer function is
n2
1 K
K p K r s2 + s + i
C(s) Kr Kr
=
R(s) 3 2
s + K p K r s2 + K p + n s + K p Ki
100
Equating the characteristic equation to the desired characteristic equation
2
100 (
s3 + K p K r s 2 + K p + n s + K p K i = ( s + a ) s2 + 2 n s + n2 )
= s3 + ( 2 n + a) s 2 + ( n + 2 a) n s + a n2
n2
( n + 2 a ) n = K p + 100
a n2 = K p Ki
59.292
( s +1.01) ( s + 40.7 ) A B
= + +
CC s + D
s ( s +1) ( s + 58.292s + 2440.36 ) s s +1 s + 58.292s + 2440.36
2 2
c(t) = 1- 0.01 e- t - 0.99 e- 29.146 t cos 39.9 t + 0.76 e- 29.146 t sin 39.9 t
The response for the approximation is shown in Figure 7.2A-4. The overshoot is approximately 25% and occurs at
0.047 seconds.
c(t)
time (sec)
Including Linear Motor Pole in Open Loop Transfer Function. The linear motor pole is placed in the transfer
function maintaining the DC, i.e., low frequency; gain the same value as for the previous case without the linear
motor pole. The open loop transfer function is
Rm
G(s) =
(
K p K r s2 + s + K i ) Lm
= 10 n
(
K p K r s2 + s + K i )
K
s s2 + s
M
R
s+ m
Lm
(
s ( s +10 n ) s2 + 0.01 n2 )
Kr 2 1
s + s +1
K p Ki Ki Ki
= 100
n s
2
s2
s +1 +1
10 n 0.01 n2
Note that Kv = 100. Using the values for the gains found above, the open loop transfer function is
s s
+1 +1
G(s) = 29290
( s +1.01) (s + 40.7)
= 100
1.01 40.7
2
(
s ( s + 494) s + 24.4 )
s
s
s 2
+1 +1
494 4.94
The closed loop transfer function is
C(s)
= 29290
( s +1.01) (s + 40.7 )
R(s)
(
( s +1) ( s + 433) s2 + 60.2s + 2785 )
The partial fraction expansion for a step input is
A B D E s+ F 1 - 0.01 0.162 - 1.15 s + 0.739
C(s) = + + + = + + +
s s +1 s + 433 s2 + 60.2s + 2785 s s +1 s + 433 s2 + 60.2s + 2785
Inverting
c(t) = 1- 0.01 e- t + 0.162 e- 433 t -1.15 e-30.1 t cos 43.4 t + 0.815 e-30.1 t sin 43.4 t
The response has approximately 30% overshoot and a time to peak of 0.044 sec. The response is shown in Figure
7.2A-5.
c(t)
time (sec)
Figure 7.2A-5 Step response considering time constant of linear motor; = 0.59
Iteration to reduce the overshoot, set = 0.85. The overshoot exceeds the 20% requirement. The damping ratio,
, is increased to 0.85. The gains are
K p = 2500 , K r = 0.034 , K i = 0.976
The open loop transfer function neglecting the linear motor pole is
s s
+1 +1
G(s) = 84.98
( s +1.01) ( s + 28.4) = 100 1.01 28.4
(
s s2 + 24.4 ) s2
s
+1
24.4
The closed loop transfer function is
C(s)
= 84.98
( s +1.01) ( s + 28.4)
R(s)
(
(s +1) s2 + 84s + 2440 )
The step response is
C(s)
= 41980
( s +1.01) ( s + 28.4)
R(s)
( )
( s +1) s2 + 97.2s + 3046 (s + 396)
The step response is
c(t) = 1- 0.01 e- t -1.31 e- 48.6 t cos 26.2 t + 2.43e- 48.6 t sin 26.2 t + 02 e- 396 t
The maximum overshoot is 20% and occurs t = 0.038 seconds. The step response is shown in Figure 7.2-2A-7.
c(t)
time (sec)
G(s) = 29292
( s +1.01) ( s + 28.4)
s ( s2 + 494 ) ( s + 494)
The form of the transfer function for plotting the root locus is to use the root locus gain, K, as the parameter
G(s) = K
( s +1.01) ( s + 28.4)
s ( s2 + 494) ( s + 494)
1. The loci start at the open loop poles s = 0, 494 and j 4.94
2 The loci terminate at the zeros s = 1.01, 40.7 and 2 zeros at infinity.
3. Real axis loci s = 0 to 1 and s = 40.7 to 494
4. Angle of asymptotes:
n m
pi - zi -494 + 40.7 +1
i =1 i =1 = -226.15
5. C.G of asymptotes: # p-#z
# p-#z
6. Arrival at real axis 90
7. Real axis breakaway Requires solving 4th order polynomial for
information not need for sketch
8. Angle of departure from complex poles
j
cp
Not to scale X j 4.94
s= 494
s= 1
s=0
s= 40.7
X O O X
494 40.7 1
conj cp
X
9. j axis crossover It is obvious from root locus that the
j axis intersection is at s = j 4.94 at
K=0
The sketch of the root locus is shown in Figure 7.2B-1
j
j 50
j 40
Not to Scale j 30
j 20
j 10
X
X X
494 50 40 30 20 10
Figure 7.2B-2 Sketch of root locus for PID compensated system; = 0.59
s 3
+1
0.1
G(s) =
s s
s3 +1 +1
0.001 1
A.1. The Bode diagram is shown in Figures 7.3-A.1-1 through -4.
200
150
100
Gain (dB)
50
-50
10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1
Freq (r/s)
-100
-150
-200
Phase (deg)
-250
-300
-350
10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1
Freq (r/s)
Figure 7.3-A.1-2 Bode gain and phase diagram
Figure 7.3-A.1-3 Bode gain and phase diagram (hand drawn) - 0.0001 to 10 r/s
Figure 7.3-A.1-4 Bode gain and phase diagram (hand drawn) - 0.01 to 1 r/s
A.2 The estimate of the closed loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) from the Bode gain diagram is based on dividing
the gain into three regions, 20 log|G(j)| > 15 dB, 15 dB 20 log|G(j)| 15 dB and |20 log|G(j)| < 15 dB
with support from the root locus sketch. The root locus sketch is shown in Figure 7.3-A.2-1; the detailed root locus
analysis is in section E.
j
K=1 j0.8
j0.7
s-plane
Not to Scale
j0.6
Closed loop roots
K j0.5
j0.4
j0.3
Low Frequency
Gain Margin K = 0.15
Frequency j0.2
K=1 j0.1
K
X
X
XX
X
-1 -0.9 -0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1
s 3 s 3
+1 +1
C(s) 0.1 0.1
= =
2
R(s) |G(s)|>> 1 s s s 2 s
+1 +1 +1 +1
0.01(1 - 0.1) 0.01(1 + 0.1) 0.09 0.11
The Mid Frequency transfer function form the Bode gain diagram is shown in Figure 7.3-A.2-2.
+ 15 dB
20 dB/ dec
1
40 dB/ dec
15 dB
Figure 7.3-A.2-2 Sketch of Bode straight line gain diagram in Mid Frequency Region
The associated open loop transfer function for the Mid Frequency Region is
1
G(s) =
|G(s)| 1 s ( s +1)
s 3
+1
C(s) 0.1
=
R(s) s 2 s
+1
0.09 0.11
(
+1 s2 + s + 1 )
Case 2. The relatively low Bode gain (20 dB) at the open loop zeros and the root locus sketch indicates that the two
roots closest to the origin in the s-plane might approach their associated zeros at 0.1 more rapidly than the other root,
i.e., one of the zeros at s = 0.1 might interact with the Mid Frequency Region response. The straight-line Bode
gain diagram is modified to separate the zeros into one at a frequency twice 0.1 r/s and two below the frequency of
0.1 r/s as shown in Figure 7.3-A.2-3.
with roots of the characteristic equation of 0.245 and 0.377 0.82. The associated undamped natural frequency
of the complex conjugate roots are n = 0.9 r/s and damping factor = 0.42.
The overall approximation for the closed loop transfer function is
s 2 s
+1 +1
C(s) 0.071 0.2
=
R(s) case 2 s s s s2 2 (0.42)
+1 +1 +1 + s +1
0.069 0.072 0.245 0.9 2 0.9
Summary of Results. The comparison of the closed loop roots predicted by the techniques is given by Table 7.3-
A.2-1.
Table 7.3-A.2-1 Comparison of closed loop roots
c(t)
0
0 20
time
Case 2
10 50
time (sec)
Figure 7.3-A.2-5 Error after conclusion of the dominant second order transient
B. The Nichols diagram is shown in Figure 7.3-B-1 and 2. Figure 7.3-B-3 is the equivalent hand-drawn plot.
200
= 0.001 r/s
180
150
100
Gain (dB)
50
= 0.2 r/s Phase Margin = 30
Gain Margin = 16.5 dB
0
( 1 8 0, 0 dB) = 0.8 r/s
= 10 r/s
-50
-350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100
Phase (deg)
30
.
= 0.1 r/s
20
= 0.2 r/s
10
Gain Margin = 16.5 dB
0
Phase Margin = 30
=
Gain (dB)
0.8 r/s
-10
-20
-30
= 10 r/s
-40
-50
-240 -220 -200 -180 -160 -140
Phase (deg)
Figure 7.3-B-2 Nichols
C. The Nyquist Diagram is shown in Figure 7.3-C-1.
90 30
120 60
20
150 30
10
180 0
210 330
240 300
270
C(s) G p (s)
=
U (s) 1+ Gc (s) G p (s)
The approximations for the transfer function at low and high gain, |Gc(j) Gp(j)| is
1
C( j ) G ( j ) for Gc ( j ) G p ( j ) >> 1
c
U ( j )
G p ( j ) for Gc ( j ) G p ( j ) << 1
The straight-line approximation of the disturbance rejection using these approximations is shown in Figure 7.3-D-1
along with the exact transfer function. The peak value of |C(j)/U(j)| for the straight line approximation occurs at
= 0.1 r/s and is 50 dB, or approximately 0.0032 m/N (In an SI units system, displacement is measured in meters
and force in Newtons). For a maximum displacement of 0.001 m (1 mm), the maximum force, Umax is 0.001/0.0032
= 0.32 N at 0.1 r/s. Examination of the exact characteristic for |C(j)/U(j)| indicates Umax = 0.32 N is a
conservative value and the sensitivity is approximately constant over the region 0.1 < < 1.
E. Root Locus
The Root locus is drawn using
s 3
+1
( s + 0.1)
3
0.1
G(s) = K =K
s
s3
s
+1 +1 s3 ( s + 0.001) ( s +1)
0.001 1
where K = 1 for the control system.
4. Angle of asymptotes:
n m - 1- 0.001+ 3 (- 0.1)
pi - zi # p-#z
= -0.35
5. C.G. of asymptotes: i =1 i =1
# p-#z
6. Departure from real axis poles 90
Arrival at zeros 60 and 180
7. Real axis breakaway ~ 0.0005
8. Angle of departure from complex poles N/A
9. j axis crossover ce = 1000 s5 +1001 s4 + ( +1000 K) s3
+ 300 K s2 + 30 K s + K
From the Bode diagram, j axis crossover
is at 0.2 r/s with K = 0.15
The sketch of the approximate root locus in Figure 7.3-A.2-1. The computer drawn locus is shown in Figure 7.3-E-
1.
0.8 K = 1
09 .
0
0.6
07
06
Imag
0.4 05
0 3 Poles
0 at s = 0
0.2 02
01 and 1 Pole
K=1
at s = -0.001
0
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5
Real 3 Zeros
C(t) = 1+ 0.295 e- 3.688 t -1.61 e- 18.88 t + 0.315 e- 93.25 t cos 82.78 t + 0.000572 e- 93.25 t sin 82.78 t
100
50
= 139.1 r/s
Gain (dB) = 20.1 r/s
0
Gain
Margin
.
21 dB
-50
-100
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Freq (r/s)
-100
Phase
-150 Margin
70.1
Phase (deg)
-200
-250
-300
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Freq (r/s)
Figure 7.4-2 Exact open loop transfer function for outer loop
c(t)
time
Figure 7.4-3 Exact step response
Composite Response
time (sec)
Mid Frequency Response
Figure 7.4-4 Exact step response; High, Mid and Low Frequency components for 0 < t < 0.1 sec
Composite Response
Figure 7.4-5 Exact step response; High, Mid and Low Frequency components for 0 < t < 1.5 sec
A. Bode Gain and Phase Diagrams.
Inner Loop.
A.1. The inner loop Bode diagram is shown in Figure 7.4-A.1-1 through -4. The root locus sketch is shown in
Figure 7.4-A.1-5.
40
20
-20
-40
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Freq (r/s)
100
50
0 Phase Margin
= 264
Phase (deg)
-50
-100
Phase Margin
-150 = 74
-200
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Freq (r/s)
+ s + 85
20 log|GfGp| 0.2 s( s + 1)
200
+15dB
0.2 3 6 85 200
15dB
Figure 7.4-A.1-6 Schematic of inner loop straight line bode gain diagram
From Figure 7.4-A.1-6, the approximate factoring is
s s
G (s) G (s) 85
f p = 0.2 = 0.2
1+ G (s) G (s) 2
approx s +1 s + s + 85 s +1 s
2
f p
+
2 (0.767)
s +1
0.2 200
0.2 130.4 2
130.4
s s
s 2.5 +1
C(s) +1 3
=3 0.2 =
R(s) approx 2 2
2 s 2 s +1 s +
2 (0.767)
s +1 s +1 s +
2 (0.767)
s +1
0.2 130.4 2 130.4 0.2
130.4
2 130.4
Outer Loop. The open loop transfer function of the outer loop based on the approximation for the inner loop is
s s
2.5 +1 300 +1
3 3
(G(s))approx = 120 s2
=
s s2
s 2 (0.767) 2 (0.767)
+1 + s +1 +1 + s +1
0.2 130.4 2 130.4 0.2 130.4 2 130.4
The approximate Bode diagram is shown in Figure 7.4-A.1-7 and the root locus sketch in Figure 7.4-A.1-8.
100
50
= 20 r/s
.
0
Gain
Margin
18 dB
-50
-100
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Freq (r/s)
-100
-200
-250
-300
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Freq (r/s)
Figure 7.4-A.1-7 Approximate outer loop Bode gain and phase diagram
Figure 7.4-A.1-9 Estimate of closed loop transfer function from straight line open loop approximate open
loop transfer function
The approximation for C(s)/R(s) is
s
C(s) +1
= 3
R(s) approx s s s 2 2(0.76)
+1 +1 + s +1
3.45 18 1112 111
Summary of Results. The comparison of the closed loop roots predicted by the techniques is given by Table 7.4-
A.2-1.
Table 7.4-A.2-1 Comparison of Inner loop Closed Loop Roots
c(t) = 1+ 0.19 e- 3.45 t -1.52 e- 18 t + 0.326 e- 84.36 t cos 72.15 t + 0.016 e- 84.36 t cos 72.15 t
approx
Residue
High Frequency Region
|G| << 1 N/A
Residue 0.32
Exact Solution
c(t)
Approximate Solution
time (sec)
Exact "Tail"
c(t)
Exact Solution
time (sec)
10
Phase
Margin 0.2 r/s
= 74
0
83 r/s
Gain (dB)
-10
-20
-30
-40
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100
Phase (deg)
60
40
Phase
20
Margin
Gain (dB)
68.5
0
Gain
-20 Margin
19.7 dB =
= 128 r/s
20 r/s
-40
-60
-80
-300 -250 -200 -150 -100
Phase (deg)
80
60
40
Phase
20 Margin
Gain (dB)
70.1
0
Gain
Margin
-20
21 dB = 139.1 r/s
-40
= 20.1 r/s
-60
-80
-300 -250 -200 -150 -100
.
Phase (deg)
210 330
240 300
270
Im G
= 0
Gain
Margin
1 = + Re G
=
Phase
Margin
70
= 0+
The approximations for the transfer function at low and high gain, |G f(j) Gp(j)| is
1
C( j ) for | (G f ( j ) + K ) G p ( j ) | >> 1, | G f ( j ) | << 1
K
U ( j )
| G p ( j ) | for | (G f ( j ) + K ) G p ( j ) | << 1
The straight-line approximation of the disturbance rejection using these approximations is shown in Figure 7.4-D-1
along with the exact transfer function. The peak value of |C(j)/U(j)| is 1/K. For K = 120, 1/K = 0.0083, or 41.6
dB. For a maximum error of 104, the maximum value of U is 104/0.0083 = 0.012 over a frequency range of
0 < < 20 r/s.
100
Outer Loop
Gp(j) .
