Radiation is created and then later absorbed within some material.

Radiation interactions, both formation

and absorption, depend on the atomic structure of the material.

Figure 1: Various Radiations produced by Radioactive Transitions

Radioactive Transition

Most radionuclides emit a combination of radiations; the types depend on the physical characteristics of
the nucleus. The original nucleus is designated the parent, while the nucleus after the transition is
designated the daughter. In radioactive transition, energy is emitted as radiation.

Two types of changes occur within the nucleus: loss of energy and, possibly, a change in atomic number.
Isobaric Transitions

Most radioactive transitions have several steps. For most radionuclides, the first step is an isobaric
transition (involves change in energy and atomic number, but mass remains constant) followed by an
isomeric (change in energy only) transition. The three types of isobaric transition of interest are:

(i) beta (negatron) emission;

(ii) beta (positron) emission; and

(iii) electron capture.

Beta (negatron) Emission

Negatron emission occurs if the N/P ratio is too high for stability. During negatron decay, the N/P ratio of
the nuclide is reduced by transition of a neutron to a proton. The transition may be written as:

1
0 n 1
1 p + 10 e + v~ or 1
0 n 1
1 p + 10 + v~

where 10 e represents an electron ejected from the nucleus and 10 designates the nuclear origin of the
ejected electron. The symbol v~ represents a particle known as an antineutrino. Negatron decay results in
an increase in Z and a constant A. As an example, the Cs-137 decay is:

137
55 Cs 137
56 Ba + 10 + v~

Beta (positron or beta plus) Emission

Positron emission occurs when the N/P ratio is too low for stability. During positron decay, the N/P ratio
of the nuclide is increased by transition of a proton to a neutron. The transition may be written as:

1
1 p 1
0 n+ 0
1 e + v or 1
1 p 1
0 n + 0
1 + v

where 10 e represents a positron ejected from the nucleus and 10 designates the nuclear origin of the
ejected electron. The symbol v represents a particle known as a neutrino. Positron decay results in a
decrease in Z and a constant A.

Since a neutron is heavier than a proton, energy is required for the conversion of a proton to a neutron.
Thus the total transition energy during the conversion must be at least equal to the energy equivalent to
the mass difference between a neutron and a proton plus the energy equivalent of the positron mass.

The positron is an antiparticle of an electron and will enter an annihilation reaction when the two particles
meet. Since electrons are normally abundant in a material (orbital electrons), positrons are annihilated
soon after their emission. Positron emitters are useful in nuclear medicine because of the radiation
produced when the positron is annihilated. The total masses of the positron and the electron are converted
into energy according to the E mc 2 . The energy produced is 1.022 MeV or 1022 keV emitted as a pair
of photons, each of 511 keV. Therefore, the radiation from a positron-emitting material is photons with a
characteristic energy of 511 keV. The pair of photons leave the site travelling in opposite directions.
This is useful in imaging, because it allows the annihilation site to be precisely determined.

Electron Capture (EC)

Electron capture is a process which occurs when the N/P ratio is too low for stability. It involves the
capturing and absorption of an electron from a shell (orbit). Most of the electrons are captured from
the K-shell, hence the process is sometimes referred to as the K-capture. Capture from the L and M shells
is also possible, but is not frequent. The electron captured results in the cancellation of the charge of one
proton and the proton is converted to a neutron. This results in the decrease of the atomic number of the
nuclei by one, but the mass number does not change, hence the transition is isobaric. Electron capture
often competes with positron emission; if a nuclide is a positron emitter, some nuclei will emit positrons
and some will capture electrons. The ratio between the two processes is specific for each nuclide.

In an electron capture transition, radiation is not emitted directly from the nucleus but results from the
changes within the electron shells. Electron capture creates a vacancy in one shell, which is quickly field
by an electron from a higher energy orbit or shell. As the filling electron moves down to the K-shell, it
gives off an amount of energy equivalent to the binding energy of the two levels. This energy is emitted
from the atom as either characteristic x-ray photons or Auger electrons. Auger electrons are produced
when the energy given up by the electron filling the K-shell vacancy is transferred to another electron,
knocking it out of its shell. Most Auger electrons have relatively low energies.

Many radionuclides that undergo electron capture are used in nuclear medicine because the energy of
characteristic x-ray photons is ideal for in-vivo studies.

