CHAPTER 2

WATER QUALITY

Water Quality Standards

and
Parameters

1
 Content
PART 1: INTRODUCTION
i) Beneficial Water Use
ii) Water Resources

PART 2:WATER QUALITY

i) Definition
ii) Objectives
iii) Water Quality Parameters

PART 3: WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

i) Physical
ii) Chemical
iii) Microbiological

2
 PART 1
INTRODUCTION

(i) Beneficial Water Use

(ii) Water Resources

3
Beneficial Water Uses

Municipal Uses
Agricultural Uses
Industrial Uses
Rural Uses

4
 Water Resources
1. Snow / Rain
2. Surface Water
(i) Watershed Management
(ii) Lake /River /Reservoir
(iii) Intake Structure
(iv) Pump
(v) Treatment Facilities

5
Cont8.
3. Imported water
(i) Transmission Pipeline
(ii) Treatment Facilities
4.Groundwater
(i) Basin Management
Natural and artificial recharge
Quality Control

(ii) Wells

6
 PART 2
Water Quality

i) Definition
ii) Objective
iii) Water quality parameters

7
 Water Quality Definition

Is the technical term that is based

upon the characteristics of water in
relation to guideline values of what is
suitable for human consumption and
for all usual domestic purpose

8
Objective of Water Quality

To control the discharge of

pollutants so that water quality is
not degraded to an unacceptable
extent below the natural
background level

9
 Water Quality Parameters

Are the natural and man-made

chemical, biological and
microbiological characteristics of
rivers, lakes and groundwater.
It provides important information
about the health of a water body.

10
 Water Quality Parameters
Are used to find out if the quality
water is good enough for drinking
water, recreation, irrigation and
aquatic life.
These include chemical, physical
and biological parameters

11
 TYPES OF WATER POLLUTION
POINT SOURCE

pollution flowing from a single and identifiable
source such as discharge pipe from a factory,
roadway, or leaking underground storage tank

NON-POINT SOURCE

pollution collected by rain falling over a larger
watershed which is then carried by runoff to a
nearby lake or stream, or by infiltration into the
groundwater
POINT SOURCE POLLUTION
POINT SOURCE POLLUTION
Hazardous and toxic materials
from manufacturing and industry
discharged directly into the water -
usually through a pipe or a leaky
underground tank
Oil and gasoline
Solvents (toxic liquids)
Toxins and poisons
Heavy metals (arsenic, lead,
mercury, etc.)
THERMAL POLLUTION - heated
water causes the dissolved
oxygen (DO) content in a body
of water to decrease - can
result in fish kills
NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION

A HARDER PROBLEM TO SOLVE

THE CHANGING URBAN LANDSCAPE
Changing the landscape
changes the amount of runoff
in a watershed
NON-POINT SOURCE
POLLUTION is pollutants being
collected by rainwater falling
over a large watershed and
carried directly to a river, lake
or stream
Gas, oil, chemicals, detergents
containing phosphorus, trash
and other pollutants collected
off driveways, roads and city
streets flow directly down
drains and storm sewers to a
nearby body of water
untreated
THE CHANGING RURAL LANDSCAPE
MODERN FARMING IS A MAJOR SOURCE
OF NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION
Pesticides (bug killer) and herbicides
(weed killer) can wash into nearby
lakes and rivers
Crop fields, especially after harvest, can
wash large amounts of dirt and
sediment into nearby lakes and rivers
Animal waste and manure can be a
source of nutrients and harmful
bacteria
Fertilizer can be a source of nutrients,
such as nitrogen and phosphorus,
entering nearby lakes and rivers leading
to the serious problem of
EUTROPHICATION

BIGGER FARM = BIGGER PROBLEM

CONSTRUCTION & MINING
Clear-cutting trees and
plowing a field to create a
mining or construction site
can be a major source of
non-point source pollutants
Without the trees and the
plants in the field to hold the
soil in place, large amounts
of dirt and sediment can be
discharged into a nearby lake
or stream
Can be a source of toxic
chemicals, acids, or heavy
metals used in the
construction or mining
process
 PART 3
WATER QUALITY
PARAMETERS

20
 Water Quality Parameters

1. Physical 2. Chemical
parameters parameters

3. Biological
parameters

21
 Physical Parameters
This parameters respond to the sense of
sight, touch, taste or smell

22
23
Solid are broken down into categories as
follows;
Total Solids (TS)
TSS (Total Suspended Solids)
TDS (Total Dissolved Solids)
Volatile Solids (VS)
Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS)
Volatile Dissolved Solids (VDS)
Unit: mg/l
24
 Total Solids (TS)
TS are the total of all solids in a water sample.
They include the total suspended solids, total
dissolved solids, and volatile suspended solids.

Classification:

Fixed solids- basically the ash left over after burning

the dried solids.

Volatile solids- solids in water or other liquids that are

lost on ignition of the dry solids.
 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
TSS contain
Organic matters
Plant Fibers
Biological Solids
Inorganic matters
Clay (size less than 2 m)
Silt (size 2-60 m)

26

TDS are solids that pass through a filter
of 2.0 micrometer (m) or smaller pore size
under specific condition.

The values are found by evaporating
known volume of filtrate at 105oC in a
crucible and weighing it after all water
evaporated.