Inner Loop
Gf(j) Gp(j)
0
Magnitude C/U(dB)
1
K C(j)
-100
U(j)
-200
10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
Freq (r/s)
4. Angle of asymptotes:
n m
pi - zi - 3- 6 - 200
i =1 i =1 = -104.5
5. C.G. of asymptotes: 3-1
# p-#z
6. Departure from real axis poles 90
7. Real axis breakaway dGinner (s)
= 0 s = -104.4 ,
ds
other values for K < 0
8. Angle of departure from complex poles N/A
9. j axis crossover N/A
1. The loci start at the open loop poles s = 0, 0.18, 104.33 j 94.26
2 The loci terminate at the zeros s = 3 and 3 zeros at infinity.
3. Real axis loci s = 0 to 0.182 and s = 3 to
4. Angle of asymptotes:
n m - 0.182 - 2 (104.33) + 3
pi - zi 4 -1
= - 68.6
5. C.G. of asymptotes: i =1 i =1
# p-#z
6. Departure from real axis 90
7. Real axis breakaway dGouter (s)
= 0 s = -0.092 , - 6.1
ds
8. Angle of departure from complex poles 104.3- 3
90 + tan- 1
94.26
104.3
- 90 - tan - 1
94.26
104.3- 0.182
- 90 - tan - 1
94.26
-90 - = - 180
= - 48.7
9. j axis crossover s4 + 208.83 s3 + 19806 s2 +
(3597.84 + K) s +3 K
s4 1 19806 3K
3
s 208.83 3597.8
s2 4.13x106 K 626.5 K
1 2 6
s K + 4.28x10 + j axis
1.487x1010 = crossing
(K+3598) at
(K 4.13x106), j140.7
6
K 4 .132x10
s0 626.5 K; K > 0
The track-drive surveying vehicle shown in Figures 7.5-1 and 7.5-2, with parameter definitions in Table 7.5-1, is
used to accurately measure landmarks using the Global Positioning System (GPS) and precision range finder. The
range finder is mounted on the payload module that is isolated in all three axes by springs and dampers from the
main carriage. The orientation of the payload module relative to inertial space is maintained by the rate integrating
gyroscopes. The figure illustrates only one axis of the carriage drive system and the azimuth drive system. The
other axle drive is the same as that shown. The elevation angle EL control system is not shown.
7.5.1. For the single axis carriage control shown, and, considering the yv-direction only:
A. Write the equations for the single axis y-direction carriage control system.
B. Obtain the pseudoinverse matrix corresponding to the mounting matrix for the gyroscope input axes (IAs)
on the payload module shown in Figures 7.5-1 and 7.5-2. Determine the mounting matrix A, the product with
its transpose and set up the form/equation for the pseudoinverse.
C. Draw the elemental block diagram (no differentiators, one element per block where possible) for the
carriage control system. Compensation, Command Generator and Power Amplifier may be used as
single blocks in your diagram.
D. Write the state equations. Label the variables in your block diagram starting with x1 = Ip.
Carriage y-axis controller: As shown in Figure 7.5-1 the spring-damper mounted payload module structure
contributes a structural mode in the y-direction design. The carriage-payload module weight is uniformly
distributed over the tracks driving the carriage. The coefficient of friction between the tracks and terrain varies
based on contact surface conditions.
Item Equations
Motor drive Vp VRp VLp Vemf = 0 -> Vp Ip Rp Lp s Ip Kemf 1 = 0
Tc = kc Ip
Gear train , T1 is the track drive torque via the gear train
, TT gear train torque on track
2
Work balance: T1 1 = TT 2 T1 = TT
1
2 n1
Gear train: n1 1 = n 2 2 =
1 n 2
n1
Thus: T1 = TT
n2
And:
Carriage plus structural mode The equations are developed in terms of yv not 1 as above. Note that
2 = (1/ rT) yv and 1 = (n2/(n1 rT)) yv. The equations are derived using
the above. Since
In terms of yv.
n 22 1 1
Let: M EQ = J m + JT
n12 rT2 rT2
For the coupled masses Mc and Mp
7.5.1A-1
( ) (
det = M c + M EQ M p s4 + M c + M EQ + M p b s3 + M c + M EQ + M p k s2) ( ) 7.5.1A-3
Solving the matrix equation
n 1
Y (s)
v = 1
2
Mp s +b s+ k (b s + k ) 2 1
Y (s) det n1 rT Tc (s) + FD (s)
( Mc + M EQ )
7.5.1A-4
p
(b s + k ) s2 + b s + k
0
0
Let
n2 Tc (s)
Ftotal (s) = + FD (s) 7.5.1A-5
n1 rT
The transfer functions Yv(s)/Ftotal(s) and Yp(s)/Ftotal(s) are
Yv (s) M p s2 + b s + k
=
Ftotal (s) s2
(( M + M ) M
c EQ p ( ) (
s2 + M c + M EQ + M p b s + M c + M EQ + M p k ) )
7.5.1A-6
Yp (s) b s+ k
=
Ftotal (s) s2 (( M + M ) M
c EQ p ( ) (
s2 + M c + M EQ + M p b s + M c + M EQ + M p k ) )
Multiplying by the numerator and denominator by
M c + M EQ + M p
( M c + M EQ ) M p 7.5.1A-7
yields
M c + M EQ + M p M c + M EQ + M p M c + M EQ + M p
s2 + b s+ k
Yv (s)
=
M c + M EQ ( M c + M EQ ) M p ( M c + M EQ ) M p
Ftotal (s) M c + M EQ + M p
M c + M EQ + M p
( M c + M EQ + M p ) s2 s2 + b s+ k
M c + M EQ M p( M c + M EQ M)
p ( )
M + M EQ + M p M + M EQ + M p 7.5.1A-8
b c s+ k c
Yp (s)
=
(
M c + M EQ M p )
M c + M EQ M p ( )
Ftotal (s) M + M EQ + M p M + M EQ + M p
( M c + M EQ + M p ) s2 s 2 + b c s+ k c
(
M c + M EQ M p )
M c + M EQ M p ( )
Define
Mp M c + M EQ + M p M c + M EQ + M p
KB = , K B = - 1 , 2 s s = b , s2 = k , M = M c + M EQ 7.5.1A-9
c M c + M EQ p
( M c + M EQ ) M p ( M c + M EQ ) M p
Thus
Yv (s)
= c( )
1+ K B s2 + 2 s s s + s2
=
1
+
KB
c 1
Ftotal (s) ( 2 2
) (
M + M EQ s s + 2 s s s + s 2
) (
M + M EQ s 2 M + M 2
) 2
EQ s + 2 s s s + s
7.5.1A-10
Yp (s) 2 s s s + s2 1 -1 1
= = +
Ftotal (s) (M ) (
+ M EQ s2 s 2 + 2 s s s + s2 ) (M + M ) EQ s 2 M + M 2 2
EQ s + 2 s s s + s
7.5.1B Pseudoinverse
The relationship of the gyro mounting matrix A to body and gyro rates gi, i = 1,..,4, is shown in Figure 7.5.1B-1.
Note that sin( 90 g) = cos g, cos( 90 g) = sin g, sin(90 + g) = cos g, cos(90 + g) = sin g. This yields the
same A matrix as in equation 7.5.1B-2.
To calculate the pseudoinverse the matrix AT A is formed.
2 cos 2 0 2 cos sin (cos g - sin g )
T
A A= 0 2 cos2 0 7.5.1B-5
2 cos sin (cos g - sin g ) 0 4 cos 2
The inverse of AT A is
1 cos g - sin g
0
k cos2 2 k cos sin
AT A- 1 = 0
1
0 , where k = 2 cos g sin g +1 7.5.1B-6
2 cos 2
cos g - sin g 0
1
2 k cos sin 2 k sin 2
7.5.1D-1
7.5.2. Design the azimuth control system using the dynamics and relationships shown in Figures 7.5.2-1 and 7.5.2-
2. The azimuth control loop system requirements are in Table 7.5.2-1. Table 7.5-1 provides numerical values and
relationships for parameters.
Azimuth controller: Figure 7.5.2-1 is a detailed view of the payload module with azimuth drive system. The motor
stator is rigidly attached to the payload module. The motor rotor is integral with the rotational inertia J p. The
payload module has negligible motion in the azimuth direction. The bearing restraint torque on J p is negligible. The
azimuth drive is to maneuver 90 in 20 seconds using the acceleration profile in Figure 7.5.2-2. The azimuth drive
can move 180.
D. Draw the block diagram for your controller system including the gain values.
E. Evaluate the expected performance of your design compared to the requirements in a table-format. Discuss any
requirements you cannot meet.
F. Draw both the open loop straight-line magnitude and exact Bode magnitude diagram using semilog graph
paper for the rigid body system, i.e., without including the structural mode. Also, on same graph construct the
phase lag for the system with values shown at the phase margin and gain margin frequencies. Use the given power
amplifier, motor and sensor poles in your graph, even if you assumed them to be ignorable in your initial synthesis
of the compensation. Your reasoning/approximations to obtain diagram is required; computer generated results not
acceptable.
a. Evaluate the gain margins and phase margin. For the phase margin use a table to show each source e.g., poles
and zeros, and their value contributed to the phase lag.
b Estimate both the transfer function /cmd(s) and the response to a unit step command cmd(s) using the
straight-line Bode diagram and the value of phase margin. Construct the step response sketches using superposition
of the Low, Mid and High Frequency components. Your reasoning to obtain sketch is required; computer generated
results not acceptable.
c. Determine the minimum frequency of the structural mode consistent with requirement (vi).
G. Draw the open loop straight-line magnitude diagram using semilog graph paper for |AZ/(Td/J)| considering
rigid body only. Your reasoning/approximations to obtain diagram is required; computer generated results not
acceptable.
H. Sketch the root locus for the rigid body system. Include the power amplifier, motor and sensor time
constants. Determine j-axis crossing and real axis breakin/breakaway using only low frequency and mid frequency
poles and zeros. Enter the estimated location of the closed loop poles and zeros onto the root locus using the closed
loop estimates from the straight-line Bode diagram in part F.
I. Sketch the Nichols and Nyquist diagrams for the rigid body system. Show phase margin and gain margin
values on the diagrams. Show stable and unstable regions by counting encirclements.
J. Provide 1.) the accuracy budget to meet requirement (vii), 2.) the dynamic range for the azimuth attitude and
rate sensors and 3.) the dynamic range for the azimuth motor.
Solution.
7.5.2A Requirements. The requirements are summarized in Table 7.5.2A-1. The damping ratio, , is increased and
the undamped natural frequency, n, decreased as shown in the table if a "lead" zero is added to compensate the
system.
Table 7.5.2A-1 Requirements
p (s) =
(1+ K B ) s2 + 2 s s s + s2 T 2 s s s + s2
m (s) + Td (s)
(
J s2 s2 + 2 s s s + s2 ) (
J s2 s2 + 2 s s s + s2 ) 7.5.2B-1
AZ (s) =
2 s s s + s2
Tm (s) +
(1+ K B ) s2 + 2 s s s + s2 T
d (s)
(
J s 2 s2 + 2 s s s + s2 ) (
J s2 s2 + 2 s s s + s2 )
KB is 0.43 and J = Jp +JAZ.
The structural model using rigid body and structural mode components is
1
p (s) = +
KB 1 T (s) + 1 + - 1 1 T (s)
J s
2 J s2 + 2 s + 2 m J s 2 J s2 + 2 s + 2 d
s s s s s s
7.5.2B-2
1 -1 1 T (s) + 1 + K B 1
AZ (s) = 2 + T (s)
J s J s2 + 2 s + 2 m J s 2 J s2 + 2 s + 2 d
s s s s s s
or
1 1
p (s) = (Tm (s) + Td (s)) + ( K B Tm (s) -Td (s))
Js 2
(
J s + 2 s s s + s2
2
)
1 1 7.5.2B-3
2( m
p (s) = T (s) + Td (s)) + (- Tm (s) + K B Td (s))
Js (
J s2 + 2 s s s + s2 )
The first term for each equation is the rigid body, the second term the structural mode. The block diagram is:
Figure 7.5.2B-1 Block diagram of azimuth control loop (AZ portion shown as dotted line)
Considering only the response to the command input (i.e., T d = 0), equation 7.5.2B-1 yields
p (s) =
(1+ K B ) s 2 + 2 s s s + s2
T m (s)
(
J s 2 s 2 + 2 s s s + s2 ) 7.5.2B-4
2 s s s + s2
AZ (s) = Tm (s)
(
J s 2 s 2 + 2 s s s + s2 )
s2 s
For frequencies less than s this transfer function is essentially 1 and AZ(t) = p(t). The difference is in the residue
of the response of the structural mode. The magnitude of the transfer function at the root s = s s + s (1 s2)1/2
is (see Section 7.5.3)
AZ (s) 1
= 7.5.2B-6
p (s) KB
s = - ss + j s 1 - s2
Hence the magnitude of the structural oscillation term of AZ(t) due to cmd(t) is a factor 1/KB greater than that of
p(t).
Assumption for Initial Synthesis of Compensation: AZ = p and ignore structural mode. The structural
component of the azimuth angle AZ is open loop relative to the control torque T m. The closed loop transfer function
is relative to p. The difference between AZ and p is the difference in amplitude of the structural mode oscillation.
Relative to the rigid body AZ and p are the same angle. Since the synthesis is carried out relative to the rigid body,
assume AZ = p in writing the transfer functions and performing the analysis. The difference in angles is considered
via the error budget in Part 7.5.2J and in estimating the magnitude of the structural oscillation in Part 7.5.2F.
Review of the implications of the requirements. The plant is of the form 1/s2. To meet the requirements a PID
controller is needed for the requirement for zero steady state error to a step disturbance (integral control). With 1/s 3
in the open loop transfer function the control system can also track a parabolic command input with zero steady state
error.
Initially, assume the position, integral and derivative gains are selected such that the idealized PID controller creates
a mid-frequency zero and a low frequency zero as shown in Figure 7.5.2B-2.
Figure 7.5.2B-2 Idealized PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for AZ(s)/cmd(s)
The approximate closed loop transfer function is
2 n s + n ( s + b n ) 2 n s + n
AZ (s) 2 n s + n2 s + b n3
2
2 2
cmd (s)
( )(
s2 + 2 n s + n2 s + b n ) ( s + 2 s + ) ( s + b )
2
n
2
n n
s 2 + 2 n s + n2
7.5.2B-7
Based on the approximate system equation, the low frequency pole-zero pair cancels; this is not true for the exact
transfer function. The approximation for the dominant second order poles and mid-frequency zero are illustrated in
Figure 7.5.2B-2 along with the alpha angle, , used to estimate the response of the second order system with a Mid
frequency zero. The values of L1, L2 and alpha () based on the figure are
n -L
y = cos- 1 , L1 = cos y = n , L2 = n sin y = n 1- 2 , = tan- 1 n 1 = tan- 1 7.5.2B-8
2 2 2 2 L2 1- 2
Note that alpha () only depends on . The relationship is shown in Figure 7.5.2B-3.
Figure 7.5.2B-4 Evaluation of 2nd order response with mid frequency zero
Effect of the actuator and sensor time constants/frequencies. The phase lags at n due to the motor drive and
sensors are tabulated in Table 7.5.2B-1.
Table 7.5.2B-1 Phase lag due to sensors and actuator
* Since angle and rate sensor feedback paths are both in feedback path, use angle sensor phase lag for both as it is
largest.
The gain crossover frequency c, i.e., the frequency at which the exact gain characteristic not the straight-line
approximation crosses 0 db, differs from n depending on the value of and whether there is a mid-frequency zero,
or not. The straight-line gain crossover is an indication of the value of the actual gain crossover frequency. As
illustrated in Figure 7.5.2B-5 with no mid-frequency zero and 0.5 the straight-line approximation crosses the
0 dB axis at n; and with a mid frequency zero the straight-line approximation has its zero on the 0 dB axis when
= 0.5. The margin in Table 7.5.2B-1 is to allow for differences between n and c.
The design options are either to ignore the phase lag in the initial synthesis and determine its effect during the
verification phase of the design or to incorporate a correction to due to the increase phase lag due to the sensors
and actuators. The synthesis that follows applies a correction of 9 for the phase lag. Thus the determined from
requirement (i) is modified as shown in Table 7.5.2B-2.
Table 7.5.2B-2 Modification of value for
Mid Frequency
Requirement Parameters without Mid- Parameters Adjusted for Mid-
Frequency Zero Frequency Zero
i.) Damping Ratio, Modified phase margin = 40 Modified phase margin = 58
Modified = 0.37 Modified = 0.58
The synthesis of the compensation with the mid-frequency zero uses the design parameters
= 0.58 , n = 5.2 7.5.2B-9
Note that the final value of resulting from the synthesis is expected to be 0.46 as the 9 is expected to be
used/depleted by the actuator, sensor and margin phase lags.
Figure 7.5.2B-5 Bode straight-line gain diagrams for 2nd order standard form and Mid-frequency zero form
7.5.2C Synthesis of PID controller with Mid-frequency zero. A PID controller is selected to achieve zero steady
state error to a step disturbance input. Also, it meets the tracking requirement by providing zero steady state error in
tracking a parabolic input. The simplified block diagram (ignoring structural mode and actuator and sensor time
constants) of the system with a PID controller and rigid body dynamics is shown in Figure 7.5.2C-1.
Figure 7.5.2C-1 Simplified block diagram with PID controller design (Note: Assumes AZ = p)
Substituting the control torque Tm(t)
7.5.2C-1
7.5.2C-2
As expected, since the coefficients of AZ and cmd are equal up to and including the second derivative, this
simplified system follows a parabolic input command with zero steady state error.
Laplace transforming with zero initial conditions
k D s2 + k p s + ki 1 s
AZ (s) = cmd (s) + T (s) 7.5.2C-3
3 2
s + k D s + k p s + ki J s3 + k s 2 + k s + k d
D p i
Choosing kI/kp to be much less than kp and kD, the denominator can be approximately factored as
k
( )
s3 + k D s2 + k p s + ki s2 + k D s + k p s + i
kp
7.5.2C-4
The first term is the dominant second order system response. Hence
k p = n2 , k D = 2 n 7.5.2C-5
k p = n2 = 5.2 2 = 27.04 r/s2 , k D = 2 n = 2 (0.58) 5.2 = 6.032 r/s , ki = b n3 = 0.01 (5.2)3 = 1.406 r/s3 7.5.2C-8
The approximate and exact closed loop poles and zeros are tabulated in Table 7.5.2C-1.