Isomeric Transitions

After a radioactive nucleus undergoes an isobaric transition (negatron emission, positron emission, or
electron capture), it usually contains too much energy to be in its final stable or daughter state. Nuclei in
these intermediate and final states are isomers, since they have the same atomic and mass numbers.
Nuclei in the intermediate states will undergo an isomeric transition by emitting energy and attaining the
ground state. There are two isomeric transitions:

(i) gamma emission;

(ii) internal conversion.

Gamma Emission

In most isometric transitions, a nuclear will emit its excess energy in the form of a gamma photon. Many
nuclides have more than one intermediate state or energy level. When this is the case, a radionuclide may
emit gamma photons with several different energies. Nuclides that have gone to a specific intermediate
energy level might then go to the daughter level or to a lower intermediate level before going to the stable
daughter level. Some nuclides may make a direct transition from the parent level to the stable daughter
nuclide. For most nuclides, the time spent by the nucleus in the intermediate state is extremely short and
the isomeric transition appears to coincide with the isobaric transition. In some nuclides, however, the
nuclei remain in the intermediate state for a longer time. In this case, the intermediate state is referred to
as Metastable states

Internal Conversion (IC)

Usually, a daughter nucleus releases its excess energy by emitting gamma radiation. However, this release
is achieved occasionally by internal conversion, during which the energy from an isomeric transition is
transferred to an electron within the orbit, provided the transition energy is equal to or greater than the
binding energy of the electron. In many nuclides, isomeric transitions produce gamma photons and IC
electrons. The kinetic energy of the ejected electron is equal to the difference between the transition
energy and the binding energy of the electron. During an internal conversion, no gamma ray photon is
emitted. Instead, an energetic conversion electron is ejected, together with x-rays and Auger electrons
released as the extranuclear (electron shells) structure of the atom assumes a stable configuration. The
various isobaric and isomeric transitions give rise to both particulate and photon radiations.

Note:

(i) All transitions are usually followed by either gamma or internal conversion electron emission.

(ii) Internal conversion and electron capture lead to x-rays and Auger electron emission.

Alpha ( ) decay

Some radioactive materials emit alpha particles. An alpha particle consists of two protons and two
neutrons, and hence it is a helium nucleus ( 24 He ). Alpha emission occurs principally with nuclei that are
too large to be stable. When a nucleus emits an alpha particle, its N and Z values decrease by 2 and 4,
respectively. Alpha particles have a large size and charge, more energy and a short range. Alpha emitters:

(i) deposit their energy very close to their origin, leading to high radiation doses;

(ii) are not good penetrators;

Production of Radionuclides

Some radionuclides occur in nature but are generally not suitable for clinical studies. Most are produced
artificially by bombarding a nucleus with a particle such as a neutron or a proton. Negatron emitters are
produced by neutron bombardment, and positron emitters and nuclides that undergo electron capture are
produced by bombardment with positive particles such as protons. Neutrons can be obtained from nuclear
reactors or accelerators. Positive particles are obtained from accelerators, usually cyclotrons.

Nuclear Nomenclature

Nuclides and Elements

The term element refers to the classification of a substance according to its atomic number, and the term
nuclide refers to the classification by both atomic number and number of neutrons. There are 106
different atomic numbers or elements. At least 1,300 different neutron-proton compositions (nuclides) are
known.

Isotopes

Isotopes of a particular element are atoms that posses the same number of protons but a varying number
of neutrons.

Examples: H-1, H-2 (Deuterium) and H-3 (Tritium) are all isotopes of the element hydrogen.

C-9, C-10, C-11, C-12, C-13, C-14, C-15 and C-16 are all isotopes of the element carbon.

An isotope is often referred to as a nuclide. If a nuclide is radioactive, it is referred to as a radionuclide.

Isotones

Isotones are atoms (nuclides) that posses the same number of neutrons but a different number protons.

5 6 7
Examples: 2 He , 3 Li , 4 Be , 58 B and 69 C are isotones (each has 3 neutrons).

