EXTENSION OF THE SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES

FUNCTIONALISM

It takes it contribution from Herbert Spencer and it tries to model sociology on the biological

science. It deals with how the members of society have been allotted different roles and they

perform them accordingly.

Later, neo-functionalism got developed.

Functionalism: Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim.

MALINOWSKI:

o he has concentrated more on the cultural aspect and he has defined functionalism in

context of human needs. He was very much influenced by the Emile Durkheims theory

of religion in the book of Elementary form of religion. It is not only true in case of the

tribal and village society. It is even true in the urban societies. He found out how the

collective conciseness emerges and it is the main nerve of the society and society develops

by it only.

o He developed the concept of human needs and connected it to the functionalism:

o Primary needs: every human faces some basic biological needs e.g. hunger

o Instrumental needs: education, these help in attainment of certain goals. Economy, legal.

There would be certain institutions present in the society to fulfill such needs.

o Integration needs: it helps in the integration of the society. Religion, magic. He studied

about such religion or magic controls the people and as well as integrates the society.
TALCOTT PARSON

He explained functionalism in context of the social system present in the society. He gave the

theory of social system.

How the role and status are determined: every society gives the opportunity to individuals for

selection of the role. The determination of the role is dependent on the type of society. He discuss

the value and motivation aspect under the social system.

1. PATTERNS VARIABLE: Every actor perform while performing any function, many choices

would be there, so how to choose the most suitable choice is pattern variable. These options comes

either from universalistic (for the society) or particularistic (for the self satisfaction) domains.

Option availability with regard to the role performance. This performance of role is always related

to two things: value aspect and motivation aspect. Role performance is being determined by the

society. Society provides the standard for the role and one has to justify his action against such

standard. These choices always present a conflict or dilemma as these come from two domains.

Affectivity vs affective neutrality: whether an emotion is entered into the role performance

or not. e.g. relation of a mother and child (it is affected by the emotional domain, it comes

from particularistic domain) and relation of doctor and patient (affective neutrality, he does

not perform his acts at emotional level, it comes from universalistic domain).

Self vs collectivity: here one have moral standard and based on that particular standard,

one can judge whether the act is done for personal satisfaction or for collective benefit.

Whether to select an option where one gains or an option where one needs to sacrifice for

society.
 Ascription vs achievement: whether one is regarding the achievement of an individual

(universalistic) or one is only regarding the ascription (particularistic). e.g. caste system

Universalism v particularism: former is equality for all and uniform laws and norms and

the latter means specific to the group. E.g. National laws are universalistic. Favoring one

person over other due to some connection (Particularism).

Specificity v diffused: some of the roles which are very specific to a given context and is

not diffused in the society. E.g. doctor-patient (specific role). When doctor is treating a

patient, he is not concerned with the caste of such patient. Specific means all the other

contexts should be kept hidden under the primary object. E.g. husband wife relation and

friends relations: diffused. When one is performing a role, one is not becoming a specific

agent and is diffused. One cannot be very specific depending on a context in a diffused

relation. Role performance demands mingling of roles which one is playing under the

diffused relation. Role expectation get diffused in different circumstances. Function of

roles becomes more broader and not specific to a context. In diffused relations, the roles

are diffused among different circumstances and contexts of life. The role is not limited to

certain context. But then even their lies situations of dilemma.

2. FUNCTIONAL PREREQUISITES: it is concerned by the fact that every particular social

system, what are the certain pre requisites. There are four prerequisite [AGIL]:

Adaptation : adaption to your external environment

goal attainment: every individual do have some particular goals and how an individual

attains such goal.

integration: role of the social institutions in integration. How the family contributes in

integration or how education leads to integration.

 tension management: how family helps in tension management. There has to be a

mechanism to manage the tension derived during the goal attainment and performing the

roles.

3. TYPE OF THE SOCIAL STRUCTURES: he has took two principles:

whether the social structure is based on universal structure or particular structure

Whether the status is ascribed or achieved:

Universalistic achievement: the status is determined on the basis of the achievement of the

person and not on the basis of the work. E.g. legal rational society, a structure based on the

universal principles and these are open society and they determines the worth and status of the

individual on the basis of achievement. The social principles are equally applicable to everyone

uniformly. E.g. American society.