Table 7.5.2C-1 Comparison of approximate and exact closed loop poles and zeros
Figure 7.5.2D-1 Block diagram of simplified PID control system (Note: assumes AZ = p)
The open loop transfer function of the simplified control loop is (with H(s) = 1)
s s
1.123 +1 +1
2
6.032 s + 27.04 s +1.406 6.032 ( s + 4.415) ( s + 0.05262 ) 4.415 0.05262 7.5.2D-1
Gsimple (s) = = =
s3 s3 s3
7.5.2E Comparison of Simplified Control System Against Requirements
All requirements are met as shown in Table 2E-1.
Table 7.5.2E-1 Requirements Compliance, Simplified System
k D s 2 + k p s + ki
AZ (s) = 7.5.2E-1
(
s s3 + k D s 2 + k p s + k i )
The second order response is dominated by the second order pole and "lead zero."
The exact solution is
AZ (t) = 1- 0.000105 e- 0.0526 t - 0.999895 e- 2.99 t cos 4.217 t + 0.7214 e- 2.99 t sin 4.217 t 7.5.2E -2
Figure 7.5.2F-1 Azimuth block diagram without structural mode (Note: assumes AZ = p)
The equation relating cmd and AZ is
Ga (s) k s
AZ (s) = k p + i ( cmd (s) - H1(s) AZ (s)) + k D s ( cmd (s) - H D (s) AZ (s)) 7.5.2F-1
s 2
Hugh Dougherty, September 2017 257
Chapter 7 Synthesis Techniques Control System Examples
AZ (s)
=
( 2
)
k D s + k p s + ki Ga (s)
7.5.2F-2
(
cmd (s) s3 + k H (s) s2 + k H (s) s + k H (s) G (s)
D D p 1 i 1 a )
Assume that HD(s) = H1(s) since the straight-line gain characteristics of the sensors are equal and the phase lag of the
angle sensor is greater than that of the rate sensor at n thereby providing a conservative value for phase margin.
The closed loop transfer function is
k s2 + k s + k
D p i
( )
G (s)
k s 2
+ k s + k G (s) s 3 a
AZ (s) D p i a G(s)
= = = 7.5.2F-3
3
D( 2
p i)
cmd (s) s + k s + k s + k G (s) H (s)
a 1
k s2 + k s + k
1+ D p i
Ga (s) H1(s)
1+ G(s) H1(s)
s3
For the Bode diagram analysis the open loop transfer function is approximately (using values for exact open loop
poles and zeros; the approximate values would yield essentially the same results)
s s
k s2 + k s + k 1.123 +1 +1
G(s) 4.415 0.05262
D p i
Ga (s) H1 (s) 7.5.2F-4
1+ G(s) H1 (s) s 3 s s s 2
s3 +1 +1 +1
208 234 260
The straight-line Bode gain diagrams are in Figures 7.5.2F-2 and -3. The Bode arctangent ruler for the 5 cycle graph
paper is in Figure 7.5.2F-2
a. The gain margin and phase margins are illustrated in Figure 7.5.2F-3. They are summarized in Table 7.5.2F-1.
Table 7.5.2F-1 Summary of Gain margins and phase margin
b.) Estimate of closed loop transfer function and step response. From Figures 7.5.2F-2 and -3 the gain at the low
frequency open loop zeros and high frequency open loop poles can be read from the straight-line Bode diagram.
Values are tabulated in Table 7.5.2F-3.
Table 7.5.2F-3 Tabulation of gains at low frequency zero and high frequency poles
Open Loop Pole or Zero Value in dB Estimate of Estimate of closed loop pole
residue (Time constant)
Low Frequency Region
Low frequency zero at 80 dB (104) 104 0.05262 (1 104) = 0.0526 r/s
0.05262 r/s (19 s)
High Frequency Region
High frequency pole at 31 dB (0.028) 0.028* 208 (1 0.028) = 202 r/s
208 r/s (0.005 s)
High frequency pole at 33 dB (0.022) 0.022* 234 (1 + 0.022) = 239 r/s
234 r/s (0.0042 s)
High frequency poles at 36 dB (0.016) Two poles:
260 r/s 0.016* 260 (1 0.016) = 256 r/s
(0.0039 s)
0.016* 260 (1 + 0.016) = 264 r/s
(0.0038 s)
* Since all roots have essential the same time constant, a worst-case estimate of the magnitude of the effective high
frequency residue is to add the residue estimates, yielding 0.082.
The mid frequency region is determined from the characteristic between 15 dB in Figures 7.5.2F-2 and 7.5.2F-3.
5.12 s
Gmid (s) = +1 7.5.2F-5
2 4.415
s
The estimate of AZ(s)/cmd(s) for the mid-frequency region is
s s
(s) 5.12 +1 +1
4.415 4.415
AZ = = 7.5.2F-6
cmd (s) mid 5.12 s2 2 (0.58)
s2 + s + 5.12 + s +1
4.415 5.12 5.1
Note that even though the mid-frequency estimate of is 0.58 in equation 7.5.2F-6, the phase margin in Table
7.5.2F-2 indicates that is closer to 0.49. The margin allocated to the phase margin in the design process caused the
increase in the value of from the design value of 0.46. = 0.49 is consistent with achieving the derived mid-
frequency design value of = 0.46 established in Table 7.5.2A-1 to ultimately achieve the overshoot requirement of
40% ( = 0.28 for the standard form of the 2nd order system).
The estimate of the closed loop transfer function AZ/cmd using = 0.58 from the mid-frequency region is (Note:
The Bode diagram factors G(s) H1(s)/(1 + G(s) H1(s)) so it needs to be multiplied by 1/H1(s))
s +1 s +1 s +1 2
AZ s 260
= 0.05262
s
4.415
7.5.2F -7
cmd s +1 s 2 + 2 0.58 s + 1 s +1 s +1 s +1 s +1
0.0526 5.1 202 239 256 264
5.1 2
The sketch of the step response is shown in Figure 7.5.2F-4 illustrating the mid and high frequency estimates. The
mid-frequency sketch is made using the phase margin and footnote to Table 7.5.2F-2. The low frequency
contributor to the unit step response is not shown as it has a residue of 10 4, which is negligible.
s s s 2
+1 +1 +1
AZ (s) 0.0526146 4.430 260
= 7.5.2F-8
cmd (s) s s2 2 (0.562) s s s2 2(0.94)
+1 + s +1 +1 +1 + s +1
0.0526091 5.4578 2 5.4578 127.6
2 330.7 264.52 264.5
The step response is give by
AZ (t) = 1- 0.00010465 e- 0.05261 t -1.0699 e- 3.06458 t cos 4.5162 t + 0.7861 e- 3.06458 t cos 4.5162 t
7.5.2F-9
+ 0.06922 e- 127.57 t + 0.005264 e- 248.8 t cos 89.90 t + 0.02032 e- 248.8 t sin 89.90 t - 0.004487 e- 330.66 t
The step response comparison between the simple model ignoring the high frequency poles and the full model is in
Figure 7.5.2F-5. The time to peak is reduced to 0.42 s and the overshoot is increased to 30%. The high frequency
terms are shown in Figure 7.5.2F-6. The dominant time constant of the high frequency term is 0.0078 s compared to
the Bode diagram approximation that was at 0.005 s. The overall magnitude estimate was close. The high
frequency terms have a small amplitude and die-out fast relative to the mid frequency roots response time, hence,
the high frequency terms have a negligible effect on the response.
Figure 7.5.2F-5 Comparison of step response between simple model (dotted line) and full model with high
frequency poles (solid line)
AZ (t) = 1- 0.00010465 e- 0.05261 t -1.0703 e- 3.0646 t cos 4.518 t + 0.7858 e- 3.0646 t cos 4.5168 t
+ 0.0744 e- 124.65 t + 0.0060868 e- 248 t cos 95.062 t + 0.02403 e- 248 t sin 95.062 t - 0.0054 e- 335.77 t 7.5.2F-10
- 0.004634 e- 0.92527 t cos 245.97 t - 0.000651 e- 0.92527 t sin 245.97 t
The magnitude of the structural term for a unit (1 rad) step input is (0.0046342 +0.0006512) = 0.0047 rad = 0.27.
Section 7.5.3 gives the estimate of the magnitude of the structural term from the exact gain of the Bode diagram as
M = GRB ( j s ) | K B 7.5.2F-11
The magnitude of GRB at s is 39 dB (0.011) at 246 Hz and KB = 0.43. Thus M = 0.0047 rad (0.27). The time
constant is 1.08 sec.
The time response is essentially the same as that shown in Figure 7.5.2F-4 with an exponentially-damped structural
oscillation.
Since the amplitude of the structural oscillation of AZ is a factor of KB greater than that of p, the magnitude for AZ
= 0.0047 rad = 0.27. A command generator must be incorporated into the design so shape position, rate and
acceleration commands to limit the structural oscillation and meet the error budget in Section J.
The computer generated Bode gain, Bode phase and Nichols diagrams are given in Figures 7.5.2F-6 and 7.5.2F-7.
Note that the rigid body high frequency gain margin is not the limiting value; the structural mode suppression
essentially determines the high frequency gain margin.
Figure 7.5.2F-7 Nichols diagram: simple model and with high frequency poles and structure
Verification with structural mode at s = 345 r/s
The unit step response with the structural mode is given for p.
AZ (t) = 1- 0.00010465 e- 0.05261 t -1.0701 e- 3.0643 t cos 4.517 t + 0.7859 e- 3.0643 t cos 4.5165 t
+ 0.07209 e- 125.88 t + 0.005377 e- 247.49 t cos 93.434 t + 0.02297 e- 247.79 t sin 93.438 t 7.5.2F-12
- 334.56 t - 1.6233 t - 1.6233 t
- 0.0052 e - 0.001957 e cos 344.9 t - 0.000953 e sin 344.9 t
The magnitude of the structural term for a unit (1 rad) step input is (0.0019572 +0.0009532) = 0.0022 rad = 0.12.
The estimate of the magnitude of the structural term from the exact gain of |GRB(js) = 45.9 dB (0.0051) at 345
r/s is 0.43 (0.0051) = 0.0022 rad = 0.12). The time constant is 0.62 sec.
The time response is essentially the same as that shown in Figure 7.5.2F-4 with an exponentially-damped structural
oscillation.
Since the amplitude of the structural oscillation of AZ is a factor of KB greater than that of p, the magnitude for AZ
= 0.0022 rad = 0.12. A command generator must be incorporated into the design so shape position, rate and
acceleration commands to limit the structural oscillation and meet the error budget in Section 7.5.2J.
7.5.2G Bode gain and phase diagram for AZ/(Td/J). The closed loop transfer function is determined from the
block diagram in Figure 7.5.2F-1 that includes the actuator and sensor transfer functions.
The equation relating Td(s) and AZ(s) is
Ga (s) k 1
AZ (s) = 2
-H1(s) k p + i - H D (s) k D s AZ (s) + Td (s) 7.5.2G-1
s s J s2
The transfer function with Td(s) normalized by J is
1
AZ (s) s2
= 7.5.2G-2
T (s)
d ( 2
H D (s) k D s + H1(s) k p s + H1(s) ki Ga (s) )
J 1+
s3
The approximation for the magnitude of the transfer function is
AZ (s)
T (s)
d
J s = j
( )
s 7.5.2G-3
, for H D (s) k D s2 + H1(s) k p s + H1(s) ki Ga (s) >> 1
= (H D (s) k D
2
s + H1(s) k p s + H1(s) ki Ga (s) ) s = j
s = j
1
s2 s = j
(
, for H D (s) k D s 2 + H1(s) k p s + H1(s) ki Ga (s) ) s = j
<< 1
Since the magnitude of the terms HD(j), H1(j) and Ga(j) are 1 when |GH(j)| >> 1 the magnitude is rewritten as
s
AZ (s) , for k D s 2 + k p s + ki >> 1
2
k s + k p s + ki s = j
T (s) = D s = j 7.5.2G-4
d
J 1
s = j , for k D s2 + k p s + ki << 1
s 2 s = j s = j
For the Bode diagram analysis the closed loop transfer function is approximately (using values for exact open loop
poles and zeros; the approximate values would yield essentially the same results)
s
AZ (s) , for k D s 2 + k p s + ki >> 1
s s s = j
T (s) = 1.406 0.05262 +1 4.415 +1 7.5.2G-5
d s = j
J s = j
1
, for k D s2 + k p s + ki << 1
s2 s = j s = j
The straight-line approximation for the disturbance is in Figures 7.5.2G-1and 7.5.2G-2.
Figure 7.5.2G-2 Straight-line approximation of rigid body Bode diagram for AZ/(Td/J)
7.5.2H Root locus. The open loop transfer function is determined from the block diagram in Figure 7.5.2F-1 that
includes the actuator and sensor transfer functions.
k s2 + k s + k
G(s) H1(s) =
D p i
H1(s) = K RL
( s + 4.415) ( s + 0.05262) 7.5.2H-1
( a )( m )
s3 s +1 s +1
s3 ( s + 208) ( s + 234) ( s + 260)
2
KRL is the root locus gain. For the simple model ignoring the high frequency roots, the closed loop roots occur
when the value of KRL = kD/(a m)= 293,590. Since the sensor and actuator poles are at a high frequency relative to
n, the root locus near the origin is assumed to be relatively unaffected by these poles for determining the locus for
the low and mid frequency regions.
Applying the root locus rules provides the results in Table 7.5.2H-1.
Table 7.5.2H-1 Root locus results
1. The loci start at the open loop poles s = 0, 208, 234, 260
2 The loci terminate at the zeros s = 0.05262, 4.415 and infinity.
3. Real axis loci 0 to 0.05262, 4.415 to 208, 234 to
4. Angle of asymptotes:
Figure 7.5.2H-1 Sketch of rigid body root locus ( denotes closed loop poles)
Using the simple model of the control system in Part C, the root locus gain at the 2 nd order roots is KRL = kD = 6.032.
The low frequency gain margin using the root locus values is approximately 20 log (6.032/0.052) = 41.3 dB. This
approximate value is comparable to the more exact value of 40.7 dB found using the complete model including the
high frequency open loop poles in Part F.
7.5.2I Nichols and Nyquist diagrams. The diagrams are drawn based on the Bode gain-phase diagrams and the
transfer function.
s s
2 +1 +1
k D s + k p s + ki 1.12 3
0.05262 4.415
G(s) H1 (s) = Ga (s) H1 (s) = 7.5.2I-1
3
s s3 s s s 2
+1 +1 +1
208 234 260
The Nichols and Nichols diagram sketches are in Figure 7.5.22I-1.
7.5.2J Sizing Components. The accuracy budget to meet requirement (vii), the dynamic range for the azimuth
rate sensor and the dynamic range for the azimuth motor are given below.
Angle Sensor. The error budget is in Table 7.5.2J-1.
Table 7.5.2J-1 Error budget for azimuth accuracy
Figure 7.6.1-2 Orientation of the reaction wheel torque axes in y-z plane only
Item Equations
Pitch Thrust Vector Control System
Op Amp #1: Summer Vcmd = Kcmd dcmd/dt
Vcmd/R + V7/R + V1/R = 0 -> V1 = Vcmd + V7
Op Amp #2: Integrator V2 = (1/R1C1s) V1
Op Amp #3: Integrator V3 = (1/R2C1s) V2
Op Amp #4: Attitude Gain V2/R3 + V4/R4 = 0 -> V4 = R4/R3 V2
Op Amp #5: Summer V1/R7 + V3/R5 + V4/R6 + V5/R8 = 0
-> V5 = R8(V1R7+ VR5+ VR6)
Power Amp: V6 = Kamp V5
Motor Drive Circuit V6 Im Lms Im Rm Kemf dxm/dt = 0
Vehicle-Nozzle Dynamics Fm = Km Im ; for small angles y = xm/Ln
Let FJ be force to move engine, then mm d2xm/dt2 = Fm FJ
and Jm d2y/dt2 = FJ Ln , or FJ = Jm/Ln2 d2xm/dt2
Thus, (mm + Jm/Ln2) d2xm/dt2 = Fm
Iy d(d/dt)/dt = F L sin y; Note: gyro measures d/dt.
Gyro Dynamics about Output JOA d2OA/dt2 + bOA dOA/dt = H d/dt Tg
Axis (OA) Vg = Kg OA
Op Amp #6: Transfer Function Vg (1/Rg1 + Cg1 s ) + Vcs (1/Rg2 + Cg2 s) = 0
Writing the differential equation in state variable form:
Cg2 dVcs/dt + Vcs/Rg2 = Cg1 dVg/dt Vg/ Rg1
Or: dVcs/dt + (Cg1/Cg2 ) dVg/dt =
1/( Rg2 Cg2) (Vcs + (Cg1/Cg2 ) Vg) [(1/(Rg1Cg2) Cg1/(Rg2Cg22)]Vg
Ig = Kc Vcs ; Tg = Kgm Ig
Op Amp #7: Pitch Rate Vgyro = Kgyro Ig
Determination Vgyro/R + V7/(R Kgm/H) = 0 -> V7 = Kgm/H V1
Thrust Cutoff Equations
xAxis Force Dynamics M d2x/dt2 = F cos y
Proof Mass Accelerometer ma d2xa/dt2 + ba (dxa/dt dx/dt) + ka (xa x) = 0; = xa -x
ma d2/dt2 + ba d /dt + ka = ma d2x/dt2
Voltage Divider (Va Vb)/Ra + (0 Vb)/Rc + Ca s (0 Vb) = 0
Ca dVb/dt = (Va Vb)/Ra Vb/Rc
Op Amp #8: Integrator Vc = (1/RcCcs) Vb
B. Pseudoinverse
The relationship of the reaction wheel torque vectors to vehicle axes is shown in Figure 7.6.1-2. There is no
projection into the x-axis so the vectors have only y-z components. Let T G denote the 2x1 torque vector [Ty Tz]T
generated by the reaction wheels in the y-z plane.