27
 Filterable
Solids
Non-filterable

Settleable
Solids
Non-settleable

Volatile
Solids
Non-Volatile

28
Interrelationships
of solids

29
 Determination of
Suspended Solids

30
 Analysis of Solids
The following test were obtained for a wastewater taken from a headwork
to a WTP. All the test were performed using sample size of 50 mL.
Determine the concentration of total solids (TS), total volatile solids (TVS),
suspende solids (SS), volatile suspended solids (VSS), total dissolved
solids (TDS) and volatile dissolved solids.
Data:
Tare mass of evaporating dish = 53.5433 g
Mass of evaporating dish + residue after evaporation at 105oC =53.5794 g
Mass of evaporating dish + residue after ignition at 550oC = 53.5625 g
Tare mass of Whatman GF/C filter after drying at 105oC = 1.5433 g
Mass of Whatman GF/C filter + residue after drying at 105oC = 1.5554 g
Mass of Whatman GF/C filter + residue after ignition at 550oC = 1.5476 g

31
Solution:
1. Determine total solids (TS)
TS = (mass of dish + residue, g)-(mass of dish, g)
sample size, Liter
TS = ((53.5794-53.5433) g)(103 mg/g) = 722 mg/L
0.050 L

2. Determine total volatile solids (TVS)

TVS = (mass of dish + residue, g)-(mass of dish + residue after ignition, g)
sample size, Liter
TVS = ((53.5794-53.5625) g)(103 mg/g) = 338 mg/L
0.050 L

32
3. Determine total suspended solids (TSS)
TS = (residue on filter after drying, g)-(tare mass of filter after drying, g)
sample size, Liter

TS = ((1.5554-1.5433) g)(103 mg/g) = 242 mg/L

0.050 L

4. Determine total volatile solids (TVS)

TVS = (residue on filter after drying, g)-(residue on filter after ignition, g)
sample size, Liter

TVS = ((1.5554-1.5476) g)(103 mg/g) = 156 mg/L

0.050 L

33
 Caused by foreign matters such as organics compounds,
inorganic salts, bacteria, algae and dissolved gases
Measurement: Threshold Odor Number (TON)
Examples:
(i) addition of ammonia in the pipes
(ii)excessive manganese & iron present in the finished
water.
** manganese & iron often found in groundwater
supplies where the overall quality of the water is good but
there is a high amount of soluble salt. These metals then
react with O2 in the distribution system to produced the
reduced and insoluble form of the metal**

34
 Taste problems relating to water
could be indicators of changes in
water sources or treatment process
Inorganic compound such as
magnesium, calcium, sodium, copper,
iron and zinc are generally detected
by taste of water.

35
 It is due to the presence of dissolved and
suspended matter (metallic ions, chemical
pollutants, plankton and plant pigments from
humus and peat).
These substance do not threaten stream
water quality, but indicate INCREASED
DEVELOPMENT in watershed.

36
 Dissolved organic material from
humic substances generally lend a
brown or tea color to water
Dissolved organic material from
vegetation and certain inorganic
matter may cause color in water

37
 Is a measure of the amount of particulate
matter that is suspended in water.
Measured by Turbidity meter.
Unit-NTU (Nephlometric Turbidity Unit)
Water that has high turbidity appears cloudy
/ opaque .
High turbidity can cause increased of water
temperature and decreased DO

WHY???
38
 It is because8
More suspended particles will absorb
more heat which in turn lowers dissolved
O2 levels.
Such particles (SS clay, silt, finely
divided organic material, plankton) can
also prevent sunlight from reaching plants
below surface hence decrease the rate of
photosynthesis.
So, less O2 is produced by plant
39
 It is a major factor in determining which
species are present in the stream
Temperature will impacts:
(i) the rates of metabolism and growth of
aquatic organism
(ii) rate of plant photosynthesis
(iii) solubility of O2 in water [0C,
DO = 14.6 mg/l; 20C, DO = 9.1 mg/l]
(iv) organisms sensitivity to disease,
parasites and toxic materials
40
 Cool water tastes better
Temperature affects rate of chemical
and microbiological reactions
The most suitable drinking waters are
consistently cool and do not have
temperature fluctuations of more than
a few degrees
Groundwater and surface water from
mountain area generally meet these
criteria

41
 CHEMICAL PARAMETERS
pH Hardness Dissolved Oxygen
(DO)
Alkalinity

Nitrites and Nitrates

Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD)
Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD)
42
 Chemical Parameters
pH
pH
It is a measure of the concentration of
hydrogen ions
The term pH was derived from the
manner in which the hydrogen ion
concentration is calculated
pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7
is considered to be neutral.
Substances with pH of less than 7 are
acidic; substances with pH greater than
7 are basic
43
pH Scale

44
 Acid Base Concentrations
10-1
pH = 3 pH = 11
concentration (moles/L)

H3O+ OH-

pH = 7
10-7
H3O+ OH-

OH- H3O+

10-14
[H3O+] > [OH-] [H3O+] = [OH-] [H3O+] < [OH-]
Timberlake, Chemistry 7th Edition, page 332
acidic neutral basic
solution solution solution
 What does pH measure?
What is the pH equation?
What is the pH scale?
Hydrogen ion concentration [H+]
pH= -log[H+]
[H+] = [H3O+]
pH=1 : [H+]=1 x 10-1 moles/liter (acidic)
If you have a solution with 1 x 10-6 and a
solution of 1 x 10-8 [H+], how much more
acidic is one than the other?
 pH
pH Continues ..

Affects chemical and

biological reactions
Low pH is corrosive
High pH cause deposits

47
 pH Continues..
Example 1
Calculate the concentration of hydrogen ion (H+) for a water sample with pH
of 10.
pH = -log [H+]
10 = -log [H+]
Therefore, [H+]= antilog -10
= 10-10 mol/liter
Example 2
Calculate the pH value of a water sample which has hydrogen ion
concentration of 1 x 10-6.4 mol/liter.
pH = -log [H+]
= -log (1 x 10-6.4)
= -[log 1 + log 10-6.4]
= -[0 + (-6.4)log 10]
= 6.4 48
 Work Example
Find the hydrogen ion
concentration and the
hydroxide ion concentration in
tomato juice having a pH of 4.1.