Universalistic ascribed: it means principles are uniform but the determination of the status of

a person is based on the ascription like which particular family and religion one belong to.

E.g. Nazi Germany. First comes the test of achievement and ascription and then the test of

universalistic. In Nazi Germany, in a particular race had uniform rules.

Particular achievement: the social structure is not universal but the status is determined on the

achievement. E.g. Chinese Society. The social structure is based on the kinship system and in

this system, women is in the subordinate place. But the status is not determined on the basis

of the birth of a individual in a particular family. There is open society and the ranking of a

individual is determined on the achievement of the individual.

Particular ascribed: worst society. E.g. Spanish Society. The structure is based on the family

or kinship system and thereby the status of an individual is also determined by the such

structure.

MERTON:

Every institution helps in maintaining harmony in society. Every institution is not functional,

it is possible that some of the social structure may become redundant in due course of time. It

leads to dysfunctionalism and non functionalism. He has tried to include the conflict and

interactive perspective in functionalism to give it a broader way.

Concept of anomie: individual are very much integrated with the society and when this

loses, a sense of normlessness emerges [emile durkhiem]. Every social structure and

every social system have a certain legitimate goals and there are certain

institutionalized means to achieve such means. If a individual is not in position to get

in accommodation with goal or means, anomie arises:

o Where he only accepts the goal (- +): innovators, in innovation one accepts the

goals but not the means. The chance of commitment of crimes is higher in this

class of people. when one do not accept the means which society gives, crimes

increases.

o Where he only accepts the means (+ -): ritualists, they are not ready to

accommodate the goals set by the society. But the means are accepted by them.

o Where he accepts both (+): a group of individuals known as conformists, who

confirms with the norms of the society as well as the means to achieve such
 objectives. There is no scope where the individuals go against the society. One

internalize the societal objectives and goals.

o Where he rejects both (- -): highest state of anomie. Retreatisn. They might not

be harming the others. They would deviate from the society and form their own

small groups.

o Rebellion (X): Rebellious persons, rebellion are changing the goals and they

are changing the means. They will challenge both means and goals and changes

the goals.

Concept of function:

o Function: function for him is an objective consequence and not a subjective

consideration. Observed objective consequences: a function is when

consequences can be objectively observed. Those observed objective

consequences which help in adjustment in the social system.

o Concept of dysfunction: observed objective consequences which are not

helping in the adjustment and becomes the obstacle. E.g. caste system

o Concept of non function: which does not remain relevant. E.g. sati system. It is

not contributing to the adjustment in the society (anything done in developing

the human and accommodating one in the society and the societal goals and

means).

o Concept of manifest and the latent function:

Manifest function: those which are intended are manifest functions.

Those objectively observed consequences or function which are not

indented by the performer but are hidden somewhere are latent dance.
 E.g. Hopi rain dance, dancing so that rain comes, intention was to

worship so as to get rain, indirect function is that it brings solidarity

among them. E.g. education, manifest function (knowledge), latent

function (overall development of the human).

MODERN FORM OF FUNCTIONALISM (NEO FUNCTIONALISM)

It is more about taking the other view and give a broader view of functionalism. It is revial of

functionalism by synthesiation with the other view. It is functionalism at supra national level or at

international levels due to transportation, economic relation and increasing economic dependence.

When it extends, gradually, the functions which are being performed at the national level, the

functions are even extended to the international level. Due to which one requires an authority or

institution at supra national level which is performing certain functions. It is a spillover effect as

when one function is performed, it give rise to another level. Such institution becomes an

institution having some political power vested in it. And such authority is even used over sovereign

states. Neo functionalism is the association of institutions at an international level. The main aspect

here is that, apart from the functional aspect, they are also talking about conflict and interactionist

perspective. There is synthesis of the all the three approaches.

Thinker:

Jeffrey Alexander: propounder of the neo functionalism, and revived the functionalism of

Talcott Parson. His major work in the field of cultural sociology and was influenced by

Emile Durkheim. He researched into cultural institutions and studied the cultural aspect of

the institutions. He was more concerned with the material aspects of the social institutions

as well as that how the aesthetic values are connected with the material aspects. Other
 sociologists are more concerned with the non-material aspects or value orientations. It is

cultural pragmatic as more cultural and practical values are associated with this. He has

also given one word for material aspect, i.e. iconic consciousness.