( )
-1
ARW = ATRW ARW ARW
T
7.6.1-2
The pseudoinverse satisfies the necessary condition that A A is the 2x2 identity matrix.
The null space matrix is
1 0 0 0 cos l sin l
0 1 0 0 - 1 - sin l cos l cos l - sin l - sin l cos l
N RW = I 4 - ARW ARW =
0 0 1 0 2 - sin l - cos l sin l cos l - cos l - sin l
0 0 0 1 cos l - sin l
1 cos 2 l - sin 2 l
0 cos l sin l -
2 2
1 cos2 l - sin 2 l
0 cos l sin l
2 2
= 7.6.1-4
2 2
cos l - sin l 1
cos l sin l 0
2 2
2 2
cos l - sin l 1
- cos l sin l 0
2 2
0.5 sin l - 0.5 cos l
0.5 cos l
0.5 sin l 0.5 sin l 0.5 cos l 0.5 cos l 0.5 sin l
=
0.5 cos l - 0.5 sin l - 0.5 cos l 0.5 sin l - 0.5 sin l 0.5 cos l
0.5 sin l 0.5 cos l
The two vectors spanning the 2-dimensional null space are given in the last equation. These vectors are orthogonal
and of unit length. The null space matrix satisfies the condition that A NRW = 0.
Using the identities: 2 cos l sin l = sin 2 l and, cos2 l sin2 l = cos 2 l yields
1 0 sin 2l -cos 2l
N RW =
1 0 1 cos 2 l sin 2 l 7.6.1-5
2 sin 2l cos 2l 1 1
-cos 2l sin 2l 0 1
C. Elemental Block Diagram.
D. State Equations.
The outputs of the integrators are selected as the state variables. The state variable numbering is shown in Figure
7.6.1-1. The numbering started at the amplifier #2 with x1 = V2.
7.6.1-6
7.6.2. Design the pitch axis on-orbit angle maneuvering control system for the system shown in Figure 7.6.2-1.
The reaction wheel and gyro dynamics shown in the figure represent the effective actions of the multiple reaction
wheel and gyro units, respectively. The x terms are compensated open loop by the controller and need not be
considered nor shown in the diagram. The pitch control system requirements are in Table 7.6.2-1. The parameters
are given in Table 7.6.2-2.
I. Sketch the Nichols and Nyquist diagrams for the rigid body system. Show phase margin and gain margin
values on the diagrams. Show stable and unstable regions by counting encirclements.
J. Provide the following three hardware related items.
1.) Accuracy budget to meet Table 7.6.2-1, requirement 9.
Figure 7.6.2-1 Pitch maneuvering control system quantities in brackets are TBD by designer
To be determined by designer.
7.6.2-1
Figure 7.6.2-3 Block diagram of pitch control loop with PID controller
The control signal Vc(s) is given by
7.6.2-2
7.6.2-4
or
7.6.2-5
Note that (s)/s = (s), where (s) is the relative angle since a rate sensor does not know the initial starting angle
without an angle sensor update of the relative angle, yielding
k FA s3 + k D s2 + k p s + ki 1 s
(s) = cmd (s) + T (s) 7.6.2-6
3 2
s + k D s + k p s + ki Iy s + k s + k s+ k d
3 2
D p i
The open loop transfer function (s)/ e (s) , where e (s) = cmd(s) (s) and kFA = 0, is
k k
2 ki D s 2 + p s +1
(s) k D s + k p s + ki ki ki 7.6.2-7
= =
e (s) s3 s 3
The gain KJ = ki. The steady state jerk-tracking requirement led to KJ 2, therefore it is desired that ki 2. The
feedahead assists in the tracking, but that is not considered in equation 7.6.2-7 since kFA = 0.
Figure 7.6.2-6 Idealized PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for AZ(s)/cmd(s)
The values of L1, L2 and alpha () based on the figure are
n -L
y = cos- 1 , L1 = cos y = n , L2 = n sin y = n 1- 2 , = tan- 1 n 1 = tan- 1 7.6.2-9
2 2 2 2 L2 1- 2
Note that alpha () only depends on for the idealized second order system. The angle may change when the
actual roots are determined based on the value of the Low frequency root b n.
For = 0.56 the alpha angle is approximately 34. The reasonableness of the factor of 2 used for overshoot and 0.75
for time to peak in Table 7.6.2-3 are reviewed using Figure 7.6.2-7. The overshoot value is acceptable for the initial
iteration of the design. The value of n tp = 2.4 from Figure 7.6.2-7 indicates that n 1.2 r/s (= 2.4/2) is required
(factor of 0.7 of the n obtained without mid frequency zero). Maintain = 0.56 and n = 1.3 r/s at this stage of
design formulation.
Figure 7.6.2-7 Evaluation of ideal 2nd order response with mid frequency zero
Effect of the actuator and sensor time constants/frequencies. The phase lags at n due to the reaction wheel and
gyro are tabulated in Table 7.6.2-4. Each source is allocated 3 of phase lag at n = 1.3 r/s. For the single time
constants the phase lag is given by tan n = 3, hence = 0.04 s (or equivalently, a frequency of 25 r/s). For the
gyro with the quadratic term the angle is
7.6.2-10
Figure 7.6.2-8 Bode straight-line gain diagrams for 2nd order standard form and mid-frequency zero form
The design options are either to ignore the phase lag in the initial synthesis and determine its effect during the
verification phase of the design or to incorporate a correction to due to the increase phase lag due to the sensors
and actuators. The synthesis that follows applies a correction of 12 for the phase lag. Thus the determined in
Table 7.6.2-3 is modified as shown in Table 7.6.2-5.
Table 7.6.2-5 Modification of value for
Mid Frequency
Requirement Parameters without Mid- Parameters Adjusted for Mid-
Frequency Zero Frequency Zero
i.) Damping Ratio, Modified phase margin = 56 Modified phase margin = 68
Modified = 0.56 Modified = 0.77
The synthesis of the compensation with the mid-frequency zero uses the design parameters
= 0.77 , n = 1.3 7.6.2-11
Note that the final value overshoot resulting from the synthesis is expected to be 25% (based on standard form of 2 nd
order system = 0.41) as the 12 is expected to be used/depleted by the actuator, sensor and Mid Frequency zero.
No specific allocation has been made for the Low Frequency root at b n. The root is near the low frequency open
loop zero that is used to cancel the phase lag due to the 1/s 3 slope due to system type. The residual phase lag at
the gain crossover frequency due to this root is approximately 90 + tan 1 (1/b); the 90 is due to the system type
slope and tan 1 (1/b) is due to the low frequency zero. For b = 0.01, .05. 0.1 the residual phase lag is approximately
0.6, 2.9 and 5.7 respectively. The margin allocation in Table 7.6.2-5 accounts for values of b 0.05.
C. Synthesis of PID controller with mid-frequency zero. A PID controller is selected to achieve zero steady state
error to a step disturbance input. It provides zero steady state error in tracking a parabolic input but to meet the jerk-
tracking requirement requires ki 2 if the feed ahead is not used. The simplified block diagram (ignoring structural
mode and actuator and sensor time constants) of the system with a PID controller and rigid body dynamics is shown
in Figures 7.6.2-4 and -5. The closed loop equation in Laplace transform form is given by equation 7.6.2-6 with
kFA = 0.
Consider the approach of choosing kI/kp to be much less than kp and kD. Then the denominator can be
approximately factored as
k
(s + k
3
D ) ( 2
) k
i
s2 + k p s + ki s + k D s + k p s +
p
7.6.2-12
The first term is the dominant second order system response. Hence
k p = n2 , k p = 2 n 7.6.2-13
To meet the jerk-tracking requirement (without the feedahead) requires ki 2 which means that b = 0.91 and does
not satisfy the requirement that b << 1. The use of the feedahead to improve the jerk-tracking requires the tolerance
on the knowledge of the gain Iy/(Ka Km) be know to an accuracy of better than 50%. Using the parameter
tolerance in Table 7.6.2-2 yields
I I
y y
0.92 K A K m actual 1.08 K A K m actual
0.8 1.26 7.6.2-16
1.05 (1.1) I y 0.95 (0.9) I
y
K A K m nominal K A K m nominal
Note that this gain change is approximately 2 dB, a fact that is used in evaluating gain changes with the Bode
diagram in Section F. The gain is known to sufficient tolerance to depend on feedahead perform the jerk tracking.
Chose b = 0.01 (equivalent to a residual 3 open loop phase lag). Then
ki = 2.2 b = 0.022 7.6.2-17
The closed loop poles and zero based on the approximate cubic equation are tabulated in Table 7.6.2-6.
Table 7.6.2-6 Approximate closed loop poles and zeros
Figure 7.6.2-10 Pitch block diagram with reaction wheel and gyro transfer functions
s s s 2 2(0.005)
+1 +1 (1+ 0.2 ) +
s
s +1
(s) 0.283 0.0132 0.832 s2
K G(s) = = 7.6.2-19
e (s) s3 s 2 s 2 2(0.7) s 2 2(0.005)
+1 2 +
s +1 + s +1
25 35 35 s2 s
s is determined from the rigid body Bode gain diagram by finding the frequency at which the mode is suppressed
by at least 41 dB. The rigid body transfer function is
s s
3 +1 +1
(s) 0.28 0.0132 0.832
K G(s) = = 7.6.2-20
e (s) s3 s 2 s2 2(0.7)
+1 2 + s +1
25 35 35
The Bode gain diagram is constructed starting at the Low Frequency region with 0.283/s3 which intercepts the 0 dB
axis at 0.28 r/s. To assist in constructing the Bode gain diagram the value of K G(s) in decibels is calculated at the
open loop gain poles and zeros as shown in Table 7.6.2-8. Additional items of interest can be calculated from the
straight-line approximation and are summarized in Table 7.6.2-9. The latter table shows that the straight-line
crosses the 0 DB axis at 2 r/s and the minimum possible structural frequency s is 44.4 r/s. The value of 1.29 r/s is
used when the Mid Frequency characteristic is determined from the Bode gain diagram. The gains at the open loop
zeros at 0.0132 r/s and poles at 25 r/s and 35 r/s are used in determining the approximate residues and closed loop
pole locations.
Table 7.6.2-8 Values of straight-line gain at open loop poles and zeros
Figure 7.6.2-12 is the straight-line Bode gain diagram. The Bode gain diagram is corrected for gain by using the
gain corrections of 3 dB at the break frequency and 1 dB an octave above and below the break frequency. The
corrected gain diagram along with the arctangent Bode ruler is in Figure 7.6.2-13. The Bode ruler is placed to 2.1
r/s to measure the phase, and therefore determine the phase margin, based on the open loop poles and zeros.
The phase angle positive (+) for zeros and negative () for poles. The phase can be calculated using
2
D
Phase = -270 + tan - 1 + tan- 1 - 2 tan- 1 - tan- 1 7.6.2-21
0.0132 0.832 25 2
1-
D
Note that the phase lag contributed by the quadratic roots at 35 r/s as measured by the Bode arctangent ruler is
slightly in error. The Bode arctangent ruler phase measurement is only correct for the quadratic root if D = 1. The
phase calculation at the gain crossover frequency is shown in Table 7.6.2-10. The phase and gain margins are
shown in Figure 7.6.2-14 and tabulated in Table 7.6.2-11.
Figure 7.6.2-13 Corrected gain curve and Bode ruler showing phase calculation at 2.1 r/s
Figure 7.6.2-14 Bode gain and phase diagram illustrating phase and gain margins
Table 7.6.2-11 Summary of Gain margins and phase margin
The effect of the 2 dB gain variation are illustrated using the Bode gain and phase diagram in Figure 7.6.2-15.
Note that it has little effect on the system design as the 2 dB variation is well within the gain margin values, and,
the phase margin change is small thus preserving the transient response and stability properties.
Figure 7.6.2-15 Bode gain and phase diagram illustrating the effect of 2 dB gain variation
b.) Estimate of closed loop transfer function and step response. Figure 7.6.2-16 shows the gain at the low frequency
open loop zeros and high frequency open loop poles. Estimates of closed loop values are tabulated in Table 7.6.2-
12.
Table 7.6.2-12 Tabulation of gains at low frequency zero and high frequency poles
Open Loop Pole or Zero Value in dB Estimate of Estimate of closed loop pole
(linear value) residue (Time constant)
Low Frequency Region
Low frequency zero at 79.6 dB ~104 0.0132 (1 104) ~ 0.0132 r/s
0.0132 r/s (9544) (Time constant = 75.8 s)
Effectively dipole pole-zero
cancel each other
High Frequency Region
High frequency pole at 25 21.9 dB + 0.08* 25 (1 0.08) = 23 r/s
r/s (0.08) (0.043 s)
High frequency pole at 25 21.9 dB 0.08* 234 (1 + 0.08) = 27 r/s
r/s (0.08) (0.037 s)
High frequency quadratic 30.7 dB 0.029* 35 (1 0.029) = 36 r/s
poles at 35 r/s (0.029) Assume damping remains at 0.7
since closed poles do not move
far from open loop poles.
(1/[0.7*36] =0.04 s)
* Based on residue projections on the root locus in Figure 7.6.2-20, the residues have opposite signs. A worst-case
estimate of the magnitude of the effective high frequency residue is to add the residue estimates, yielding 0.19.
Figure 7.6.2-16 Estimation of closed loop characteristics from the straight-line gain diagram
The mid frequency region is determined from the characteristic between 15 dB in Figure 7.6.2-16.
1.29 2 s
Gmid (s) = +1 7.6.2-22
2 0.832
s
s
+1
(s) 0.832 1
= 7.6.2-24
cmd (s) s2 2(0.78)
s s s2 2(0.7)
+
s +1 +1 +1 + s +1
1.29 2 1.29 23 27 362 36
Since the low frequency dipole term has a residue of approximately 104 for a unit step input command there is no
exponential tail. The sketch of the unit step response is shown in Figure 7.6.2-17 illustrating the mid and high
frequency estimates. The mid-frequency sketch is made using the phase margin and footnote to Table 7.6.2-7.
Figure 7.6.2-19 Straight-line approximation of rigid body Bode diagram for /(Td/Iy)
H. Root locus. The open loop transfer function is determined from the block diagram in Figure 7.6.2-11 and the
rigid body equation 7.6.2-20 that includes the actuator and gyro transfer functions.
s s
+1 +1
K G(s) =
0.28 3
0.0132 0.832
=
0.283 252 352 ( s + 0.0132 ) ( s + 0.832) 7.6.2-28
3
s s 2 2
s
+1 2 +
2(0.7)
s +1 ( ) (
0.0132 (0.832) s s + 25 2 s2 + 2(0.7) 35s + 352
3
)
25 35 35
The last equation is in root locus form with a root locus gain KRL ~ 1.53x10+ 6. The root locus is drawn using
K G(s) = K RL
( s + 0.0132) ( s + 0.832) 7.6.2-29
s3 ( s + 25) ( s 2 + 2(0.7) 35s + 352 )
2
For the simple model ignoring the high frequency roots, the root locus transfer function is
( s + 0.0132) ( s + 0.832)
( K G(s))simple = K RL 7.6.2-30
s3
The closed loop roots for the simple model occur when the value of KRL = kD = 2. Since the sensor and actuator
poles are at a high frequency relative to n, the root locus near the origin is assumed to be relatively unaffected by
these poles for determining the locus for the low and mid frequency regions.
Applying the root locus rules provides the results in Table 7.6.2-13. Figure 7.6.2-20 is the root locus sketch.
Table 7.6.2-13 Root locus results
4. Angle of asymptotes:
Figure 7.6.2-20 Sketch of rigid body root locus ( denotes closed loop poles)
Using the simple model of the control system, the root locus gain at the 2 nd order roots is KRL = kD = 2. The low
frequency gain margin using the root locus values is approximately 20 log (2/0.013) = 43.7 dB. This value is
comparable to the value of 43 dB found using the complete model including the high frequency open loop poles in
Part F.
I. Nichols and Nyquist diagrams. The diagrams are drawn based on the Bode gain-phase diagrams and the transfer
function.
s s
3 +1 +1
0.28 0.0132 0.832
K G(s) = 7.6.2-31
3
s s 2 s2 2(0.7)
+1 2 + s +1
25 35 35
The angle at = 0+ is 270 and 540 at = +. The gain and phase along the j-axis is determined from the
Bode gain-phase diagram.
The Nichols and Nichols diagram sketches are in Figure 7.6.2-21.