Concentration unit mol/L then

mg/L

49
 Solution
pH = -log [H+]
4.1 = -log [H+]
Therefore, [H+] = antilog -4.1
= 10-4.1 mol/L
pH + pOH = 14
pOH = 14-4.1 = 9.9
pOH = -log [OH-]
9.9 = -log [OH-]
Therefore, [OH-] = antilog -9.9
= 10-9.9 mol/L

50
 Conversion of Unit
Mol/L to mg/L
H+ == atomic weight = 1 g/mol
OH- == atomic weight = 17
g/mol

Mol/L (conc. ) x g/mol (atomic

wt) x 1000mg/1g = mg/L
51
 Conversion of Unit
Mol/L to mg/L
H+ == atomic weight = 1 g/mol
OH- == atomic weight = 17 g/mol
Mol/L (conc. ) x g/mol (atomic wt) x 1000mg/1g = mg/L

Example;

[H+] = 10-4.1 mol/L

= 10-4.1 mol/L x g/mol (1) x 1000mg/1g
= 0.794 mg/L

[OH-] = 10-9.9 mol/L

= 10-9.9 mol/L x g/mol (17) x 1000mg/1g
= 21.4 x 10-6 mg/L

52
 Earths Water Budget

All water Fresh water Readily accessible fresh water

Groundwater
0.592% Biota
0.0001%
Rivers
Lakes 0.0001%
0.007%
Fresh water 0.014%
2.6% Atmospheric
Oceans and Ice caps
Soil water vapor
saline lakes and glaciers
moisture 0.001%
97.4% 1.984%
0.005%
 Hardness
- Stream water hardness is the total
concentration of cations, specifically
calcium (Ca2+ ),magnesium (Mg2+), iron
(Fe2+), manganese (Mn2+) in the water.
- Water rich in these cations is said to be
hard. Stream water hardness reflects
the geology of the catchment area.
- Sometimes it also provides a measure
of the influence of human activity
54
 Hardness
For instance, acid mine drainage
often results in the release of iron into
a stream. The iron produces
extraordinarily high hardness which is
a useful water quality indicator.
Hardness is a reflection of the amount
of calcium and magnesium entering
the stream through the weathering of
rock such as limestone (CaCO3).

55
 Carbonate hardness
Source: Combination of Ca and Mg
ions with ions of CO32-, or HCO3-.
These carbonate components can be
eliminated by softening methods such
as boiling, or by adding lime
When the carbonate components
settled then the water have become
soft water.

56
 Carbonate hardness

Ca 2+ Mg 2+ + HCO3- CO32-

Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 Mg(HCO3)2 MgCO3

57
 Noncarbonate Hardness
Source: Combinations of Ca and Mg ions
with ions of Cl-, SO42-, or NO3-.
The non-carbonate ions cannot be
eliminated by ordinary softening methods
as done on carbonate hardness.
Usually elimination of non carbonate
hardness is done chemically by adding
softening soda (soda ash or sodium
carbonate)

58
 Noncarbonate Hardness

Ca 2+ Mg 2+ + Cl- SO42- NO3-

CaCl2 CaSO4 Ca(NO3)2 MgCl2 MgSO4 Mg(NO3)2

59
 Total Hardness
Because calcium and magnesium predominate, it is often
convenient to define total hardness as the sum of Calcium
and Magnesium elements.

Therefore Total Hardness as CaCO3 :

Total Hardness = Ca2+ + Mg2+

Total hardness is measured in mg/L CaCO3:

mg/L material X = Conc. of X (mg/L) (50 mg CaCO3/meq)

as CaCO3 (Equivalent wt of X (mg/meq))

60
 Water Hardness
Water hardness is stated in equivalent unit of
CaCO3
Hardness classification:

Hardness Concentration Range

(mg/L eq CaCO3)
Soft <50
Medium 50-150
Hard 150-300
Very Hard >300

61
62
 Calculation of Water Hardness
Find the equivalent weight (EW) of each of the following:
Ca2+, CO32-, CaCO3.
Solution:
Equivalent weight was defined as

EW = [atomic or molecular weight] / [n] (valence)

units: grams/equivalent (g/eq) or milligrams/milliequivalent (mg/meq)

For calcium, n=2 (valence or oxidation state in water).

Atomic weight = 40.08, therefore the EW is then
EW of Ca2+ = 40.08/2 = 20.04 g/eq or mg/meq

63
 Cont..
For carbonate ion (CO32-), the oxidation state of 2- is used for n
since the base CO32- can potentially accept 2H+. The molecular
weight (MW) is 60.01.

Therefore,
EW of CO32- = 60.01/2 = 30 g/eq or mg/meq

In CaCO3, n=2 since it would take 2H+ to replace the cation

(Ca2+) to form carbonic acid, H2CO3. The MW of CaCO3 is 100.

Therefore,
EW of CaCO3 = 100/2 = 50 g/eq or mg/meq

64
 Calculation of water hardness
A sample of groundwater has 100 mg/L of Ca2+ and 10
mg/L of Mg2+. Express it hardness in unit of mg/L as
CaCO3.
Solution: Since;
mg/L of X = concentration of X (mg/L) (50 mg CaCO3/meq)
as CaCO3 (equivalent weight of X (mg/meq))

1. Convert Ca2+ and Mg2+ to mg/L as CaCO3

Ca2+ : MW = 40, n=2, EW=40/2 = 20 g/eq or mg/meq
Mg2+ : MW = 24.3, n=2, EW=24.3/2 = 12.2 g/eq or mg/meq

65
 Cont..
2. Now, find the mg/L as CaCO3 of cations

Use formula;
mg/L of X = concentration of X (mg/L) (50 mg CaCO3/meq)
as CaCO3 (equivalent weight of X (mg/meq))

=>Ca2+ = 100 x 50 = 250 mg/L as CaCO3

20
=>Mg2+ = 10 x 50 = 41 mg/L as CaCO3
12.2
Total Carbonate Hardness = Ca2+ + Mg2+
= 250 + 41
= 291 mg/L as CaCO3