His another work is difference between cultural trauma and lay trauma. Whenever an event

happen, it the group who emotionally associates with that particular event and popularize

it. If an event raises emotion in an individual, it is laymen trauma. But when people get

associated with such event, it becomes cultural trauma. Cultural trauma make an event

historical trauma.

MARXISM :

class conflict, haves and haves not (polarization of the resource holders and the service providers),

class conflict, communism, historical method, primitive society concept, dialectical approach.

After Marx, most of his followers had an opinion had whatever Marx has theorized events of a

particular time. They states that lots of change has happened e.g. decomposition of labour and

capital due to rise of capitalism: reason for increase of middle class. Additionally, there is a rise of

middle class. So, now there are not only two classes, but a new layer of professional class has

emerged. Now the conflict is not between the haves and haves not but between the professionals

and the laymen. Majority of the people now belong to middle class. Such middle class people are

experts of certain skills. Such experts are trying to monopolize the society which raises the

conflicts. When situation is changing, the nature of the conflict is changing; therefore, what Karl

Marx has said may to be applicable now. Change prescribed is there is a need to have the merging

of conflict and consensus (structure functionalism) model.

Thinkers:
 RALF DAHRENDORF:

o He accepted the premise of the followers of the Marx. There is a class division in

the society under the Marxian theory. The hierarchy was on the basis of economy.

He presented a new form of class division. Such division of the classes is on the

basis of the authority and this authority is not residing in the human being but in

the social positions, there are certain groups who are controlling someone and are

being someone by some other group, in this form there is a hierarchy and such

authority resides in the social positions. He named it the concept of coordinated

association.

o There is a power in such positions and associations. When we talk about the social

structures present in the society, every human is a part of certain groups; such

groups are called quasi groups. They share common interest. Since these groups

fulfill some interest, these become interest groups but if the two groups have

clashes, then such groups become conflict group.

o Latent and manifest interest: the person who is the member of a interest group

change into a conflict group. It is not only the economic interest, it can be any

interest.

o He deals with how the social conditions have changed post Karl Marx. As now

there is rise of middle class, the earlier division of class cannot be there. Now the

labour class is changing into the professional group as this is an era of

specialization. Rise of this middle class gives a new social structure. There the

nature of conflict is changing, now the conflict is between expert and layman and

not upper class and the lower class, as expert is monopolizing everything.
 o This kind of conflicts have two attributes:

Intensity (level of the attachment of the people and the group with the

conflict). It is not always necessary that cost is always there, many a times

the intensity be very high whereas the cost is minimal due to the attachment.

Cost (how much money in involved, how many lives have been lost due to

conflict and how much infrastructure and material assets loss is there).

o Whether the conflict have more intensity or cost depends upon and whether the

conflict will be solved or not depend upon various factors (mitigating factors):

Technical, political and social conditions of the organisation should be

favorable

Effective and regulatory social structure;

Level of relative deprivation; deprived in comparison with other.

LEWIS COSER

o Conflict is functional for the society because it leads to social progress, it is normal.

o Nature of the conflicts:

Related to core/vital/realistic issues: the group is likely to accommodate and

likely to compromise over means to realize interest and hence less violent

in conflict. As it is on realistic issues, it is less violent.

Related to not-so-important issues: the more the group engages in a conflict

on non-realistic issues, the greater is the level of the emotional stress and

involvement in the conflict, the more is the violence in the conflict.

 o the less functionally interdependent is the relation among the social units, the less

is the availability of the institutional means for absorbing social tensions and

conflicts.

o The greater is the power difference between the superior and the subordinate in a

system, the less functionally interdependent is the relation.

o The greater is the level of isolation of the sub-population, the less will be the

interdependence.

COLLIN

o focus on emotional involvement of the units in the conflict, micro level study

o issues: material issues and emotional issues

o the more is the emotional involvement the more is the intensity of the conflict.

NEO MARXISM:

the follower of Frankfurt University School. They saw that the social and economic circumstances

are such that new interpretation is need to be given to the Marxist theory. They talked about the

modification in the Marxism. They stated that economic determination may not be relevant in the

present scenario. No complete change is advocated by them, but certain modifications are needed.

o HABERMAS:

o he has focused on the theory of communicative actions. Before his theory, most of

the thinkers were focusing on finding the locus of rationality in the objective world.