7.6.2-32
One-quarter of the angle, or 45/4 = 11.25, is accomplished in the first jerk period. T J = 3/4 minutes, or 45 s, thus
the maximum value of J is Jmax = 45*6/(4*453) = 0.000741 /s3. The corresponding maximum value of acceleration
and rate are max = 0.033/s2 and max = 0.75/s, respectively.
The budgets for the maximum values for pitch rate, torque and momentum are in Tables 7.6.2-15 through -17.
Table 7.6.2-15 Maximum pitch rate value
or
0.063 IY
TY = 7.6.2-34
cos l + sin l
Using a similar approach, the maximum momentum H max for each reaction wheel is
0.047 IY
TY = 7.6.2-35
cos l + sin l
These values can be used to estimate the minimum required dynamic range of the gyro and reaction wheel. The
gyro is assumed aligned with the pitch axis.
The dynamic range of the gyro is 2.7/(1.27x103) = 2,126
The torque dynamic range of the reaction wheel is 0.063/(4.43x105) = 1423
Torque Saturation due to Command Inputs. Figure 7.6.2-24 illustrates the condition assuming that the feedback
signals are zeros as would occur if the inputs were imposed at time t = 0. Maximum command values are in Table
7.6.2-18.
Table 7.6.2-18 Maximum command values before torque saturation
Figure 7.7.1-2 Orientation of the thruster force (Note: Force on cart opposes thrust force)
Solution Problem 1:
A. Equations for System.
The key equations are summarized in Table 7.7.1-2.
Table 7.7.1-2 Key Equations
Item Equations
Load Control System
Op Amp: Summer Vr = k1 r; Vc = k1 c
Vr/R1 + Vc/R1 + Vc_dot/R3 + EF/R2 = 0 ->
EF = R2 (Vr Vc)/R1 (R2 Vc_dot)/R3
Generator Field EF IF RF VF = 0 ; IF = VF/(LF s)
E G = KG I F
Motor-Generator EG Im RMG EL Kemf dm/dt = 0 ; Im = EL/(LMG s)
T m = Km I m
Gear Train-Load JA d2m/dt2 + T1 = Tm , JB dc2/dt2 = T2
N1 m = N2 c , T1 m = T2 c -> T1 = (N1/ N2) T2 and c = (N1/ N2) m
Therefore, JEQ d2m/dt2 = Tm, JEQ = JA + (N1/ N2)2 JB
Tach Circuit V2 = Ktach dm/dt
V2 (1/(1/ C2 s + R7 )) + V1 (1/R6 + C1 s) = 0
Or: V1 = V2 R6 C2 s/((R6 C1 s + 1) (R7 C2 s + 1))
V1/R5 + Vc_dot/R4 = 0 -> Vc_dot = (R4/ R5) V1
Airpad Control Equations
Op Amp - Summer VAG = k2 zcmd; Vgap = k2 z
VAG/R8 Vgap/R8 + V3/R9 = 0 -> V3 = R9 (VAG Vgap)/R8
Op Amp PID V3 (1/R10 + C3 s) + V4 (1/(1/C4 s + R11) = 0
V4 = V3 (R10 C3 s +1) (R11 C4 s +1) (1/(s R10 C4))
Power Amp Vamp = Kamp V4
Proportional Airpad Fair = Kforce Vamp
zAxis Force Dynamics M d2z/dt2 = Fair
B. Pseudoinverse
The relationship of the thruster forces to cart axes is shown in Figure 7.7.1-2. Nominally, there is no projection into
the z-axis so the vectors have only x-y components. The thrusters are grouped into pairs as shown in Table 7.7.1-3.
The implementation of the thruster pairs is shown schematically in Figure 7.7.1-3.
Table 7.7.1-3 Grouping of thrusters
( )
-1
AF = ATF AF AFT 7.7.1-2
The pseudoinverse satisfies the necessary condition that AF AF is the 3x3 identity matrix.
The null space matrix is
L1
1 0
L12 + L22
1 0 -
L1
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 - 1 L1 + L22
2
N F = I 4 - AF AF = 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 2 L2
0 1
L1 - L1 L2 - L2
0 0 0 1
L1 + L22
2
L2 7.7.1-4
0 1 -
L1 + L22
2
2 L
L2 - L22 - L1L2 L1 L2
2
2 -L
1 - L2 L22 L1L2 - L1 L2 1
= = 2
L2 - L2 - L1 L1
(
)
2 L12 + L22 - L1L2 L1 L2 L12 2 2 2
- L2 2 L1 + L2 ( )
- L1
L1
L1 L2 - L1 L2 - L22 L22
The vector spanning the 1-dimensional null space is given in the last equation. The null space matrix satisfies the
condition that AF NF = 0.
The block diagram showing the flow from controller to dynamics is shown in Figure 7.7.1-4.
2 -2 + 16 - 2 = 18 7.7.1-5
Solving, = 4/3. Thus the estimate of the minimum projection is 1.33 Fmax. Conservatively, it is estimated that the
largest thrust available for control is Fmax. This value is used to size the thruster force in Section I.
V3 (s) ( R10C3 s +1) ( R11C4 s +1) V (s) R10C3 R11C4 s + ( R10C3 + R11C4 ) s +1
2
V4 (s) = - =- 3
R10C4 s R10C4 s
7.7.1-10
V (s) 1
=- 3 R10C3 R11C4 s + ( R10C3 + R11C4 ) +
R10C4 s
The first term can be obtained by feeding back the motor rate in the block diagram (Alternately, the PID could have
been implemented by feeding back the motor acceleration and rate).
The airpad control system block diagram is in Figure 7.7.1-7.
7.7.1-11
I. Provide the maneuver profile parameters in Figure 7.7.2-2 and thruster sizing, F max, for your design.
J. Sketch the Nichols and Nyquist diagrams for the rigid body system. Show phase margin and gain margin
values on the diagrams. Show stable and unstable regions by counting encirclements.
Figure 7.7.2-1 x-axis cart control system quantities in brackets are TBD by designer
To be determined by designer.
Solution to Problem 2.
A. Requirements. The requirements are summarized in Table 7.7.2-3. The damping ratio, , is increased and the
undamped natural frequency, n, decreased as shown in the table if a Mid Frequency ("lead") zero is added to
compensate the system. The residue of the low frequency zero is small by choice of the location (b n, b << 1) of
the low frequency root. The plant shown in Figure 7.7.2-1 makes the control system at least Type 2.
Table 7.7.2-3 Derived Requirements
Figure 7.7.2-3 Block diagram of x-axis control loop with PID controller (kFA = 0 and 1 indicates no feedahead
and feedahead, respectively)
The control signal Vc(s) is given by
7.7.2-2
1 ki
2
ki
+ 1 Fdist (s)
X (s) = k s + k + X (s) - k s + k s + k + X (s) 7.7.2-4
2 D p
s cmd FA D p
s 2
s Ms
or
k FA s3 + k D s2 + k p s + ki 1 s
X (s) = X cmd (s) + F (s) 7.7.2-5
3 2
s + k D s + k p s + ki M s + k s + k s + k dist
3 2
D p i
Figure 7.7.2-5 Idealized PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for X (s)/X cmd(s)
The values of L1, L2 and alpha () based on the figure are
n -L
y = cos- 1 , L1 = cos y = n , L2 = n sin y = n 1- 2 , = tan- 1 n 1 = tan- 1 7.7.2-8
2 2 2 2 L2 1- 2
Note that alpha () only depends on for the idealized second order system. The angle may change when the
actual roots are determined based on the value of the Low frequency root b n.
For = 0.59 the alpha angle is approximately 36. The reasonableness of the factor of 2 used for overshoot and 0.85
for time to peak in Table 7.7.2-3 are reviewed using Figure 7.7.2-6. The overshoot value is acceptable for the initial
iteration of the design. The value of n tp = 2.3 from Figure 7.7.2-6 indicates that n 0.46 r/s (= 2.3/5) is required
(factor of 0.65 of the n obtained without mid frequency zero). Maintain = 0.59 and n = 0.6 r/s as the design-to
values at this stage of design formulation.
Figure 7.7.2-6 Evaluation of ideal 2nd order response with mid frequency zero
Effect of the actuator and sensor time constants/frequencies. The phase lags at n due to the actuator and sensor are
tabulated in Table 7.7.2-4. Each source is allocated 2 to 3 of phase lag at n = 0.6 r/s. For the single time
constants the phase lag is given by tan 1 n = 2, hence ~ 0.06 s (or equivalently, a frequency of ~ 17 r/s). For
the GPS with the quadratic term the angle is
n
2
-1 D n
3 = tan tan- 1 2 D 18 7.7.2-9
2 D = 0.8
1- n n = 0.6
D = 0.8
n = 0.6
Table 7.7.2-4 Estimate of phase lag due to sensor and actuator
Figure 7.7.2-7 Bode straight-line gain diagrams for 2nd order standard form and mid-frequency zero form
The design options are either to ignore the phase lag in the initial synthesis and determine its effect during the
verification phase of the design or to incorporate a correction to due to the increase phase lag due to the sensors
and actuators. The synthesis that follows applies a correction of 14.3 for the phase lag. Thus the determined in
Table 7.7.2-3 is modified as shown in Table 7.7.2-5.
Table 7.7.2-5 Modification of value for
Mid Frequency
Requirement Parameters without Mid- Parameters Adjusted for Mid-
Frequency Zero Frequency Zero
Damping Ratio, Modified phase margin ~ 63 Modified phase margin ~ 73
Modified ~ 0.66 Modified ~ 0.9
The synthesis of the compensation with the mid-frequency zero uses the design parameters
= 0.9 , n = 0.6 7.7.2-10
Note that the final value overshoot resulting from the synthesis is expected to be 20% (based on standard form of
2nd order system with = 0.46). The 14.3 is expected to be used/depleted by the actuator, sensor and Mid
Frequency zero. No specific allocation has been made for the Low Frequency root at b n. The root is near the
low frequency open loop zero that is used to cancel the phase lag due to the 1/s3 slope due to system type. The
residual phase lag at the gain crossover frequency due to this root is approximately 90 + tan 1 (1/b); the 90 is
due to the system type slope and tan 1 (1/b) is due to the low frequency zero. For b = 0.02 the residual phase lag is
approximately 1. The margin allocation in Table 7.7.2-5 accounts for this value.
C. Synthesis of PID controller with mid-frequency zero. A PID controller is selected to achieve zero steady state
error to a step disturbance input. It provides zero steady state error in tracking an acceleration input. The simplified
block diagram (ignoring structural mode and actuator and sensor time constants) of the system with a PID controller
and rigid body dynamics is shown in Figure 7.7.2-4. The closed loop equation in Laplace transform form is given
by equation 7.7.2-5 with kFA = 0.
Consider the approach of choosing kI/kp to be much less than kp and kD. Then the denominator can be
approximately factored as
k
( )
s3 + k D s2 + k p s + ki s2 + k D s + k p s + i
kp
7.7.2-11
The first term is the dominant second order system response. Hence
k p = n2 , k D = 2 n 7.7.2-12
The closed loop poles and zero based on the approximate cubic equation are tabulated in Table 7.7.2-6.
Table 7.7.2-6 Approximate closed loop poles and zeros
This range is bounded by 3.5 dB. The 6 dB requirement for gain margin in Table 7.7.2-1 is augmented to a
design-to value of 9.5 dB using nominal gains to account for the gain variation.
Figure 7.7.2-9 x-axis block diagram with actuator and sensor transfer functions
The open loop transfer function K G(s) relating X(s) and Xe(s) is
s s s2 2(0.005)
0.1633 +1 +1 (1+ 0.45) 2 + s +1 0.04
0.0125 0.321 s s - s
K G(s) H (s) = e 0.6 7.7.2-17
s 2 s2 2(0.8) s2 2(0.005)
s3 +1 + s +1 + s +1
17 182 18 2
s s
s is determined from the rigid body Bode gain diagram by finding the frequency at which the mode is suppressed
by at least 45 dB. The rigid body transfer function is
s s
0.1633 +1 +1 0.04
0.0125 0.321 - 0.6 s
K G(s) H (s) = e 7.7.2-18
2 2
s s 2(0.8)
s3 +1 + s +1
17 182 18
The exponential term does not affect the gain diagram but does add phase lag to the phase diagram.
The Bode gain diagram is constructed starting at the Low Frequency region with 0.163 3/s3 which intercepts the 0 dB
axis at 0.163 r/s. To assist in constructing the Bode gain diagram the straight-line value of K G(s) H(s) in decibels is
calculated at the open loop gain poles and zeros as shown in Table 7.7.2-8. Additional items of interest can be
calculated from the straight-line approximation and are summarized in Table 7.7.2-9. The latter table shows that the
straight-line crosses the 0 DB axis at 1.08 r/s and the minimum possible structural frequency s is 28.3 r/s. The
value of 0.59 r/s is used when the Mid Frequency characteristic is determined from the Bode gain diagram. The
gains at the open loop zero at 0.0125 r/s and poles at 17 r/s and 18 r/s are used in determining the approximate
residues and closed loop pole locations.
Table 7.7.2-8 Values of straight-line gain at open loop poles and zeros
Figure 7.7.2-10 is the straight-line Bode gain diagram. The Bode gain diagram is corrected for gain by using the
gain corrections of 3 dB at the break frequency and 1 dB an octave above and below the break frequency. The
corrected gain diagram along with the arctangent Bode ruler is in Figure 7.7.2-11. The Bode ruler is placed to 1.1
r/s, the 0 dB crossover frequency, to measure the phase, and therefore determine the phase margin, based on the
open loop poles and zeros.
The phase angle is positive (+) for zeros and negative () for poles. For < 18 r/s the phase can also be calculated
using
2
-1 18
Phase = - 270 + tan- 1 + tan- 1 - 2 tan - tan- 1 7.7.2-19
0.0125 0.321 17 2
1-
182
When > 18 r/s, 180 must be added to above equation.
Note that the phase lag contributed by the quadratic roots at 18 r/s as measured by the Bode arctangent ruler is
slightly in error. The Bode arctangent ruler phase measurement is only correct for the quadratic root if D = 1. The
phase calculation at the gain crossover frequency is shown in Table 7.7.2-10. The phase and gain margins are
shown in Figure 7.7.2-12 and tabulated in Table 7.7.2-11. The values with the thruster time delay are the pertinent
data, without time delay is for information only.
Figure 7.7.2-11 Corrected gain curve and Bode ruler showing phase calculation at 1.1 r/s
Figure 7.7.2-12 Bode gain and phase diagram illustrating phase and gain margins
Table 7.7.2-11 Summary of Gain margins and phase margin Nominal Gains
Figure 7.7.2-13 Bode gain and phase diagram illustrating the effect of 3.5 dB gain variation
Table 7.7.2-11 Effect of gain variations on crossover frequency, phase margin and gain margin (all data
include thruster time delay)
Open Loop Pole or Zero Value in dB Estimate of Estimate of closed loop pole
(linear value) residue (Time constant)
Low Frequency Region
Low frequency zero at 66.9 dB ~ 4.5x104 0.0125 (1 4.5x104) ~
0.0125 r/s (2217) 0.0125 r/s
(Time constant ~ 80 s)
Effectively dipole pole-zero
cancel each other
High Frequency Region
High frequency pole at 17 23.9 dB + 0.063* 17 (1 0.063) ~ 16 r/s
r/s (0.063) (0.063 s)
High frequency pole at 17 23.9 dB 0.063* 17 (1 + 0.063) ~ 18 r/s
r/s (0.063) (0.055 s)
High frequency quadratic 25.4 dB Negligible** 18 (1 + 0.053) ~ 19 r/s
poles at 18 r/s (0.053) Closed poles do not move far
from closed loop zeros.
* Based on residue projections on the root locus in Figure 7.7.2-19, the residues have opposite signs. A worst-
case estimate of the magnitude of the effective high frequency residue is to add the residue estimates, yielding ~
0.13.
** Since the closed loop poles and zeros due to H(s) essentially cancel and have no effect on step response.
Figure 7.7.2-14 Estimation of closed loop characteristics from the straight-line gain diagram
The mid frequency region is determined from the characteristic between 15 dB in Figure 7.7.2-14.
0.59 2 s
Gmid (s) = +1 7.7.2-20
2 0.321
s
The estimate of X(s)/X(s)cmd for the mid-frequency region is
s s
X (s) 0.592 +1 +1
0.321 0.321
= = 7.7.2-21
X cmd (s) mid 0.592 s2 2 (0.92)
s2 + s + 0.592 + s +1
0.321 2 0.58
0.58
The estimate of the closed loop transfer function X(s)/X(s)cmd using = 0.92 for the mid-frequency region damping
and recognizing that both the low frequency dipole pole-zero essentially and sensor poles/zeros cancel is
s
+1
X (s) 0.321 1
= 7.7.2-22
X cmd (s) s 2
2 (0.92) s s
+ s +1 +1 +1
0.582 0.58 16 18
Since the low frequency dipole term has a residue of approximately 4.5x104 for a unit step input command there is
no exponential tail. The sketch of the unit step response is shown in Figure 7.7.2-15 illustrating the mid and high
frequency estimates. The Mid-Frequency sketch is made using the phase margin and footnote to Table 7.7.2-7.