66
 Example
Q. From the water analysis below determine the total hardness of the water sample given the
following water composition;
Ca2+ = 95.2 mg/L HCO3 = 241.49 mg/L
2+
Mg = 13.44 mg/L SO42- = 53.77 mg/L
Na+ = 25.76 mg/L Cl- = 67.81 mg/L (50/(40/2))

Solution:
EW CaCO3 =
Ion mg/L as ion EW CaCO3/ mg/L as 50 mg/meq
EW ion CaCO3
EW ion =
Ca2+ 95.20 2.50 238.00 Atomic wt
valence
Mg2+ 13.44 4.12 55.37
Na+ 25.76 2.18 56.16 (50/(24.3/2))

HCO3 241.46 0.82 198.00

SO42- 53.77 1.04 55.92 (50/61)

Cl- 67.81 1.41 95.61

(50/(96/2))
Total Hardness (TH) = 293.37 mg/L as CaCO3
Carbonate Hardness (CH) = 198.00 as CaCO3
Non-carbonate Hardness (NCN) = TH-CH = 95.37 mg/L as CaCO3
67
 Alkalinity
Alkalinity is defined as the quantity of ions in water
that will react to neutralise hydrogen ions (H+).
Alkilinity is thus the measure of the ability of water to
neutralise acids.
Therefore alkalinity is the buffer capacity of the
water to remain neutral.
The carbonate species that contribute to alkalinity
are:
Hydroxyl ions (OH-), Carbonate ions (CO32-),
Bicarbonate ions (HCO3-),
Alkalinity (mol/L) = [HCO3-] + 2[CO32-] + [OH-] [H+]
Alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3) = (HCO3-) + (CO32-) +
(OH-) (H+)
68
 Alkalinity
Is measured to determine the ability of a stream to resist
changes in pH.
Alkalinity results from the dissolution of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) from limestone bedrock which is eroded during
the natural processes of weathering
Alkalinity values of 20-200 ppm are common in
freshwater ecosystems. Alkalinity levels below 10 ppm
indicate poorly buffered streams.
In large quantities, alkalinity imparts bitter taste to water.
Reactions that can occur between alkaline water and
certain ions resulting in precipitation of solids which can
foul pipes and other water system appurtenances.

69
 Alkalinity
Example 2.4
A sample of water having a pH of 7.2 has the
following concentrations of ions:
Ca2+ 40 mg/L Mg2+ 10 mg/L
Na+ 11.8 mg/L K+ 7.0 mg/L
HCO3- 110 mg/L SO42- 67.2 mg/L
Cl- 11 mg/L
Calculate the TH, CH, NCH, Alkalinity, and construct
a bar chart of the constituents.

70
Solution

Ion Conc. M.W. Eq. Wt. Conc. Conc.

n

mg/L mg/mole mg/meq meq/L mg/L as
CaCO3
Ca2+ 40.0 40.1 2 20.05 1.995 99.8*
Mg2+ 10.0 24.3 2 12.15 0.823 41.2
Na+ 11.8 23.0 1 23.0 0.510 25.7
K+ 7.0 39.1 1 39.1 0.179 8.95
HCO3- 110.0 61.0 1 61.0 1.800 90.2
SO42- 67.2 96.1 2 48.05 1.400 69.9
Cl- 11.0 35.5 1 35.5 0.031 15.5

71
Sample Calculation:
Concentration of Ca2+ in mg/L as CaCO3
= (Concentration in meq/L)*(Equivalent Weight of CaCO3)
= (1.995 meq/L) X (50 mg/meq)
= 99.8 mg/L as CaCO3

Check Solution
(Cation) s = (Anion)s
175.6 = 175.6

Note: to within 10% mg/L as CaCO3

Total Hardness
= of multivalent cations
= (Ca2+) + (Mg2+)
= 99.8 + 41.2
= 141 mg/L as CaCO3
72
 Alkalinity = (HCO32-) + (CO32-) + (OH-) - (H+)
Since pH = 7.2
Alkalinity (HCO32-) = (1.80 x 10-3) eq/L
Alkalinity = (1.80 x 10-3 eq/L)(50 g/eq)(1000 mg/g)
= 90.1 mg/L as CaCO3

Carbonate Hardness (the portion of the hardness

associated with carbonate or bicarbonate)
Alkalinity = 90.1 mg/L as CaCO3
TH = 141 mg/L as CaCO3
CH = 90.1 mg/L as CaCO3
(Note: if TH <Alk then CH = TH; and NCH = 0)

Non-carbonate Hardness
NCH = TH - CH = 141 - 90.1 = 50.9 mg/L as CaCO3

73
Bar chart

74
 Nitrates, Nitrites and Ammonia
Nitrogen is an essential nutrient that is required by all
plants and animals for the formation of amino acids.
In its molecular form, nitrogen cannot be used by most
aquatic plants, therefore it must be converted to another
form.
One such form is ammonia (NH3). Ammonia may be taken
up by plants or oxidized by bacteria into nitrate (NO3) or
nitrite (NO2). Of these two forms, nitrate is usually by the
most important.
Nitrosomonas :
This bacteria oxidizes ammonia into nitrite as a metabolic
process.
Nitrobacter :
Nitrobacter plays an important role in the nitrogen cycle by
oxidizing nitrite into nitrate in soil.

75
 Nutrients
Nitrogen is often the limiting nutrient in
ocean waters and some streams
Nitrogen can exist in numerous forms, but
nitrate (NO3-), nitrite (NO2-), ammonia
(NH3) are most commonly measured
Sources are primarily from fertilizers and
acid deposition

76
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD)
It is a measure of the quantity of oxygen
used by microorganisms (eg.aerobic
bacteria) in the oxidation of organic matter.
In other words: BOD measures the change
in dissolved oxygen concentration caused
by the microorganisms as they degrade the
organic matter.
High BOD is an indication of poor water
quality

77
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD)

BOD bottles

78
 Biochemical Oxygen
Demand Measurement
Take sample of waste; dilute with
oxygen saturated water; add nutrients
and microorganisms (seed)
Measure dissolved oxygen (DO) levels over 5
days
Temperature 20 C
In dark (prevents algae from growing)
Final DO concentration must be > 2 mg/L
Need at least 2 mg/L change in DO over 5 days

79
 Example 1
A BOD test was conducted in the
laboratory using wastewater being
dumped into Lake Spartan. The
samples are prepared by adding 3.00
mL of wastewater to the 300.0 mL BOD
bottles. The bottles are filled to capacity
with seeded dilution water.

