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183
184
7 Life cycle analysis and life cycle costs
185
7.1 Life cycle analysis
Life cycle analysis (LCA) gives an overveienwergyof r
antdhe
185
185
cradle to grave. It considers also how saonl gaseous waste and emissions are
mliquucihd did,
generated in each stage of the productsC lif2e0. 09()GDR
Extraction and
processing of
raw materials
Recycling
Recycling and
and
disposal
disposal as
as Manufacturing
waste
waste
Marketing
185
The scope definition is very crucial in inLeCs dis i
A.whaItt ef
are transports or mining of the raw mdateedr,ialsdoeisncluthe analysis concentrate on a
specifi
life cycle phase, or is the whole T
lifesidecryecdl.e
phase is very important to be defined. Uesunaelrlgyy, tuhsee in operation phase causes
the larg
environmental impacts of the whole life ciyacl weshpeen it comes to energy-using
such as lighting equipment. ley, products,
Table 7-1. Energy consumption and emissions during CcFyLcle and incandescent lamp. (Gydesen and
loife Maiman
1991)
15 W CFL 60 W GLS 15 W CFL 60 W GLS
Energy consumption & quantity of light Production and use
1.4 kWh 0.15 kWh 14.4 kg 70.0 kg
Production CO2
120 kWh 60 kWh SO2 0.11 kg 0.53 kg
Use
0 kWh NOx 0.07 kg 0.35 kg
Disposal
121 kWh 60 kWh CH4 0.05 g 0.25 g
Total
fly ash 0.82 kg 4.00 kg
Service 7.2 Mlmh 0.73 Mlmh mercury 1.00 mg 4.86 mg
Energy consumption per Mlmh gaseous/solid split 0.40/0.60 1.94/2.92
Production 0.19 kWh 0.21 kWh Disposal
Use 17 kWh 82 kWh mercury 0.69 mg
Disposal 0 kWh 0 kWh solid waste 0.015 kg 0.042 kg
Total mercury 1.69 mg 4.86 mg
Total 17 kWh 82 kWh Total solid waste 0.83 kg 4.04 kg
The mercury content in operation was achiseuvmeding the electricity is produced with
bythaats coal power plant. The amount of mercury electricity generation depend on
miasnsdionsothferrome
the electricity generation system that bcyouncountry.
diftfreyrs
100 %
80 %
90 %
60 %
40 %
20 % 5 %
4 % 3 % -2 %
0 %
Resource Production Transport Use Disposal
-20 %
Figure 7-2L.amp energy consumption during life cycle actocordEiunrgopean Lamp Companies Federation
(ELC
2009).
Preliminary data of Osram on LEDs life mcye sahsos t
cnlte wess
consumed by LED based lamps is used intionth. eir(LEpDrosducMagazine 2009)
186
L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
leh n
tg l
length
the lumhimn)a.iresThe(
lumen maintenance fact(oMr F)
includes the lumen
depreciation of the lamps and
the depreceiadtion caus by
contamination of luminaire and
the roo.m surface
l
The energy consumption can be reduced by dimmin
f
the lights according to Li(ghts can be
dayfldi)g. ht
controlled also by an occupancy fos)e, s(witch
width w
(fs) or a dimmer (fc) in the r nsoar
Figure 7-3F. actors affecting the total energy usage g. of lightin
Reducing the installed power of a lightinegpreseynstsem onrly one part of the lighting
energ saving opportunity. Lighting energy consumptionalsocan be decreased by reducing the
use
power by using lighting control systems. eThidsonecanb the application of occupancy sensor
yb
187
L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
and automatic switching and dimming accordeing avatoilabitlhity of daylight. The total
energy
consumption can be calculated, if the etodtal poiwnsetrall is
known.
W
(7-1)
Ptf
where
W energy consumption, kWh
P installed power, W
t annual burning hours, h
f control factor, which takes into tahned switch off periods.
accoundtimmbointhg
The average illuminance is luminous flux npaet ilalure Part of the luminous flux of
erd ma.i
lamps is blocked by the luminaire while lpuamrtin t
from the room surfaces. ooufs
Inc.