X (s) G p (s)
= 7.7.2-23
Fdist (s) 1+ K Gc (s) Ga (s) G p (s) H (s)
Or
s
X (s) , for K Gc (s) Ga (s) H (s) >> 1
s s s = j
F (s) = 0.00432 0.0125 +1 0.321 +1 7.7.2-25
dist s = j
M s = j 1
, for K Gc (s) Ga (s) H (s) << 1
s = j
s 2 s = j
Figure 7.7.2-17 Straight-line approximation of rigid body Bode diagram for X/(Fdist/M)
H. Root locus. The open loop transfer function is determined from the block diagram in Figure 7.7.2-9 and the rigid
body equation 7.7.2-18 that includes the actuator and gyro transfer functions. The time delay is ignored, as it does
not readily lend itself to root locus.
s s
0.00432 +1 +1
K G(s) =
0.0125 0.321 0.000432 17 18
=
2 8
( s + 0.0125) ( s + 0.321) 7.7.2-26
3 s
s +1
2 2
s
+
2(0.8)
s +1 ( ) (
0.0125 (0.321) s3 s +17 2 s 2 + 2(0.8)18 s +182
)
17 182 18
The last equation is in root locus form with a fixed root locus gain of KRL ~ 1.008x10+ 5. The root locus is drawn
using a variable KRL gain
K G(s) = K RL
( s + 0.0125) ( s + 0.321) 7.7.2-29
s3 ( s +17 ) ( s2 + 2(0.8)18 s +182 )
2
For the simple model ignoring the high frequency roots, the root locus transfer function is
( s + 0.0125) ( s + 0.321)
( K G(s))simple = K RL 7.7.2-30
s3
The closed loop roots for the simple model occur when the value of KRL = kD = 1.08. Since the sensor and actuator
poles are at a high frequency relative to n, the root locus near the origin is assumed to be relatively unaffected by
these poles for determining the locus for the low and mid frequency regions.
Applying the root locus rules provides the results in Table 7.7.2-14. Figure 7.7.2-18 is the root locus sketch.
Table 7.7.2-14 Root locus results
1. The loci start at the open loop poles s = 0, 17, 14.4 j 10.8
2 The loci terminate at the zeros s = 0.0125, 0.321 and infinity.
3. Real axis loci 0 to 0.0125, 0.321 to
2 k +1 2 k +1
4. Angle of asymptotes: - 180 - 180 = 36 , 108 , - 180
# p-#z # p-#z
n m
pi - zi - 2 (17) - 2 (14.4) + 0.0125+ 0.321
i =1 i =1 = -12.5
5. C.G. of asymptotes: 7-2
# p-#z
6. Departure from real axis 60 and 180 at origin; 90 at higher
frequencies
7. Real axis breakaway Based on the low and mid frequency roots
only
=
2 3
(
d G(s) H (s) - 3 s ( s + 0.0125) ( s + 0.321) + s ( s + 0.0125) + ( s + 0.321) )
ds K RL s6
=-
( s + 0.019) ( s + 0.65)
s4
Breakaway at s = 0; breakin at s = 0.65 (other value for K RL < 0)
8. Angle of departure from complex poles 10.8
180 - tan- 1
14.4 - 0.0125
-1 10.8
+180 - tan
14.4 - 0.321
10.8
- - 390 + tan- 1 - 90
14.4
10.8
-2 tan- 1 = 180
17 -14.4
= - 158
9. j axis crossover Using only the low and mid frequency
values
ce = s3 + KRL s2 +0.3335 KRL +
0.004 KRL
Figure 7.7.2-19 Sketch of rigid body root locus ( denotes closed loop poles)
Using the simple model of the control system, the root locus gain at the 2 nd order roots is KRL = kD = 1.08. The low
frequency gain margin using the root locus values is approximately 20 log (1.08/0.012) = 39 dB. This value is
comparable to the value of approximately 38 dB found using the complete model in Part F which included the
thruster time delay and high frequency open loop poles.
I. Sizing Components.
The requirement is that the system maneuver 30 m in 5 minutes using the acceleration profile in Figure 7.7.2-2.
Choose constant acceleration for one-half of the time and constant deceleration for the other half; this determines the
thruster force value. For distances greater than 30 m there is a period of constant acceleration and constant velocity.
The relationships at the end of the acceleration period are
7.7.2-31
One-half of the distance, or 30/2 = 15 m, is accomplished in the acceleration period T a = 150 s. Due to symmetry,
the remaining 15 m is accomplished in the 150 second deceleration period. The value of a max = 15/1502 = 6.7x10 4
m/s2 (0.067 cm/s2).
The budget for the maximum value for x-axis force is in Table 7.7.2-15.
Table 7.7.2-15 Maximum x-axis force
s s
3 +1 +1 0.04
0.163 0.0125 0.321 - s
K G(s) = e 0.6 7.7.2-32
s = j 3 2 2
s s s 2(0.8)
s3 +1 + s +1
17 182 18 s = j
The angle at = 0+ is 270 and, for the rigid body without the thruster time delay, 450 at = +. The time
delay causes the phase angle to approach as approaches . The gain and phase along the j-axis is
determined from the Bode gain-phase diagram.
The Nichols and Nichols diagram sketches are in Figure 7.7.2-20.
Figure 7.7.2-20 Nichols and Nyquist diagram rigid body sketches nominal gain
consists of two parts, the case that is rigidly attached to the gimbal 1 platform and the float assembly consisting of
the gyro torquer, angle sensor and spinning wheel (H). The gap between the case and float is filled with a viscous
damping fluid with coefficient B. The torque T required to null, i.e., zero, the float angle , or as shown in the
figure the op amp voltage V2 generating T, are both a direct measure of the sensed rate gi.
The diagram for a typical reaction wheel is shown in the gimbal controller block diagram, Figure 7.8.1-1D. The
outputs of the pseudoinverse A are the three voltages, VRWj, j = 1,2,3, to each of the three reaction wheels power
amplifiers. The output of each reaction wheel is the torque T RWj.
The autonomous star sensor has the transfer function HT(s) = 1/(1 + s/T).
Parameter definitions are given in Table 7.8.1-1.
For gimbal 1:
A. Write the equations for the j-th reaction wheel, the i-th gyro and the dynamics.
B. 1. Obtain the pseudoinverse matrix A corresponding to the mounting matrix for the reaction wheels.
Determine the null space matrix NRW for the reaction wheels and its vector direction in reaction wheel space.
2. The maximum torque range for each reaction wheel is Tmax. Draw the flow of the torque
command Tcmd through the pseudoinverse, reaction wheel dynamics with torque saturation and geometry
matrix to the output torque Tc. Include the null space control loop with feedback voltages Vnullj, j 1,2,3,
based on the scalar gain element Knull and NRW. (Note. The implementation of a reaction wheel
desaturation control system is not considered at this time.) Determine the maximum torque that the
pseudoinverse can command for gimbal 1 without saturating a reaction wheel, where the maximum torque
per reaction wheel is Tmax Nm (Assume the budget value for the null space control law is 0.1 T max Nm per
reaction wheel)
3. Obtain the pseudoinverse matrix G corresponding to the mounting matrix for the gyros.
4. The maximum rate range for each gyro is max. Draw the flow of rate through the geometry
matrices, saturation element and associated pseudoinverse matrix (for the diagram, assume the gyro
dynamics have a transfer function value of 1).
C. Draw the elemental block diagram for the gimbal 1 control system (no differentiators, one element per block
where possible). In your diagram use Gc(s) to denote the compensation. Assume that the input (driving function) to
your equations are Vcj and Vnullj, j = 1,2,3. Include the structural mode in your diagram.
D. Write the state equations using the block diagram in Part C. Label the state variables in block diagram. Start
numbering with state variable x1 nearest the voltage input VRWj to the reaction wheels.
Solution to 7.8.1:
A. Equations for System.
The key equations are summarized in Table 7.8.1-2.
Table 7.8.1-2 Key Equations
Item Equations
Equations for j-th Reaction Wheel (Figure 7.8.1-1D)
Circuit VRWj IRWj Rj Lj dIRWj/dt Kemf dRWj/dt = 0
Torque Generated TRWj = KRWj IRWj
Reaction wheel dynamics JRWj d(dRWj/dt)/dt = TRWj
Rate-Integrating Gyro Equations (Figure 7.8.1-1B)
Float dynamics J d2 i /dt2 + B d i /dt = H dci/dt + T
Angle sensor V = k i
Op Amp #1 Lag-Lead V (1/R1 + C1 s) + V1 (1/ R2 + C2 s) = 0
V1 = V (R2/R1) (R1 C1 s +1)/(R2 C2 s +1)
Op Amp Lag V1/R3 + V2 (1/R4 + C3 s) = 0
V2 = V1 (R4/R3)/(R4 C3 s +1)
Gyro output gi = V2 k/H
Power Amp Vg = k g V 2
Circuit Vg Ig Rg Lg dIg/dt kemf d/dt = 0
Gyro torquer T = kT Ig
Dynamics
C(s)/Tc(s) (1/s) [1/(JG s) + {(KB/JG) s/( s2 + 2 bbs + b2)}]
Autonomous Star Sensor
HT(s) 1/(1 + s/T)
B. Reaction Wheels
1. Pseudoinverse and Null Space Matrix. The relationship of the individual reaction wheel torques to platform axes
is shown in Figure 7.8.1-1A and C. The reaction wheel torques on the platform in the xAxB coordinate frame are
T 1 1
c = 1 + cos l + cos l = 1 cos l cos l 2 = A 7.8.1-1
T 0 1 sin l 2 -sin l 3 0 sin l -sin l 2
B 3 3
7.8.1-3
1
0
1+ 2cos 2 l
2sin 2 l 0
1 cos l 1
A = 2sin 2 l cos l sin l (1+ 2cos 2 l ) = 7.8.1-4
2sin 2 l (1+ 2cos 2 l ) 1+ 2cos 2 l 2sin l
2sin l cos l -sin l (1+ 2cos l )
2 2
cos l 1
-
1+ 2cos 2 l 2sin l
The pseudoinverse satisfies the necessary condition that A A is the 2x2 identity matrix.
The null space matrix is given by NRW = I3 AA.
The null space matrix is
1
0
1 0 0 1+ 2cos 2 l
cos l
N RW = 0 1 0 -
1 1 cos l cos l
2sin l 0 sin l -sin l
0 0 1 1+ 2cos 2 l
cos l 1
-
1+ 2cos 2 l 2sin l
1 cos l cos l
1+ 2cos 2 l 1+ 2cos 2 l 1+ 2cos2 l
1 0 0
cos l cos 2 l 1 cos 2 l 1 7.8.1-5
= 0 1 0 - + -
1+ 2cos l 2
1+ 2cos l 2 2 1+ 2cos 2 l 2
0 0 1
cos l cos 2 l 1 cos2 l 1
- +
2 2 2 2 2
1+ 2cos l 1+ 2cos l 1+ 2cos l
2 2 cos l
2cos l -cos l -cos l
1
1 -cos l
1 1
= 1 - 1 1
= 2 2 2 2 cos l - -
2
1+ 2cos l 1+ 2cos 2 l 2 2
1 1 1
-cos l -
2 2 2
The vector spanning the 1-dimensional null space is given in the last equation. The null space matrix satisfies the
condition that A NRW = 0.
The null space feedback voltages are given by
7.8.1-6
2. Reaction Wheel Signal Flow. The block diagram showing the flow from T cmd to Tc is shown in Figure 7.8.1-2.
3. Gyro Pseudoinverse. The relationship of the rates dc/dt and B about the xA axis and xB axis, respectively, to the
gyro output rates i, i=1,2,3 is given by
7.8.1-8
7.8.1-9
1
2 2
0
T -1
(G G) =
1 2sin g 0 = 1+ 2cos g
2 2 7.8.1-10
2sin g (1+ 2cos g ) 0 1+ 2cos 2 g
1
0
2sin 2 g
7.8.1-11
4. Gyro signal flow through mounting matrix and pseudoinverse. The flow is shown in Figure 7.8.1-4.
7.8.1-13
7.8.1-14
7.8.1-15
7.8.1-16
The gyro float dynamics are given by (cross axis rate B assumed to be 0)
7.8.1-17
7.8.1-18
7.8.1-19
7.8.1-20
7.8.2 Compensation
Design the gimbal 1 control system for the system shown in Figure 7.8.2-1. The control system requirements are in
Table 7.8.2-1. The parameters are given in Table 7.8.2-2. The variability in parameter values is given in the table.
Table 7.8.2-1. System requirements
B. Determine the mathematical model and construct block diagram of your control loop including actuator and
sensor transfer functions given.
C. Design a conventional PID, PD or PI controller to meet requirements. Explain your design choice for the
controller. Explain the assumptions/decisions you make for your design.
D. Draw the block diagram for your controller system including the controller gain values and actuator and sensor
values you determined.
E. Evaluate in a table-format the expected performance of your design compared to the requirements. Discuss any
requirements you cannot meet.
F. Draw both the open loop straight-line magnitude and exact Bode magnitude diagram using semilog graph
paper and straight-edge (ruler) for the rigid body system, i.e., without including the structural mode. Also, on
same graph construct the phase lag for the system with values shown at the phase margin and gain margin
frequencies. Include in your graph the gain and phase of the actuator and sensor poles that you set based on
guidelines in Table 7.8.2-2, even if you assumed them to be ignorable in your initial synthesis of the compensation
in Part C. Your reasoning and approximations to obtain diagram is required; computer generated results not
acceptable.
a. Evaluate the gain margins and phase margin. For the phase margin use a table to show each source e.g., poles
and zeros, and the value they contributed to the phase lag.
b. Determine the minimum allowable frequency b of the structural mode for your design consistent with Table
7.8.2-1, requirement 9.
c. Estimate both the transfer function C(s)/R(s) and the response c(t) to a unit step command r(t) using the straight-
line Bode diagram and the value of phase margin. Construct the step response sketches using superposition of the
Low, Mid and High Frequency (including structural) components. Your reasoning to obtain sketch is required;
computer generated results not acceptable.
G. Draw the open loop straight-line magnitude diagram using semilog graph paper and straight-edge (ruler) for
|C(s)/(U(s)/JG)| considering rigid body only. Your reasoning/approximations to obtain diagram is required;
computer generated results not acceptable.
H. Sketch the root locus for the rigid body system. Include the actuator and sensor time constants you set for
your design. Determine j-axis crossing via Rouths criteria using only low frequency and mid frequency poles and
zeros. Enter the estimated location of the closed loop poles and zeros onto the root locus using the closed loop
estimates from the straight-line Bode diagram in part F. Computer generated results not acceptable.
I. Provide the scan profile parameters in Figure 7.8.2-2 and reaction wheel sizing, T max, for your design to achieve
the value of Tc required.
J. Sketch the Nichols and Nyquist diagrams for the rigid body system. Show phase margin and gain margin
values on the diagrams. Show stable and unstable regions by counting encirclements.
To be determined by designer.
1 1 K s
C(s) = + B T (s) 7.8.2-1
s J G s J G s2 + 2 s + 2 c
b b b
Figure 7.8.2-3 Block diagram of gimbal 1 control loop with PID controller and mode
The control signal Vcmd(s) is given by
7.8.2-2
*
K K
Tc (s) = A RW
Vcmd (s)
s 2
7.8.2-3
s s
+1 + 2 RW +1
A 2 RW
RW
1 k 1
C(s) = k D { sR(s) - sC(s)} + k p + i ( R(s) - C(s)) + U (s) 7.8.2-4
2 s J s 2
s G
or
k D s2 + k p s + ki s
C(s) = R(s) + U (s) 7.8.2-5
3 2
s + k D s + k p s + ki (
J G s + k D s 2 + k p s + ki
3
)
350 Hugh Dougherty, September 2017
Control System Examples Chapter 7 Synthesis Techniques
Figure 7.8.2-5 Idealized PID control system closed loop pole-zero pattern for C(s)/R(s)
Using the approach described in Control System Synthesis, Section 7.6.4, specifically starting with equation 7.6.4-
27, the gains are defined as
k p = n2 ; k D = 2 n ; ki = b n 7.8.2-7
2 n s2 + n2 s + b n3
G(s) = 7.8.2-8
s3
The approximate closed loop transfer function is
s s
s s b n +1 n +1
b n3 +1 ( +1) 1 b
n n b n
2 n (s + )(s + b n ) 2
2 2
Gapprox (s) = = = 7.8.2-9
s3 s3 s 3
n
The straight-line gain versus frequency sketch in Control System Synthesis(Figure 7.6.4-11) is shown below as
Figure 7.8.2-6. Based on the residue of the Low Frequency root being in the range of 2% to 5%, the straight-line
open loop Bode diagram gain of 1/b 2 at the open loop zero at b n is used to set the gain in the range of 50 to 20,
respectively. Since this yields only an approximation for the value of the residue, the gain is initially set toward the
upper value for the initial design, namely 50 (36 dB), to ensure the residue is less than 5%.
Figure 7.8.2-6 Straight-line gain vs. frequency for Gapprox(s); (Section 7.6.4, Figure 7.6.4-11)
Effect of the actuator and sensor time constants/frequencies. The phase lags at n due to the reaction wheel and
sensors are tabulated in Table 7.8.2-4. Each source is allocated 3 of phase lag at n = 3.5 r/s.
Autonomous Star Sensor. Since it is described by a single time constant, the phase lag at the frequency T is given
by tan 1 n/T = 3, hence T ~ 19 n r/s = 67 r/s.
Power Amplifier. Since it is described by a single time constant, the phase lag at the frequency A is given by tan 1
n/A = 3, hence A ~ 19 n r/s = 67 r/s.