80
Example 1: Raw Data
Time Diluted Blank Seeded
(days) sample Sample DO
DO (mg/L) (mg/L)
0 7.95 8.15
1 3.75 8.10
2 3.45 8.05
3 2.75 8.00
4 2.15 7.95
5 1.80 7.90

81
 Example 1: Calculations
What is the BOD5 of the sample?
[(DOi DO f ) - (B i B f )(1 P)]
BODm =
P
P = dilution factor = volume sample/ total volume
B i , B f = initial and final DO concentrations of the
seeded diluted water (blank)
DOi , DO f = initial and final DO concentrations of the
diluted sample
Plot the BOD with respect to time.

82
 Solution

Time (days) Diluted sample DO Blank seeded BOD

(mg/L) sample DO (mg/L) (mg/L)
0 7.95 8.15 0
1 3.75 8.10 415.05
2 3.45 8.05 440.10
3 2.75 8.00 505.15
4 2.15 7.95 ?
5 1.80 7.90 ?

83
Example 1: Time Concentration Plot
700

600

500
BOD (mg/L)

400

300

200

100

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
time (days)
84
Modeling BOD as a First-order Reaction

6
Conc. (mg/L)

5
Organic matter oxidized
4
3
2
1 Organic matter remaining
0
0 10 20 30
time (days)
85
 Modeling BOD Reactions
Assume rate of decomposition of organic
waste is proportional to the waste that is
left in the flask.
dLt
= - kLt
dt
where Lt = amount of oxygen demand left after time t
k = the BOD rate constant (time-1 )
Solving this equation yields :
Lt = Lo e kt
where Lo is the ultimate carbonaceous oxygen demand
86
 Ultimate BOD
6L
o
5 Lo- Lt BOD exerted
Conc. (mg/L)

4
3
BODt
2
Lt
1 L remaining
0
0 10 20 30
time (days)

87
 Ultimate Biochemical Oxygen
Demand
Lt = amount of O2 demand left in sample at time, t
Lo = amount of O2 demand left initially (at time 0,
no DO demand has been exerted, so BOD = 0)
At any time, Lo = BODt + Lt
(that is the amount of DO demand used up and
the amount of DO that could be used up
eventually)
Assuming that DO depletion is first order
BODt = Lo(1 - e-kt)

88
 Example 2
If the BOD5 of a waste is 102 mg/L and the
BOD20 (corresponds to the ultimate BOD) is
158 mg/L, what is k (base e)?

(
BODt = L0 1 e kt
)
BOD t kt
1 =e
L0
BOD t
ln1 = kt
L0
89
 Example 2 (cont)
BOD t
ln1
k= L0
t
102 mg/L
ln1
k= 158 mg/L
5 day

k = 0.21 day -1
90
 Biological Oxygen Demand:
Temperature Dependence
Temperature dependence of biochemical
oxygen demand
As temperature increases, metabolism
increases, utilization of DO also increases
kt = k20T-20
= 1.135 if T is between 4 - 20 oC
= 1.056 if T is between 20 - 30 oC

91
 Example 3
The BOD rate constant, k, was determined
empirically to be 0.20 days-1 at 20 oC.
What is k if the temperature of the water
increases to 25 oC?
What is k if the temperature of the water
decreases to 10 oC?

92
Example 3 : Solution

(
k 25 = 0.20 day (1.056)
-1
) 25 20

k 25 = 0.26 day -1

(
k10 = 0.20 day (1.135)
-1
) 10 20

k10 = 0.056 day -1

93
 QUIZ 1
Find the carbonate and the non-carbonate
hardness of this water sample that has;
Ca2+ = 100 mg/L
Mg2+ = 15 mg/L
HCO3- = 250 mg/l

94
Thomas method: Graphical determination of
BOD rate Constants
According to Thomas,
(1-e-kt) = kt (1+kt/6)-3
Therefore
BODt=Lo(1-e-kt)
BODt=Lo(kt)[1+(1/6)kt]-3 .....(1)
By rearranging terms & taking the cube root of both sides,
equation (1) can be transformed to:

(t/BODt)1/3=(kLo)-1/3 + (k)2/3/6(Lo)1/3 (t) ....(2)

A plot of (t/BODt)1/3 versus t is linear. The intercept is

defined as:

A = (kLo)-1/3 8.(3)

95
 Cont..
a slope is defined by:
B = (k)2/3/6(Lo)1/3 8.(4)
y=(t/BOD) 1/3

a m=a/b = (k2/3/6Lo1/3)
b

C =(kLo)-1/3

x=t

Recalled , y = c + mx

96
 Cont..
Solving Lo1/3 in Eq.(3) substituting into Eq. (4) and solving for k
yields:

k= 6(B/A) 8(5)
Likewise, substituting Eq. (5) into Eq.(3) and solving for Lo yields:

Lo = 1/(6A2B) 8(6)

97
Example of determining BOD rate constant,
k and ultimate BOD, Lo

The following data were obtained from an experiment to

determine the BOD rate constant and ultimate BOD for
an untreated wastewater:

Time (day) 2 4 6 8 10
BOD (mg/L) 125 200 220 230 237

98
Example of determining BOD rate constant,
k and ultimate BOD, Lo
Solution:
Calculate values of (t/BODt)1/3 for each day.
Time (day) 2 4 6 8 10

BOD (mg/L) 125 200 220 230 237

(t/BODt)1/3 0.252 0.271 0.301 0.326 0.348

Plot (t/BODt)1/3 versus t on graph paper and draw the line

of best fit by eye.