100
90
CFL T5
80
70 100 lx
60
density
300 lx
50 500 lx
40 750 lx
Power
W2/m
30 1000 lx
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Luminous efficacy lm/W
2
Figure 7-4P. ower density (W )/m as a function of light source luminolmus/W)effiactacy (
different illuminance levels (lx), Mfa = 0.75 and utilization = fa0c.5to. r
maintenanocre Fct
45
40
35
30
density
0.50
25
0.75
20
0.90
Power
W2 /m
15
10
5
0
0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
Utilization factor
2
Figure 7-5P. ower density (W )/m as a function of utilization factor maatintednifafenrceent factor values (MF =
0.50,
0.75, 0.90), calculated for illuminance E an=d s5y0s0temlx luminous efficacy .lm/W
= 80
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L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
Psys 100
NPD fin
W / m 2 100lx
MF U LOR lamp gear
TA (7-4)
Where
2
NPD normalised power den s,ity1, 00W/l(xm)
Psys total system power, lamps, ballasts, etc., W
fi
TA maintained luminous flux on the task area, lm
MF maintenance factor, ratio of the iltlhue working plane after a
naanvceeragoen mi
certain period of use of lighting atverage illuminance
instahlelatioinnitiatlo
U tuhteilanlcuem, inoreulsatesflux from the luminaires to
usthefluxlumoino the target area
LOR Light Output Ratio or the efficiineanicrey of the lum
lamp initial luminous efficacy of the lamp, lm/W
gear efficiency of the control gear
According to al(.2007) the target values for efficient ltiaglhlattiinogns inasre gear
Hanselaeet r >
0.84, lamp > 70 > > > 2/(1+0A.n5T(A/ATA)). ATA is the task area
lmL/OWR, 0.7M5F, 0.7U5, and
AnTA the total non-task area. In defining uistilasnucpep, osed that the mean initial
thiet illumina
on the non-task area is lower than tmheinanincietialonilluthe task area.
7.3 Economic evaluation of lighting
For economic evaluation of different s
lightiionngs, This means, that all cost categories
incialul dinagnd
invitariable costs must be considered over
lifetime of the whole lighting installatilon.cosItnsitiaare e.g. costs for the
lightinhgtingdesign, lig
equipment, wiring and control devices, andur l
thfeor
costs may include replacement of the (oreultamlpaimngp), cleaning, energy,
burnst replacement of
other parts (reflectors, lenses, louvers, baeltlca.)sts,or any other costs that will be
incurred.
Usually, only the installation costs are P
takaecncounint.to
costs. In commercial buildings the coofs apaid by others who rent the
variablree tetsn apartm
and the initial costs are usually paid tboyr i
wthheo
energ
costs of a lighting installation during wcyhc a
tihfe costs. olele
Costs
Initial costs
The initial costs are the investment costasn, wbehichconvcerted to annual costs by
multiplyin them by the capital recovery factor.
i(1 i) n
CI I
(1 i) n 1 (7-5)
where
CI annual costs of the initial investment,
I investment cost (initial costs of equipmn,enti,nstdaellsaitgion, etc.),
i interest rate (i = p/100, where p isin inpteerrecsetntargaete)
n number of years (service life of installa
ligthitoin)g.
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L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
Variable costs
The variable costs consist of maintenance csoesrtvs iceandcosts. The maintenance costs
include
energy costs and lamp replacement costs. eThecosstserviccan include, for instance, the
cleaning and reparation of luminaires. costs
Energy costsCe
Energy costs are calculated by
multiplyingl burning hours and the price of tphoewertotaof the lighting installation by
electricity. annu
5
Ce n lu c e tP10
(7-6)
where
Ce energy costs,
nlu number of the luminaires
ce price of electricity c/kWh
t annual burning hours, h
P power of the luminaire, lamp and ballast, W.
Lamp costsCL
The annual lamp costs are calculated by mtuhletipllyaimngp price by the quotient of
the a burning hours and lamp t/tLlLif)e. I(nstead of the quotient also the
caypitaflactroercovcearn be
used. This is reasonabtl/etLL if is small, i.e. either the burning ath slam life is
houorsr re mapll
long.
CL n L c L t / t LL (1 k )
(7-7)
where
CL annual lamp costs including the spot re
lamplasmpfionrg,
nL number of the lamps
cL price of a lamp,
t burning hours, h
tLL lamp life, h
k average mortality during lamp group replaricoedm,%en. t pe
191
L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
CS nL cS k / T
(7-9)
where
CS annual spot replacement costs,
nL number of the lamps
cS spot replacement costs per lamp in irnecplluadcienmgenlamp disposal,
spott
k average mortality during lamp group replaricoedm,%ent pe
T group replacement period in years, a
the cleaning and/or painting of room coSste are very dependent on the
surfiaccees. srv
circumstances. If the lamps and luminairesnedareon r
cleaa
with the group replacement, then the anngual cocsltesanicnan be calculated by dividing
the w and material costs by the cleaning period.