Gyro. Since the gyro is described by a quadratic transfer function, the frequency G (with G = 0.7) is
2 n
G r r
tan-1 G = 3 ; G ~ 27 n = 94 7.8.2-10
2 s s
1- n
G g =0.7
n =3.5
Reaction Wheel. Since the reaction wheel is described by a quadratic transfer function, the frequency RW (with
RW = 0.6) is
2 n
RW r r
tan -1 RW = 3 ; RW ~ 23 n = 80 7.8.2-11
2 s s
1- n
RW RW =0.6
n =3.5
Since both the gyro and autonomous star sensor contribute the same phase lag, 3, at n, 3 is used for the
sensor in Table 7.8.2-4. The margin term in the budget accounts for unk-unks in the synthesis process.
Table 7.8.2-5 Modification of value for (Both include 5% for residue of Low Frequency root)
Mid Frequency
Requirement Parameters without Mid- Parameters Adjusted for Mid-
Frequency Zero Frequency Zero
Damping Ratio, Modified phase margin ~ 47 Modified phase margin ~ 65
Modified ~ 0.66 Modified ~ 0.7
(Overshoot 35% [35] + 12) (Overshoot 15% [53] + 12)
The synthesis of the compensation with the mid-frequency zero uses the design parameters
r 1
= 0.7 ; n = 3.5 ; = 50 b = 0.1414 7.8.2-12
s b2
Figure 7.8.2-7 incorporates these numbers into the straight-line gain diagram in Figure 7.8.2-6. Based on only the
PID transfer function, the lowest frequency, b, at which the structural mode can be placed, is give by
51
4.9 - r
= 10 20 b = 1739 or 497 n 7.8.2-13
b s
The addition of the sensor and actuator transfer functions will reduce this frequency value. The result also indicates
that an additional filter might be added above n, e.g., one that contributes approximately a phase lag of 3 at n,
to cause the gain to roll off at a faster rate.
Figure 7.8.2-7 Sketch of straight-line gain diagram (Note: gain values are in the log of the gain, not in dB)
Evaluating the gains
The closed loop poles and zero based on the approximate and exact closed loop transfer function
k k
2
k D s + p s + i
C(s) k D s + k p s + ki k D k p
= ~ 7.8.2-15
R(s) s3 + k s2 + k s + k k
D p i
( )
s2 + k D s + k p s + i
kp
are tabulated in Table 7.8.2-6.
Table 7.8.2-6 Approximate and exact closed loop poles and zeros
The residue is 3.5% instead of the 2% estimated in the initiation of the design. This number is within the 2% to 5%
range.
Mid Frequency Region. The values of L1, L2 and alpha () based on Figure 7.8.2-6 are
y = cos-1 = cos-1 0.69 = 46.4
3.1 3.1
L1 = n = = 1.55 ; L2 = n 1- 2 = 1- 0.69 2 = 1.63 7.8.2-18
2 2 2 2(0.69)
0.69
= tan-1 = tan-1 = 44
2
1- 1- 0.69 2
Note that alpha () only depends on for the idealized second order system. Figure 7.8.2-9 indicates that the
overshoot is 20% and n tp = 2.2, estimating the time to peak tp = 0.63 s.
Figure 7.8.2-10 Gimbal 1 block diagram with actuator and sensor transfer functions
Determination of High Frequency Sensor Transfer Function for Bode Diagram Usage. Two viewpoints are
presented. First, based on Figure 7.8.2-10 the feedback component of the PID control, T PID, signal is examined with
r(t) = dr(t)/dt = 0.
k
TPID = -k D H G (s)s + k p + i HT (s)C(s)
s
s
+1 s
k +1
i 6.063
k 7.8.2-19
= -
k D s
+ ki
p C(s) = - 4.9 s
+ ki
12.25
C(s)
s2 2 s
s s s s s +1
2 + 2 G +1 s +1 + 2(0.7) +1
G G T 942 94 67
Figure 7.8.2-11 is a log-log sketch of the magnitude of T PID. Note that in the High Frequency Region, i.e., >> n,
the derivative path dominates the feedback. As a point of reference, based on Figure 7.8.2-7 it was estimated that
with the PID the frequency at which the mode was suitably suppressed was = 1739 r/s. Figure 7.8.2-11 shows the
gain of the derivative and proportional-integral paths are 0.27 and 7.2x10 3, respectively, at this frequency.
1 k
C(s) = k D s ( R(s) - H G (s)C(s)) + k p + i ( R(s) - HT (s)C(s))
s2 s
7.8.2-20
=
1
s3
(k Ds
2
)
+ k p s + ki R(s) -
1
s3
(k D H G (s) s
2
)
+ k p HT (s) s + HT (s) ki C(s)
7.8.2-25
The sensor transfer function used in the feedback path for the High Frequency region is the gyro transfer function
HG(s).
Accounting for Parameter Variability. The parameters KA, K*RW and JG have a gain tolerance as given in Table
7.8.2-2. The compensation gain JG /KA K*RW is set to the nominal value of these gains. The gain variation in the
open loop transfer function K G(s) H(s) is in the range
J J
G G
K K* K K*
0.97 A RW actual 1.03 A RW actual
< ; or 0.84(-1.5 dB) < 1.2(1.6 dB) 7.8.2-26
1.1(1.05) J 0.9 (0.95) J
G G
K K* K K*
A RW nominal A RW nominal
This range is bounded by 1.6 dB. The 6 dB requirement for gain margin in Table 7.8.2-1 is augmented to a
design-to value of 7.6 dB using nominal gains to account for the gain variation.
Open Loop Transfer Function. The open loop transfer function K G(s)HG(s) relating C(s) and R(s) that includes the
structural mode is
s s s2 s
1.823 +1 +1 (1+ K B ) + 2 b +1
0.68 1.82 b2 b
K G(s)H G (s) =
s2 s s s2 s s2 s
s3 + 2 G +1 +1 + 2 G +1 + 2 b +1
2 G A RW 2 RW b2 b 7.8.2-27
G
4.9 G2 A RW (s + 0.68)(s +1.82) (1+ K B )s2 + 2 b bs + b2
=
( ) (
s3 s 2 + 2 GG s + G2 ( s + A ) s2 + 2 RW RW s + RW
2
) s2 + 2 b bs + b2
The first form is the Bode form, the second the root locus form. b is determined from the rigid body Bode gain
diagram by finding the frequency at which the mode is suppressed by at least 51 dB. The rigid body transfer
function used is
s s
1.823 +1 +1
0.68 1.82
K G(s)H G (s) =
2 2
s s s s s
s3 +1 + 2 RW +1 + 2 G +1
A 2RW RW 2
G
G 7.8.2-28
Table 7.8.2-8 Values of straight-line gain at open loop poles and zeros
When > 80 r/s or > 94 r/s, 180 must be added to above equation to account for quadratic phase.
Note that the phase lag contributed by the quadratic poles as measured by the Bode arctangent ruler are slightly in
error as the measurement is correct only if = 1. The phase calculated at the gain crossover frequency is shown in
Figures 7.8.2-13 and 14 and tabulated in Table 7.8.2-9.
Figure 7.8.2-13 Corrected gain curve and Bode ruler showing phase calculation at 5.2 r/s
Table 7.8.2-9 Phase margin contributors (0 dB crossover frequency: c = 5.2 r/s)
Figure 7.8.2-14 Bode gain and phase diagram illustrating phase and gain margins
Table 7.8.2-10 Summary of Gain margins and phase margin Nominal Gains
Figure 7.8.2-15 Bode gain and phase diagram illustrating the effect of 1.6 dB gain variation
Table 7.8.2-11 Effect of gain variations on crossover frequency, phase margin and gain margin (all data
include thruster time delay)
Table 7.8.2-12 Tabulation of gains at low frequency zero and high frequency poles
Open Loop Pole or Zero Value in dB Estimate of Estimate of closed loop pole
(linear value) residue (Time constant)
Low Frequency Region
Low frequency zero at 25.7 dB ~0.05 0.068 (1 0.05) ~ 0.065 r/s
0.068 r/s (19.3) (Time constant ~ 15 s)
High Frequency Region
Pole at 67 r/s 22.7 dB + 0.073* 67 (1 0.073) ~ 62 r/s
(0.073) (0.016 s)
Quadratic poles at 80 r/s 25.8 dB 0.058* 80 (1 + 0.058) ~ 85 r/s**
(0.058) Closed poles do not move far
from closed loop zeros
Quadratic poles at 94 r/s 25.4 dB 0.027* 94 (1 0.027) ~ 91.5 r/s**
(0.027) Closed poles do not move far
from closed loop zeros.
* A worst-case estimate of the magnitude of the effective high frequency residue is to add the residue estimates,
yielding ~ 0.16.
** Based on the root locus complex pole angle of departure. See Figure 7.8.2-20.
Figure 7.8.2-16 Estimation of closed loop characteristics from the straight-line gain diagram
The mid frequency region is determined from the characteristic between 15 dB in Figure 7.8.2-16.
32 s
Gmid (s) = +1 7.8.2-30
2 1.82
s
The estimate for the mid-frequency region is
s s
32 +1 +1
C(s) 1.82 1.82
= = 7.8.2-31
R(s) mid 32 s 2 2(0.82)
s2 + s + 32 + s +1
1.82 32 3
The estimate of the closed loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) using = 0.82 for the mid-frequency region damping and
correcting the transfer function GH(s)/(1 + GH(s)) obtained from the Bode diagram by 1/HG(s) is
s s s 2 s
+1 +1 + 2(0.7) +1
C(s) 1 1 2 94
= 0.68 2 1.82 94 7.8.2-34
R(s) s +1 s 2(0.82) s +1 s 2 s s 2 s
0.65 32 + 3 s +1 62 85 2 + 2(0.6) 85 +1 91.5 2 + 2(0.7) 91.5 +1
The estimated residue for the low frequency dipole term is 0.05, i.e., 5%, for a unit step input command. Instead of
5%, the value of 3.5% obtained in evaluating the residue in equation 7.8.2-17 is used in sketching the low frequency
step response. The estimated time constants of the High Frequency roots are in the range of 0.015 s to 0.02 s. The
sketch of the unit step response is shown in Figure 7.8.2-17 illustrating the Low, Mid and High frequency estimates.
The Mid-Frequency sketch is made using the phase margin and footnote to Table 7.8.2-7 and starts at t = 0 with a
negative value to balance the Low and High Frequency residues.
C. The minimum frequency for b is determined from Figure 7.8.2-18. Using the 1.6 dB straight-line gain
variation characteristics, a worst-case value of b 133 r/s is obtained. Considering the exact gain characteristics,
this minimum value is 130 r/s.
or
s
; K G(s)H (s) >> 1
s s s= j
J G (s)C(s)
~ 6.063 0.68 +1 1.82 +1 7.8.2-37
U (s) s= j s= j
1
; K G(s)H (s) << 1
s= j
s2 s= j
Figure 7.8.2-19 Straight-line approximation of rigid body Bode diagram for C(s)/(U(s)/J G)
H. Root locus. The open loop transfer function is determined from the block diagram in Figure 7.8.2-10 and the
rigid body equation 7.8.2-28 that includes the actuator and gyro transfer functions.
s s
1.823 +1 +1
0.68 1.82
K G(s)H G (s) =
s
s 2
s s2 s
s3 +1 + 2(0.6) +1 + 2(0.7) +1
67 802 80 942 94 7.8.2-38
The closed loop roots for the simple model occur when the value of KRL = kD = 4.9. Since the sensor and actuator
poles are at a high frequency relative to n, the root locus near the origin is assumed to be relatively unaffected by
these poles for determining the locus for the low and mid frequency regions.
Applying the root locus rules provides the results in Table 7.8.2-14. Figure 7.8.2-20 is the root locus sketch.
1. The loci start at the open loop poles s = 0, 67, 48 j 64, 65.8 j 67.1
2 The loci terminate at the zeros s = 0.68, 1.82 and infinity.
3. Real axis loci 0 to 0.068, 1.82 to 67
2k +1
4. Angle of asymptotes: -180 = 30,90150
8-2
-67 - 2(48) - 2(65.8) + 0.68 +1.82
= -48.6
8- 2
5. C.G. of asymptotes:
Figure 7.8.2-20 Sketch of rigid body root locus ( denotes closed loop poles)
Using the simple model of the control system, the root locus gain at the 2 nd order roots is KRL = kD = 4.9. The low
frequency gain margin using the root locus values is approximately 20 log (4.9/0.495) = 19 dB and agrees with the
value found using the complete model in Part F that included the high frequency open loop poles.
I. Sizing Components.
Figure 7.8.2-21 illustrates the scan profile and includes the acceleration and jerk profiles. The maximum
acceleration is D T. The value of D is given by
vscan
D=2 7.8.2-41
T2
The maximum value of D is when vscan = 4/s; Dmax = 2/s3. The maximum value of acceleration is Dmax T = 2 (2) =
4/s2 (0.07 r/s2).
The budget for the maximum value for total reaction wheel torque is in Table 7.8.2-15.
Table 7.8.2-15 Maximum required gimbal 1 torque
s s
1.823 +1 +1
0.68 1.82
K G(s)H G (s) = 7.8.2-42
s
s 2
s s2 s
s3 +1 + 2(0.6) +1 + 2(0.7) +1
67 802 80 942 94
The angle at = 0+ is 270 and 540 at = +. The gain and phase along the j-axis is determined from the
Bode gain-phase diagram.
The Nichols and Nichols diagram sketches are in Figure 7.8.2-22.
Figure 7.8.2-22 Nichols and Nyquist diagram rigid body sketches nominal gain
The output torque Tcmd (t) and the disturbance torque u(t) are the input to the dynamics whose output is the rate vector
SC. Three rate sensors (gyros) and three angle sensors (star sensors) mounted on the spacecraft provide the
feedback vectors dcm(t)/dt and cm(t), respectively. The payload is attached to the spacecraft equipment section and
has the structural parameters KB_PL, PL and PL. The solar array is attached to the spacecraft equipment section and
has the structural parameters KB_SA, SA and SA.
Three pairs of back-to-back CMGs lie in the x-y plane and provide control torques 1, 2, 3 only in this plane. Two
of these pairs of back-to-back CMGs have torques vectors 1 and 2 that are off the y-axis by the angle g. One
additional back-to-back CMG pair provides a torque vector 4 along the z-axis.
The transfer function of each angle sensor and rate sensor are Hss(s) and HG(s), respectively, such that
cm(s) = Hss(s) c(s) and s cm(s) = HG(s) SC(s).
Parameter definitions are given in Table 7.9.1-1.
For the Science spacecraft control system:
A. Write the equations for the j-th CMG based on Figure 7.9.1-2 and the spacecraft dynamics.
B. 1. Obtain the pseudoinverse matrix A corresponding to the mounting matrix for the x-y plane back-to-back
CMGs with torques vectors 1, 2, 3. Determine the null space matrix Ncmg for x-y plane back-to-back CMG and its
vector direction in CMG space.
2. For the x-y plane back-to-back CMGs draw the flow of the torque command vector T cmd through the
pseudoinverse and null space matrix, CMG dynamics with torque saturation, mounting geometry matrix A to the
output torque TCMG , and, spacecraft dynamics (including both the variable c(t) and dc(t)/dt as outputs). Include the
null space control loop with scalar gain vector Knull and Ncmg. (Note. The implementation of a CMG desaturation
control system is not considered at this time.)
C. Draw the elemental block diagram for the z-axis back-to-back CMG control system (no differentiators, one
element per block where possible). In your diagram use Gc(s) to denote the compensation. Include only the payload
structural mode in your diagram.
D. Write the state equations using the block diagram in Part C. Label the state variables in block diagram. Start
numbering with state variable x1 nearest the torque input command T cmd_j to the CMG. Only one CMG pair need be
considered as the others are similar.
Figure 7.9.1-2 j-th back to back CMG pair equivalent control loop
g Back to back CMG y-axis torque vectors 1 and 2 offset angle, rad
, , Back to back CMG pair gimbal rates, r/s
Solution to 7.9.1
A. Equations for System.
The key equations are summarized in Table 7.9.1-2.
Table 7.9.1-2 Key Equations
Item Equations
Equations for j-th CMG (Figure 7.9.1-2)
Command torque to gimbal = cmd_j/(2 Hcmg cos )
rate (one CMG in pair)
Gimbal rate to voltage Vcmd = Ks
Feedback gimbal rate to V_dot = Kdot
voltage
Op amp #1 Vcmd/R1 + V_dot/R1 +V1/Z0 = 0, 1/Z0 = 1/R2 +C1 s = (R2C1 s + 1)/R2
V1 = (Vcmd + V_dot) (R2/R1)/(R2C1 s + 1)
Op amp #2 1/Zi = 1/R3 +C2 s = (R3C2 s + 1)/R3, 1/Z0 = 1/R4 +C3 s = (R4C3 s + 1)/R4
V2 = (R4/R3) (R3C2 s + 1)/(R4C3 s + 1) V1
Power Amp Va = K a V 2
Circuit Va Icmg Rcmg Lcmg s Icmg kemf s = 0
Torque Generated Tcmg = kcmg Icmg
Reaction wheel dynamics Jcmg s2 = Tcmg
Spacecraft Dynamics
C(s)/TT(s), where (1/s) [1/(JSC s) + {(KB_PL/JSC) s/( s2 + 2 PL PL s + PL2)}
TT(s) = Tcmd (s) + U(s) + {(KB_SA/JSC) s/( s2 + 2 SA SA s + SA2)}]
7.9.1-2
7.9.1-4
1. Pseudoinverse and Null Space Matrix. The relationship of the back-to-back CMG torques to spacecraft axes is
shown in Figure 7.9.1-1. The CMG torques on the spacecraft in the xy coordinate frame are
T - 1 1
1
x = sin g + sin g + - 1 = sin g sin g
= A
T cos g 1 -cos g 2 0 3 cos g 2
2 7.9.1-5
- cos g 0
y
3 3
7.9.1-7
sin g 1
2 1+ 2sin 2 g 2cos g
2cos g sin g cos g (1+ 2sin 2 g )
1 sin g 1
A = 2
- cos g (1+ 2sin 2 g ) = -
2 2 2cos g sin g 1+ 2sin 2 g 2cos g 7.9.1-8
2cos g (1+ 2sin g )
- 2cos2 g
0 1
- 2
0
1+ 2sin g
The pseudoinverse satisfies the necessary condition that A A is the 2x2 identity matrix.