99
0.5

0.4

0.3 B= k2/3/6Lo1/3
0.2
=0.0125
A= 0.224
0.1

0
2 4 6 8 10 Time (t)

100
 Cont..
Determine the intercept (A) and slope (B) from
the plot.
A = 0.224
B = (0.348-0.224)/(10-0)
= 0.0124
Calculate k and Lo using the following formula

k = 6 (B/A) Lo = 1/ 6(A)2(B)
101
 Cont..
Therefore:
k= 6(B/A)
= 6(0.0125/0.224)
= 0.335 / day
Lo = 1/(6A2B)
= 266 mg/L

102
 WATER QUALITY
MEASUREMENT
ThOD theoretical oxygen demand
(i) It is the amount of O2 required to
oxidize a substance to CO2 and H2O
(ii) Calculated by stoichiometry if the
chemical composition of the substance
is known
(iii) The ThOD of X in mg/L
Molecular weight of O 2 in grams
= ( Amount of X in mg/L)
MW of X in grams

103
 Example:

Compute the ThOD of 108.75 mg/L

of glucose (C6H12O6)
STEPS:
(i) write balanced equation for the
reaction
(ii) Compute the grams molecular
weights of the reactants
(iii) Determine ThOD
104
 Example:
The balanced equation for the reaction
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
The molecular weights (grams) of the reactants
Glucose: 6C=72, 12H=12, 6O=96, = 180
Oxygen : 6(2)O=192
Thus, it takes 192 of O2 to oxidize 180 g of glucose to
CO2 and H2O.
The ThOD of 108.75 mg/L of glucose is
192 g of O 2
= (108.75 mg/L of glucose)
180 g of glucose
= 116 mg/L O 2

105
 Example
Theoretical oxygen demand (ThOD)
C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 6 CO2 + 6H2O

If concentration of glucose is 10 mg/L what is the

theoretical oxygen demand (amount of DO
required?)

6 mmol O 2 32 mg O 2
mg glucose mmol glucose mmol O 2 mg O 2
10 = 10.7
L 180
mg glucose

L
mmol glucose

106
 Exercise
1. Glutamic acid (C5H904N) is used as one of
the reagents for a standard to check the BOD
test. Determine the ThOD of mg/L of glutamic
acid. Assume the following reaction apply:
C5H904N + 4.5O2 5CO2 + 3H2O + NH3
NH3 + 2O2 NO3+ H+ + H2O

107
Other Measures of Oxygen
Demand

108
Nitrogenous Oxygen Demand
The total BOD of a wastewater is
composed of two components
a carbonaceous oxygen demand and
a nitrogenous oxygen demand.
Traditionally, because of the slow growth
rates of those organisms (nitrisomonas and
nitrobacter) that exert the nitrogenous
demand, it has been assumed that no
nitrogenous demand is exerted during the
5-day BOD5 test.
109
Nitrogenous Oxygen Demand
Nitrification (2 step process)
2 NH3 + 3O2 2 NO2- + 2H+ + 2H2O (nitrosomonas)
2 NO2- + O2 2 NO3- (nitrobacter)
Overall reaction:
NH3 + 2O2 NO3- + H+ + H2O
Theoretical NBOD =
grams of oxygen used 4 x 16
= = 4.57 g O 2 /g N
grams of nitrogen oxidized 14

110
Nitrogenous Oxygen Demand

111
 Nitrogenous oxygen demand
Untreated domestic wastewater
ultimate-CBOD = 250 - 350 mg/L
ultimate-NBOD = 70 - 230 mg/L
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) = total
concentration of organic and ammonia
nitrogen in wastewater: 15 - 50 mg/L as N
Ultimate NBOD 4.57 x TKN

112
 TN and TKN
Total Nitrogen (TN) is the sum of nitrate-
nitrogen (NO3-N), nitrite-nitrogen (NO2-N),
ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N) and organic
nitrogen.
TKN (Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen) which is the
sum of ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N) plus
organic nitrogen but does not include
nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) or nitrite-nitrogen
(NO2-N).

113
 Organic Nitrogen
Organic Nitrogen - described as nitrogen
compound that had its origin in living
material.
The nitrogen in protein and urea is organic
nitrogen.
Organic nitrogen can enter septic systems
as bodily wastes, discarded food material,
or as components of cleaning agents.

114
 Chemical Oxygen Demand
Chemical oxygen demand - similar to BOD
but is determined by using a strong
oxidizing agent to break down chemical
(rather than bacteria)
Still determines the equivalent amount of
oxygen that would be consumed
Value usually about 1.25 times BOD

115
 Pathogenic Organisms
Many organims that cause human or
animal diseases colonize the instinal tract
but can live for a period of time outside the
body
Carriers (who may or may not exhibit
disease symptoms) excrete these
intestinal tract organisms in very large
numbers
When water is contaminated by excreta,
the organisms can be transmitted to those
who contact the water
116
Pathogenic Organisms

117
Pathogenic Organisms

118
Classification of Water
Associated Diseases

119
Disease Rates and Risk

120
 Biological Parameters
It is biomonitor: defined as an organism
that provides quantitative information on
the quality of the environmental around
it.
It can be deduced through the study of
the content of certain elements or
compounds, morphological or cellular
structure, metabolic-biochemical
process behavior or population structure

121
 Cont..
There are several types of bioindicators:
(i) plant indicators
- the presence or absence of certain plant or other
vegetative life in an ecosystem can provide important
clues about the health of the environment
- lichens are organism comprising both fungi and algae.
Lichens are found on rocks and tree trunks, and they
respond to environmental changes in forest, including
changes in forest structure conservation biology, air
quality and climate
- The disappearance of lichens in a forest may indicate
environmental stresses, such as high level of sulfur
dioxide, sulfur-based pollutants and nitrogen oxides