CC n L cC cm / tC (7-10)
where
CC annual cleaning costs,
nL number of the lamps
cC work costs of cleaning per lamp,
cm material costs of cleaning per lamp,
tC cleaning period in years, a.
Service cost
Service costs result from the cleaning aonnd oref palruamti in dirty conditions also fr
inaires and
L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
Figure 7-6 shows the effect of annual burnoinng thheourlsamp and energy costs. When
using
service lives of 3 years and 5 years,ts t
thfeor
incandescent lamp 9.50 with 1000 annuoaul rs.burning h
40.00
cos
30.00 Inc.
energy
CFL1
and 20.00 CFL2
LED1
10.00
LED2
Lamp
0.00
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Burning hours
Figure 7-6C. ombined lamp and energy costs as a funucatlionburonfingannhours for different lamp types.
Figure 7-7 shows the distribution of lamp ecnoes a
rgtsy
of the incandescent lamp, two lamps are d
ustehdis
and lamp costs are almost equal, 4.50 pr4ic. o . the LED1 lamp is 20
Thaend 6e2 f
service life is five years. The price y of is ele1c5triccit/kWh and the power of the lamp
is
With CFL and Incandescent lamps the eneregy docmosintsatinagr.
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L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
20,00
15,00
Lamp
10,00
Energy
5,00
0,00
GLS CFL1 CFL2 LED1 LED2
Lamp type
Figure 7-.7 Lamp and energy costs of different lahmp 20t0y0pesanwnuital burning hours.
Other considerations
The electric energy for lighting
an t is ihnea a room. In
integrani
nal
winter peaking regions (cold areas) it bfe uhtielai ting, but in
czaend or
other regions and in summer time it whilel cooling
innecerdeasefor t energy.
If the lighting is dimmed, for instance o t this will
accdoarydliin
gght,
decrease the energy consumption. With fluoarmespcsent evlen if the
luminous flux is on the minimum level (1e styostem5%)enetrhgy
%
consumption is still about 20%.
Lighting control strategies can help to enfleurogryescent lamps
s.aveIf
are switched off regularly, this will enitergwy,ill shorten the
savbeut
lamp life and thus increase the lamp andt
creopsltas.cemCeanlculations show that generally it is economical
to flusowreitscchent offlamps when the switch off time is 15
minutes or longer.
Maintenance
All system components age by time and abt cerertpalian periods (before dropping
mceudst e out).
Lamp performance decreases over time before (Ffiagiu 7-8), and dirt accumulations on
lurree
luminaires and room surfaces decreases utiflaicztaotrs. The lack of maintenance
thieon has
negative effect on visual perception, task ncpee, rfosramfeaty and security, and it wastes
energy
well. Both aging and dirt accumulation chane o
ereffdiuccieencyt
50% or even more, depending on the appleiqcautiipomnentandused. The following
/
measures should be defined by a regular maintenanc:e schedule
costs
Cleaning of luminaires, daylighting devices masnd(dirrot o depreciation)
Replacement of burned out lamps
Replacement of other parts (e.g. corrodeds) reflector
energy
Renovation and retrofitting of antiquated snydstemcosmpaonents.
and
Lamp
194
L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
Shop lighting
4m
L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
195
L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
Installation costs 2
100 /m
Energy consumption 2
,a 85 kWh/m
Costs for electricity (0.15/kWh price) 2
1,a2.75
Costs for electricity for 10 years 2
/m /m 127
Present value of a growing annuity
Present value of an annuity is a seriesymeonf ts
r
eqoural
intervals that occur at the end of p
eacthhe
(PVGA
there is a rate of growth of the annsuityth. e in the first period.