The null space matrix is given by Ncmg = I3 AA.
The null space matrix is
sin g 1
1+ 2sin g 2 2cos g
1 0 0
sin g 1 sin g sin g -1
= 0 1 0 -
N cmg - 2cos g cos g
0 0 1 1+ 2sin 2 g -cos g 0
1
- 0
1+ 2sin 2 g
sin 2 g 1 1sin 2 g sin g
+ - -
1+ 2sin 2 g 1+ 2sin 2 g 2
2 1+ 2sin 2 g
1 0 0
sin 2 g 1 sin 2 g 1 sin g
= 0 1 0 - - + - 7.9.1-9
2 2 2
0 0 1 1+ 2sin g 2 1+ 2sin g 2 1+ 2sin g
sin g sin g 1
- -
1+ 2sin 2 g 1+ 2sin 2 g 1+ 2sin 2 l
1
1 1
sin g
2 2 2
=
1 1 1 = 1 1 1
2 sin l
1
1+ 2sin 2 g sin g 1+ 2sin 2 g 2 2
2 2 2
sin g sin g 2sin g 2
2 sin l
The vector spanning the 1-dimensional null space is given in the last equation. The null space matrix satisfies the
condition that A NRW = 0.
The null space feedback voltages are given by
Vnull = K null N cmg
1 1
V sin g
null1 2 2 1
K null
V = 1 1 2
null 2 1+ 2sin 2 g sin g
Vnull3 2 2 3
sin g sin g 2sin 2 g
7.9.1-10
1 1
V 1 + 2 + 3 sin g
null1 2 2
K null
V = K 1 1 ; Kn =
null 2 n 1 + 2 + 3 sin g 1+ 2sin 2 g
Vnull3 2 2
sin g - sin g + 2 sin 2 g
1 2 3
2. Back-to-back CMG pairs Signal Flow. Figure 7.9.1-3 is the block diagram showing the flow from Tcmd to the
spacecraft dynamics. Figure 7.9.1-4 illustrates the pair of back-to-back CMGs for the z-axis and shows the elemental
block diagram for the payload structural mode.
7.9.1-11
The CMG B dynamics are given by (Note: sat is saturation function with linear gain between T max)
7.9.1-12
7.9.1-13
7.9.1-14
7.9.1-15
7.9.2 Pitch Axis Design. Compensation Designed Using the Straight-Line Bode Diagram method and
the Standard Form of the 2nd Order System for Mid Frequency Region
Design the spacecraft pitch axis control system using the block diagram shown in Figure 7.9.2-1 assuming the
pseudoinverse matrix is implied in obtaining the control torque. The control system requirements are in Table 7.9.2-
1. The parameters are given in Table 7.9.2-2. The variability in parameter values are given in the table.
Note:
Use design-to value of = 0.7 shown in Table 7.9.2-1 for Mid Frequency Region
Design-to value of n to be determined based on = 0.7 and Mid Frequency requirements
Using straight-line Bode diagram for standard form of the 2nd order differential equation for the Mid Frequency
region, shape straight-line portions of straight-line diagram for the Low and High Frequency Regions consistent
with requirements in Table 7.9.2-1 and your assignment of actuator and sensor parameters.
Design derived from the straight-line method is to be evaluated against requirements and is the basis for the
subsequent root locus, Nyquist and Bode diagrams.
Table 7.9.2-1 Control system requirements
Requirement Value
1 Track constant acceleration command input Zero steady state error
2 Track command inputs with frequencies up to 0.004 n Error 0.1%
3 Total Residue(s) of Low Frequency root(s) to step input 5%
4 Overshoot to a step command input Design-to = 0.7
5 Time to peak for step input command 0.2 sec
6 Settling time to 2% of the commanded step value 2 seconds
7 Phase Margin 30
8 Low and High Frequency Gain Margins 6 dB
9 Suppress structural mode peak value at 7 n 10 dB below 0 dB axis
10 Maneuver using profile in Figure 7.9.2-2 Maneuver 90 in 4 minutes.
D. Summarize in a table-format the expected performance of your design compared to the requirements. Explain
how you determined the expected performance. Discuss any requirements you cannot meet.
E. the rigid body unit step response using superposition of the Low, Mid and High Frequency components.
Your reasoning to obtain sketch is required; computer generated results not acceptable.
F. Draw the open loop straight-line magnitude diagram using semilog graph paper and straight-edge (e.g., ruler)
for |C(s)/(U(s)/JSC)| considering rigid body only. Your reasoning/approximations to obtain diagram is required;
computer generated results not acceptable.
G. Sketch the root locus for the rigid body system. Include the actuator and sensor time constants you set for
your design. Determine j-axis crossing via Rouths criteria using the transfer function KG(s)H(s) without the
actuator and sensor poles and zeros. Enter the estimated location of the closed loop poles and zeros onto the root
locus using the closed loop estimates from the straight-line Bode diagram in part F. Computer generated results not
acceptable.
H. Sketch the Nichols and Nyquist diagrams for the rigid body system. Show phase margin and gain margin
values on the diagrams. Show stable and unstable regions by counting encirclements.
J. Provide the scan profile parameters in Figure 7.9.2-2 and CMG torque sizing, i.e., maximum value of T cmg, for
your design to achieve the value of Tcmd required.
To be determined by designer.
The solar array structural mode frequency b* is << 0.005 n thus it causes only a decrease in the High Frequency
gain margin (HFGM). The decrease is 20 log (1.06) = 0.5 dB. Other effects due to the slight solar array gain
increase at frequencies above the solar array frequency are not considered at this stage of the synthesis.
A. Requirements. The requirements are summarized in Table 7.9.2-3. The damping ratio, , is given. The residue
of the low frequency zero is set 5% by the designer setting the gain at the low frequency open loop zero(s). The
plant shown in Figure 7.9.2-1 is Type 2.
Table 7.9.2-3 Derived Requirements
High Frequency
9. Suppress payload KB = 0.32; KB/(2 b = 0.32/(2*0.005) = 32 (30 dB)
fundamental mode at b Therefore, accounting for gain variations, rigid body Bode gain diagram must
= 7 n by 10 dB below be at least 42 dB (30 + 10 + 2 +0.5) below 0 dB axis at b, i.e., rigid body Bode
0 dB axis diagram gain 42.5 dB at b.
10. Maneuver Profile: Profile shaping and choice of CMG torque; see section I
90 in 4 minutes
Review of the implications of the requirements. The plant, C(s)/TT(s), is Type 2 with an open loop transfer function
of the form 1/s2. To meet requirements 1 and 3 (in order to get sufficient Low Frequency tracking gain) a Type 3,
i.e., 1/s3 open loop transfer function, is needed.
The structural model using rigid body and structural mode components in Figure 7.9.2-1 is
K
1 1 s
C(s) = + B T (s)
7.9.2-3
s J sc s J sc s2 + 2 s + 2 cmg
b b b
The control system block diagram is shown in Figure 7.9.2-3. The partition of the compensation between PID and
Low and High Frequency filters is performed after derivation of the form of the compensation using the straight-line
method for determining K G(s).
Figure 7.9.2-3 Block diagram of spacecraft control loop with PID controller
Assumptions for Initial Synthesis of Compensation
1. Ignore the structural mode in sketching the Bode diagram for the initial design. The rigid body design is shaped
to provide the required 42.5 dB gain of the rigid body open loop gain |K G(j)| at b. Thus, the synthesis is
carried out relative to only the rigid body dynamics.
2. The CMG frequencies 1 and CMG are selected as 65 n and 40 n (with CMG = 1), respectively, to provide
approximately 0.6 and 2 phase shift, respectively, at n. Hence, the CMG transfer function is represented by
the gain KCMG KCMG within the bandwidth of the control system.
3. The rate sensor and angle sensor transfer function frequencies G (with G = 1) and SS are both selected as 40 n
so that they provide a phase shift of approximately 2 and 1, respectively, at n. The sensor transfer functions
are represented as 1 within the bandwidth of the control system.
The phase angle for the angle sensor time delay at n is 57.3/(600 n) ~ 0.1 and is insignificant; therefore not
considered further in design.
The simplified rigid body control system block diagram is shown in Figure 7.9.2-4.
Construction of Low Frequency Region. As shown in Figure 7.9.2-7 there is a 60 dB/dec slope starting at /n = 0
based on the Type 3 1/s3 Low Frequency transfer function. The tracking requirements can be achieved by
intersecting the Mid Frequency 20 dB/dec slope at /n = 0.012. This creates double zero values at /n = 0.012
(or = 0.012 n) providing a slight margin against both the tracking and residue requirements; the phase lead value
is relatively insensitive to slight variations in the location of the 2 zeros.
1 s 2
0.012 +1
0.0468 3 n
K G(s) = 7.9.2-5
s
1 s 2
1 s 1 s 2 s 1 s
+1 +1 + +1 +1
n 1.4
n 2.6 n 402 n2 40 n 65 n
1 2 1 s 2
s
+1 +1
(0.0468 n ) 0.012 n = 0.0468 3 0.012 n
3
1
( n)
K Gc (s) =
s 1 s 1 s s 1 s 1 s 7.9.2-7
+1 +1 +1 +1
1.4 n 2.6 n 1.4 n 2.6 n
= ( PID) ( Mid and Hi Frequency filters)
k 2 1
D s + s +1
k ki
Manipulate into the form k p ki i
s
1 s 2 1 2
+1 s2 + s +1
3 3 0.012 n
2 2
3 3 0.012 n
0.012 n
0.0468 n = 0.0468 n 7.9.2-8
s s
Thus
0.012 k 1 41.667
ki = n = 0.006 n , D = kD = k p ki = 0.04683 n3 k p = 0.01708 n2 7.9.2-9
2 ki 0.012 2 2 n
n
Figure 7.9.2-6 Estimate of Low and High Frequency closed loop roots
or
s s
= ; K G(s)H (s) >> 1
J G (s)C(s) 2
s 2 s= j
~ (0.0468 n )3 s 1.09 +1
+1 7.9.2-14
U (s) s= j 0.012 n s= j 0.264 s= j
1
; K G(s)H (s) >> 1
s= j
s 2 s= j
Figure 7.9.2-13 Straight-line approximation of rigid body Bode diagram for C(s)/(U(s)/J G)
G. Root locus. The open loop transfer function is determined from the block diagram in Figure 7.9.2-11 and the
rigid body equation 7.9.2-5 (repeated below) that includes the actuator and gyro transfer functions.
s 2
0.04683 +1
0.012 n
K G(s)H G (s) =
s2 2
s3 s s
s s
+1 +1 +2 +1 +1
n3 1.4 n 2.6 n 402 n2 40 n 65 n
7.9.2-15
s 2
+ 0.012
n
= 4.3115108
s2 2
s3 s s
s 2 s
+1.4 + 2.6 + 2 (40) + 40 + 65
n3 n n n2 n
n
The last equation is in root locus form with a fixed root locus gain of KRL = 4.3115x108. The root locus is drawn
using a variable KRL gain.
s 2
+ 0.012
n
K G(s)H G (s) = K RL 7.9.2-16
s 2 2
s3 s s
s 2 s
+1.4 + 2.6 + 2 (40) + 40 + 65
3
n n n 2
n n n
For the simple model ignoring the high frequency roots, the root locus transfer function is
( s + 0.012 n )
2
K G(s)H (s) = k RL
s3 ( s +1.4 n ) ( s + 2.6 n )
G simple 7.9.2-17
Since the sensor and actuator poles are at a high frequency relative to n, the root locus near the origin based on the
simple model is assumed to be relatively unaffected by these poles for determining the locus for the low and mid
frequency regions.
Applying the root locus rules provides the results in Table 7.9.2-7. Figure 7.9.2-14 is the root locus sketch.
Table 7.9.2-7 Root locus results
1. The loci start at the open loop poles s = 0, 1.4 n, 2.6 n, four real poles at
40 n, 65 n
2 The loci terminate at the zeros Two zeros at s = 0.012 n and 8 at
infinity.
3. Real axis loci 0 to 1.4 n, 2.6 n to 65 n
4. Angle of asymptotes: 2k +1
-180
10 - 2
= 22.5,67.5, 112.5, 157.5
(-65- 4(40) - 2.6 -1.4 + 2(0.012)) n
10 - 2
5. C.G. of asymptotes:
= - 28.6 n
Figure 7.9.2-14 Sketch of rigid body root locus ( denotes closed loop poles)
H. Nichols and Nyquist diagrams. The diagrams are drawn based on the Bode gain-phase diagrams, and, the
transfer function in equation 7.9.2-14 repeated below.
s 2
0.04683 +1
0.012 n
K G(s)H G (s) = 7.9.2-18
s2 2
s3 s s s s
+1 +1 +2 +1 +1
n3 1.4 n 2.6 n 402 n2 40 n 65 n
The angle at = 0+ is 270 and 720 at = +. The gain and phase along the j-axis is determined from the
Bode gain-phase diagram.
The Nichols and Nichols diagram sketches are in Figure 7.9.2-15.
Figure 7.9.2-15 Nichols and Nyquist diagram rigid body sketches nominal gain
I. Sizing Components.
The designer selected jerk profile to meet the requirement that the system is to maneuver 90 in 4 minutes is shown
in Figure 7.9.2-16 and is used to size components. For smaller angles than 90 the jerk value J is decreased. For
angles greater than 90 there is a period of constant acceleration T a and constant velocity TR as shown in Figure
7.9.2-2.
7.6.2-19
One-quarter of the angle, or 90/4 = 22.5, is accomplished in the first jerk period, therefore T J = 1 minutes, or 60 s.
The maximum value of J is Jmax = 22.5*6/603 = 0.000625 /s3 (1.09x10 5 r/s3). The corresponding maximum value
of acceleration and rate are 0.0375/s2 and 1.125/s, respectively.
The budget for the maximum value of pitch torque is in Table 7.6.2-8.
Appendix Verification
The roots are
Approximate Exact
Normalized Non-normalized Normalized Non-normalized
Low Frequency
0.0118 0.26 0.0107 0.235
0.0121 0.266 0.0139 0.307
Mid Frequency
n 1 22 0.9 19.8*
0.43 0.43 0.49 0.49*
Hi Frequency
3 66 3.09 68
* Estimated overshoot and time to peak based on 2nd order characteristics only is 17% and 0.18 sec, respectively.
The step response using normalized time nt is
- 0.442 nt - 0.442 nt
c(t) = 1- 0.926 e cos 0.784 nt - 954 e sin 0.784 nt
- 0.0107 nt - 0.0139 nt -3.09 nt
- 0.0515 e + 0.0876 e - 0.11 e
The non-normalized time response with n = 22 r/s is
c(t) = 1- 0.926 e- 9.72 t cos 17.24 t - 0.954 e- 9.72 t sin 17.24 t
- 0.0515 e- 0.235 t + 0.0876 e- 0.307 t) - 0.11 e(-68 t )
The comparison of the estimate of residues is: for Low Frequency, estimate = 2/63 = 0.0317, the exact = 0.0876
0.515 = 0.361 residual; for High Frequency, estimate = 0.14; exact = 0.11. The comparisons are good and useful for
guiding the synthesis process.
INDEX
A Laplace transform
Approximation for the closed loop transfer function differential equation, solution of, 23, 27
position control system, 219 inverse transform, 25
Approximations for disturbance transfer function partial fraction expansion, 23
position control system, 222 springs, masses and dampers, 38
B state equations, solution of, 42
Bode diagram M
position control system, 210 Mathematical modeling
welding control system, 208 coupled spring, mass and damper system, 80
C electrical circuit, 81
Closed loop transfer function, 218 nodal current equations, 83
D position control system, 210
Differential equation spring, mass and damper system, 79
homogeneous solution, 13, 15 state equations for electrical circuit, 83
impulse response, 18 table control system, 87
particular solution, 14, 16 transfer function for electrical circuit, 84
second order, 13 voltage loop equations, 82
third order, 15 welding control system, 193
step and impulse inputs, 17 Mid Frequency region
total solution, 14, 16 position control system, 218
E N
Elemental block diagram Nichols diagram
electrical circuit, 81, 84 position control system, 220
spring, mass and damper system, 81 Nyquist Diagram
welding control system, 195 position control system, 221
Examples O
Chapter 5 Observer-controller
Elemental block diagram of electrical circuit, 81 full state feedback controller, 68
I partial state feedback, 72
Inner loop and outer loop controllers, 228 PID controller design, comparison with
Iteration of control design, 205 rotational control system, 64
L spring mass system, for, 42