122
Lichens

123
 Cont
(ii) Animal indicator and toxins
- an increase or decrease in an animal
population may indicate damage to the
ecosystem caused by pollutant. For eg; if
population causes the depletion of
important food sources, animal species
dependent upon these food sources will
also be reduced in number: population
decline
- Submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV)
provides invaluable benefits to aquatic
ecosystems. It not only provides food and
shelter to fish and invertebrates but also
produces oxygen, trap sediment and
absorbs nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus
124
 Cont8
(iii) Microbial indicators and chemical
pollutants
- Microorganisms can be used as
indicators of aquatic or terrestrial
ecosystem health
- Found in large quantities, microorganism
will produce new proteins, called stress
proteins when exposed to contaminants
like cadmium and benzene
- These stress proteins can be used as an
early warning system to detect high
levels of pollution
125
 Cont8
(iv) Macroinvertebrate bioindicators
- Macroinvertebrate are useful and
convenient indicators of the ecological
health of a waterbody or river. They are
almost always present, and are easy to
sample and identify
- Benthic refers to the bottom of a
waterway. Example of benthic
macroinvertebrates include insects in
their larval or nymph form, crayfish,
claims, snails and worms. Most live part
or most of their life cycle attached to
submerged rocks, logs and vegetation.
126
Macroinvertebrata

BFC 3103
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
127
128
 Cont8
- The basic principle behind the
study of macroinvertebrates is that
some are more sensitive to
pollution than others
- Therefore, if a stream site is
inhabited by organism that can
tolerate pollution and the more
pollution-sensitive organisms are
missing a pollution is likely

129
 Microbiological

Bacteria( coliform test)

Virus
Protozoa
Algae

130
 Bacteria
Pathogenic bacteria causing cholera,
typhoid fever etc
Indicator bacteria
Coliform
Fecal Coliform( E. Coli)

131
 Virus
One virus can cause illness
Hard to detect
The average virus is about
one one-hundredth
the size of the average
bacterium. Most viruses are
too small to be seen directly
with an optical microscope.
Specify treatment process
(disinfection dose and contact
time) instead of measuring
virus concentration
132
 Influenza virus
HIV virus
Bluetounge virus

Avian flu virus

Symian virus
133
Dengue virus
 Algae
Algae are a diverse group of
simple, plant-like organisms. Like
plants, most algae use the energy
of sunlight to make their own food,
a process called photosynthesis.
However, algae lack the roots,
leaves, and other structures typical
of true plants.
They capture more of the sun's
energy and produce more oxygen
(a by product of photosynthesis)
than all plants combined.
Cause bad taste and odor in water
Some algae could be harmful to
animals such as fish and birds
Toxic Inorganic Elements and
Radicals
Arsenic, Mercury, Cadmium,
Chromium, Lead-- accumulates in
body
Industrial wastes and plumbing
Nitrate--Blue baby
Perchlorate ( ClO4-) --Thyroid
disorder, cancer

135
 Nontoxic organics
NOC ( Natural organic matter)
Decayed vegetation etc
Form toxic disinfection by-products
with chlorine
Lower concentrations up to 4 mg/l
may be removed by Enhanced
Coagulation.

136
 Toxic organics
Causing cancer, mutation or
miscarriage
chlorinated hydrocarbons
Chlorophenoxy herbicides
Trihalomethanes
VOCs and SOCs.

137
 Other Contaminants
Asbestos
Radionuclides
Alpha and Beta radioactivity
Uranium, Radium, Radon

138
 Dissolved oxygen (DO)
It is an essential for the survival of
nearly all aquatic life and measured
in mg/L
If oxygen levels are high, it was
presume that pollution levels in the
water are low.
Conversely, if oxygen levels are low,
one can presume there is a high
oxygen demand and that the body of
water is not of optimal health
139
 Cont8
Levels of DO vary depending on factors including
water temperature, time of day, season, depth,
altitude and rate of flow.
1. water at higher temp and altitudes will have
less DO. So, demand O2 will increased
because at higher temp, the rate of
metabolisme is increased.
2. at night, DO decreased as photosynthesis
has stopped while oxygen consuming process
such as respiration, oxidation
3. DO reaches its peak (HIGH) during the day
140
 DO Sag Curve
The concentration of DO in a river is an
indicator of the general health of the river.
All rivers have CAPACITY for self
purification.
1. As long as the discharge of oxygen demanding
wastes is well within the self purification
capacity, the DO level remain HIGH and a
diverse population of plants and animals
2. As the amount of waste increase, the self
purification capacity can be exceeded, causing
detrimental changes in plant and animal life

141
 cont.
3. then, the stream losses its ability to clean
itself and the DO level DECREASES.
4. when the DO drops below 4 to 5 mg/L,
most game fish will have been driven
out.
5. If the DO is completely removed, fish and
other higher animals are killed or driven
6. The water become blackish and foul
smelling as the sewage and dead animal
life decompose under anaerobic condition
(without O2)

142
Dissolved Oxygen Depletion

(From: Environmental Science: A Global Concern, 3rd ed. by W.P

Cunningham and B.W. Saigo, WC Brown Publishers, 1995)

143
Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve

144
 Mass Balance Approach
Originally developed by H.W. Streeter and
E.B. Phelps in 1925
River described as plug-flow reactor
Mass balance is simplified by selection of
system boundaries
Oxygen is depleted by BOD exertion
Oxygen is gained through reaeration

145
 Steps in Developing the DO
Sag Curve
1. Determine the initial conditions
2. Determine the reaeration rate from stream
geometry
3. Determine the deoxygenation rate from
BOD test and stream geometry
4. Calculate the DO deficit as a function of
time
5. Calculate the time and deficit at the critical
point
146
Selecting System Boundaries