Isobars

These are nuclides with same mass number but different atomic numbers (number of protons). Isobars can
not belong to the same chemical element. Examples

I-131 and Xe-131 } isobars

A1-29, Si 29, P-29, S-29 } isobars

Isomers

Nuclei can have the same number of neutron-proton composition but not be identical; Nuclei that have the
same composition but varying energy are known as isomers. Examples:

Technetium -99 exists in two energy states, the higher of the two is a temporary state generally referred to
as metastable state.

Tc-99m and Te-99 are isomers. A nucleus in the metastable state will eventually give off its excess
energy and change to the other isomer.

Tc-99m - 43 protons, 56 neutrons + energy

Tc-99 43 protons, 56 neutrons

Summary

Atomic No. Neutron No. Mass No.

 (Z) (N) (A)

Isotopes Same Different Different

Isotones Different Same Different

Isobars Different Different Same

Isomers Same Same Same(different nuclear

Energy state)

The mass of nuclei and atomic particles is expressed in atomic mass units (amu). 1 atomic mass unit is
defined as 1/12 the mass of carbon atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons (i.e C-12). Thus the mass of this
carbon atom is 12 amu.

12g of C-12 (1mole) = 6.023 x 1023 atoms (Avogadro number)

1 atom = ____12________ g

6.023x1023

1 of man of C-12 atom = 1 X __12 ___ g

12 12 6.023x1023

= 1.66 x 10-24g

= 1.66 x 10-27 kg

Therefore 1 amu = 1.66 x 10-27 kg

The mass of the electron, proton and neutron in terms of amu.s is

Particle mass in kg mass in amus

Electron 9.1085x10-31 0.00055

Proton 1.6725x10-27 1.00727

Neutron 1.6747x10-27 1.00866

Nuclear Binding Energy and Nuclear Force

According to the shell model of the nucleus, the nucleus exists in discrete nuclear energy states. Nucleons
are arranged in shells similar to those available to electrons in the extranuclear (orbital) structure of an
atom. Electrostatic repulsive forces exist between particles of similar charge. Protons repel each other
when their separation distance is greater than the diameter of the nucleus but attract each other when the
distance is less. This contradiction suggests the existence of a nuclear force, other than the normal
electrostatic force, between the nucleons of the nucleus. Nuclear force (sometimes referred to as strong
force) is much stronger than electrostatic force.

The mass of the nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of the individual nuclei in the nucleus. The
mass difference is termed the mass defect, and represents the amount of energy that must be supplied to
separate the nucleus into individual nucleons. This energy is referred to as the binding energy of the
nucleus. Mass m is related to energy E by the equation E mc 2 .

(1amu)(1.66 x10 27 kg / amu)(3x10 8 m / s) 2

The energy equivalent to 1amu is: = 931MeV
(1.6 x10 19 J / eV )

Note:

1 eV is the energy acquired by an electron when it is accelerated through a potential difference of 1 volt.
From the definition, 1 volt (V) is the energy required to move unit positive charge from one point to
another in an electric field.

Thus V = energy per unit charge (E/charge) or energy = charge x V.

The magnitude of the charge on an electron, e, is 1.6 x 10-19 C (C-coulombs). Therefore 1eV is
equivalent to:

1 eV = charge x V = 1.6 x 10-19 C x 1V = 1.6 x 10-19 J.

As an illustration, consider a carbon nucleus with six protons and six neutrons ( 126C ):

Mass of 6 protons = 6x1.00727 amu = 6.04362 amu

Mass of 6 neutrons = 6x1.00866 amu) = 6.05196 amu

Mass of 6 electrons = 6x0.00055 amu = 0.00330 amu

Mass of components of ( 126C ) (total) =12.09888 amu

Molar mass of ( 126C ) =12.00000 amu

Mass defect of ( 126C ) (mass of components molar mass) = 0.09888 amu

12
Binding energy of 6 C = (0.09888 amu) (931 MeV/amu) = 92.0 MeV
 12
Almost all of the binding energy of the 6 C atom is associated with the nucleus.

12
Hence the average binding energy per nucleon of 6 C = 92.00 MeV per 12 nucleons

= 7.67 MeV per nucleon.

Note:

Although the nucleus consists mainly of neutrons and protons, there are other particles, referred to as
elementary particles, some of which account for the strong nuclear force, such as:

(i) positrons;

(ii) mesons;

(iii) hyperons;

(iv) neutrino;

(v) antiproton; etc.