Apnanyumityent i
a 1 g p
n
PV (a) 1
i g 1 i
where
PV(a) value of the annuity at time = 0
a value of the individual payments in pceormiopdound
eiancgh
i interest rate that would be compounderdiodforof eatcimh e p
np number of payment periods
g increase in payments, each payment boyf (a1+gf)a.c
growtosr
Figure 7-9 shows the share of energy icfoests thceostsl. The calculation is done
cycinle over
years. Figure shows two examples of the one with 1% annual increase in
itnhcereaspericeosf
electricity price and the other with 5% eaasnenuainl electricity price.
itnhcer
196
L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
20 %
24 %
28 %
33 %
1 % increas 5 % increase
e in electricity 43 % in electricity 52 %
Office-lighting
Installation costs 2
31 /m
197
L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
Installation /m
2
31
2
Electricity 56 annual increase)
(1%/m annual increase)
2
Electricity 8
(5%/m
2
Maintenance 20 (no/m annual increase)
Figure 7-10 shows the share of energy incosltis in office lighting. The calculation
cocsytcsle fe
done over 24 years. The figure shows twof e
on
with 1% annual increase in electricity, earnd 5o annual increase in electricity price.
wtihthe %th
15 %
19 %
23 %
29 %
1 % increase 5 % increase
52 %
62 %
in electrici in electricity
Ins tallation Electricity Ins tallation Electricity Maintenance
Maintenance
The increasing of the lighting power Wu/p to(maximum power density for office-
den2s5ity m
rooms according to EN 15193) increases thoests enseirggnyificcantly compared to the
installation
costs, Figure 7-11. When compared to Figudre re7la- acnalculations, the electricity costs
1te0d increased by about 85%. are
198
L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
11 %
9 %
22 %
29 %
69 %
1 % increase 60 % 5 % increase
in electricity in electricity
Ins tallation Electricity Ins tallation Electricity Maintenance
Maintenance
Conclusions
There is lack of awareness of the (voapreration costs), ythe energ
facitabltehatcosthtse especially
costs of a lighting installation during wcyhcolele, al re mostly the largest part of
tihfe the
costs, and that proper maintenance plans saov enaergy during the operating phase
calnot f e of
installation. Due to this lack of awarenesson in pracotimcem, life cycle costs (LCC)
and maintenance plans are very seldom put in.to Thperactciacleculations show that the
management o
LCC in the design phase can change thef edviaflfue lioghting solutions significantly. This
aretinotn
adds weight to the energy aspects and t
tihnugs energy efficient lighting solutions.
7.5 Long term assessment of costs associated i
Fontoynont (2009) has studied financial t
dagta
daylighting and lighting techniques over e The techniques are compared on the
lopnegriodtsim.
basis of illumination delivered on the ypelar Tphe selected daylighting techniques
woerrk n.e
were: roof monitors, faade windows, borrowedwinldigohwts, light wells, daylight
guidance
systems, as well as off-grid lighting based poonwereLdEDsby photovoltaics. These
solutions
were compared with electric lighting instcaollnast iostnisng of various sources: fluorescent
lamps,
tungsten halogen lamps and LEDs. Figure 7- sahnonwusal costs for various
1th2e options
(/Mlmh).
199
L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
Figure 7-12A. nnual costs for various lighting and t(Fontoynont 2009).
daeyclhingihqtuinegs
References
ELC 2009. European lamp companies kDniodwy the potential energy savings of
Federatioonu. afnficientergy e
lamp? http://www.elcfed.org/1_health.html, , aecdcess17 September 2009
L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
EN 15193. Energy performance of buildings requirEenmeergnyts for lighting, European Standard
200
L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
Fontoynont 2009. Long term assessment of ccioat awssitoh lighting and daylighting 45An
Newsletter 1/2009, p. 3. setsd techniqnueexs.
Gydesen & Maimann, 1991. Life cycle anaelygsreasl coofmpinact t fluorescent lamps versus
incandleasmcpens.t
Proceedings of Right Light Bright Light, S. 1991.
tocSkwheodlmen,
http://www.iaeel.org/iaeel/archive/Right_light_proceedings/Contents/RL1_contents.html
Hanselaer et al. 2007. Power density targets for efficientof liginhteinrigor task areas. Lighting Res.
T39ec,2hnology, (2007) pp 171-184
DEFRA 2009. Life Cycle Assessment of Ulttra-ELfafmicpiesn. Final Report to the EFnovoirdon
Department mfeonrt, and Rural Affairs, 5th May 2009.
http://wwovw.u.dke/efrnav.igronment/business/products/roadmaps/lighting.htm
L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
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L7 IFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND LIFE CYCLE
COSTS
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