147
 Initial Mixing

Qw = waste flow (m3/s)

DOw = DO in waste (mg/L)
Lw = BOD in waste (mg/L)

Qr = river flow (m3/s) Qmix = combined flow (m3/s)

DOr = DO in river (mg/L) DO = mixed DO (mg/L)
Lr = BOD in river (mg/L) La = mixed BOD (mg/L)

148
1. Determine Initial Conditions
a. Initial dissolved oxygen concentration
Qw DOw + Qr DOr
DO =
Qw + Qr
b. Initial dissolved oxygen deficit
D = DOs DO

where D = DO deficit (mg/L)

DOs = saturation DO conc. (mg/L)
Qw DOw + Qr DOr
Da = DOs
Qmix
149
 1. Determine Initial Conditions
DOsat is a function of temperature. Values
can be found in Table A-2.
c. Initial ultimate BOD concentration
Qw Lw + Qr Lr
La =
Qw + Qr

150
 2. Determine Re-aeration Rate
a. OConnor-Dobbins correlation
1/ 2
3.9u
kr = 3/ 2
h
where kr = reaeration coefficient @ 20C (day-1)
u = average stream velocity (m/s)
h = average stream depth (m)
b. Correct rate coefficient for stream temperature
T 20
k r = k r , 20

where = 1.024
151
 Determine the Deoxygenation Rate
a. rate of deoxygenation = kdLt
where kd = deoxygenation rate coefficient
(day-1)
Lt = ultimate BOD remaining at
time (of travel downdstream) t
b. If kd (stream) = k (BOD test)
kd t
Lt = L0 e

and
rate of deoxygentation = k d L0 e k d t
152
 3. Determine the Deoxygenation Rate

c. However, k = kd only for deep, slow moving

streams. For others,
u
kd = k +
h
where = bed activity coefficient (0.1 0.6)
d. Correct for temperature
T 20
k r = k r , 20
where = 1.135 (4-20C) or 1.056 (20-30C)

153
 4. DO as function of time
Mass balance on moving element
dD
= k d Lt k r D
dt
Solution is

Dt = (
k d La kd t
kr kd
) ( )
e e kr t + Da e kr t

154
5. Calculate Critical time and DO
1 kr k r k d
tc = ln 1 Da
kr kd kd k d La

Dc =
kr ka
e (
k d La kd tc
e k r tc
)
+ Da e k r tc

155
 Example
A city of 200,000 people discharges 37.0
cfs of treated sewage having an ultimate
BOD of 28.0 mg/L and 1.8 mg/L DO into a
river with a flow of 250 cfs and velocity of
1.2 ft/sec. Upstream of the discharge
point, the river has a BOD of 3.6 mg/L and
a DO of 7.6 mg/L. The saturation DO is
8.5 mg/L, kd = 0.61 day-1, and kr = 0.76
day-1. Determine a) the critical DO and
critical distance, and b) the DO at 10 miles
downstream.
156
 1. Determine Initial Conditions
a. Initial dissolved oxygen concentration
Qw DOw + Qr DOr
DO =
Qw + Qr

DO =
(1.8)(37.0) + (7.6)(250)
= 6.85
mg
250 + 37 L
b. Initial dissolved oxygen deficit
D = DOs DO
mg
Da = 8.5 6.85 = 1.6
L
157
 1. Determine Initial Conditions
c. Initial ultimate BOD concentration
Qw Lw + Qr Lr
La =
Qw + Qr

La =
(28)(37.0 ) + (3.6 )(250 )
= 6.75
mg
250 + 37 L

158
 Step 1. Variations
Flow given in cfs, not m3/s does not
matter for mixing calculations
Saturation DO given no need to look up
Ultimate BOD given no need to calculate
from BOD5

159
 2. Determine Re-aeration Rate
kr = 0.76 day-1 given
no need to calculate from stream
geometry
assume given value is at the stream
temperature (since not otherwise
specified), so no need to correct

160
 3. Determine the Deoxygenation Rate

kd = 0.61 day-1 given

no need to calculate corrections from
stream geometry
assume given value is at the stream
temperature (since not otherwise
specified), so no need to correct

161
5. Calculate Critical time and DO
1 kr k r k d
tc = ln 1 Da
kr kd kd k d La

1 0.76 0.76 0.61

tc = ln 1 1.6
0.76 0.61 0.61 (0.61)(6.75)
tc = 1.07 day

162
 5. Calculate Critical time and DO
Problem asked for critical distance
ft s hr 1 mi
xc = (1.07 d)1.2 3600 24
s hr d 5280 ft
xc = 20.9 mi

163
 5. Calculate Critical time and DO
Minimum DO

Dc =
kr ka
e (
k d La kd tc
e k r tc
)
+ Da e k r tc

Dc =
(0.61)(6.75) (0.61)(1.07 ) (0.76 )(1.07 )
(e e )
0.76 0.61
(0.76 )(1.07 )
+ 1.6e
mg
Dc = 2.58
L 164
5. Calculate Critical time and DO
DOc = DOs Dc
mg
DOc = 8.5 2.58 = 5.7
L

165
4. DO as function of time (at 10 miles)

ft
(10 mi) 5280
t10 miles = mi
= 0.51 d
ft s hr
1.2 3600 24
s hr d

Dc =
(0.61)(6.75) (0.61)(1.07 ) (0.76 )(1.07 )
(e e )
0.76 0.61
(0.76 )(1.07 )
+ 1.6e
166
4. DO as function of time (at 10 miles)

mg
D10 miles = 2.58
L
mg
DO10 miles = 8.5 2.58 = 5.9
L

167
168
 TUTORIAL
Introduction to Environmental Engineering
Chapter 7
Pg 442-447 (No. 7-1, 7-2, 7-3, 7-5, 7-12, 7-16,
7-17, 7-23, 7-24, 7-26, 7-35, 7-36, 7-39)

169
END

170