He proposed that rationality is not located there but it could be found between

communications between two actors. Rationality is not in individual virtue but a

 property of a structure. This structure is the communicative structure. There can be

three types of knowledge:

o empirical:

o Historical

o Critical

There can be three types of action: teleological (when one is focusing on the means and

ends relationship, they happen in the objective world and not the subjective world);

normative (related to the social world e.g. respect elders); dramaturgy (related to subjective

world). There is a communication being undertaken in the social structure in the way that

how one calculates his means and ends and what is going to be the result of the actions. No

uses to locate the rationality in the cosmos rather try to find out the rationality in the

structure of interpersonal linguistic communications.

ALTHUSSER:

o no where he denies that economy does not plays the role, but he has given another concept

where economic determination can even be included. Economy can be the subset to the

ideological state apparatus. Background of this theory is that Karl Marx talks about the

conflict, but if one looks the social structure, the state controls the psychology of

individuals, the kind of the ideologies inserted by the states is reflected in the actions of

the individuals. Karl Marx has propounded that conflict lies in latent from in the social

structure but he puts forth that such structures are established by the State only. He also

talked about how in the primitive society, the religious institutes controlled the mindset of

the people. Therefore he states that the conflict is generated through the State only. In the

modern world, such social structures are mainly the family, school and church. The state
develops the ideologies in such a manner that they can reside among the individuals for a

long period. The other mechanism he propounds is the Repressive state apparatus which

helps the state in controlling the society e.g. police. If the ideologies are against the state

wishes, the repressive apparatus will come into working.

Various sociological terms:

Community: apart from sharing common thing, the most important attribute of community

is the locality or geographical location. A geographical boundary from the point of the

origin of that community and the persons of that community. Town, village, state are some

of the examples of community. Cultural background is one of the factor. Location and the

custom or social practices evolved in the due course of time is the factors for determining

a community. It does have method of social control. Community generally follows

informal methods of social control, i.e. customs.

Society: society and community are related terms. A society can be a community in some

sense. Its a relationship of set and subset. Many communities can be there in one society.

Society is an abstract term. Community is a concrete term. People having difference as

well as common things are there. In community, there is a presence of some common thing.

Society is not concerned about a geographical boundary. It does have method of social

control, it can be formal or informal methods. Societies generally follow both kind of social

control, e.g. law and customs. Group of people and the abstract analytical view to see the

group of way is the basis of society. It gets developed slowly and gradually.

Association: deliberate creation of group having people with same objective. It has

voluntary participation. Certain rules and regulations are farmed for its functioning. A

proper formal structure is there. It may even have certain legal framework. Large

associations are legal person. These are concretes.

Institution: slowly and gradually developed and evolved in due course of time. E.g.

marriage, family as a concept is institutions. Family and marriage of two persons becomes

associations. Education is an institution. State, religion are the institution. Institutions are
 of two types: primary (which are developed first, e.g. family, marriage, religion) and

secondary (education, state, constitution). Each institution has its own rules and regulations

and symbols. As a concept, they are institution. But when one participates in it, it becomes

association. Institutions are abstract.

Social system: system system word is used in both organic and inorganic concepts. It is

an orderly arrangement of the parts. Systematically organized. E.g. body, in our body

various systems are operating in an orderly managed form. There is a relationship between

parts and whole which is a relation of set and subset. But when as an analogy we talk about

society, the set and sub set becomes abstract. A system can have various systems within

which are called sub system. Society is a social system. It was first used by Montesquieu

who gave political philosophy in the context of state. Sociologists used this term in the

context of society. Social system is a system where there is a relationship between parts

and whole. We have systems like legal system, educational system etc. each system is

highly interrelated and influences the other systems. These systems work within certain

terms and frameworks. Organs of a system in social system are called the elements. System

in an abstract analytical tool to look at certain concrete whole. A system can have a sub

system. Various elements of social system:

o Actor (a human being operating any given system)

o An act

o Role and status

o Ends and means

o Conditions
An actor is performing an act. Act is a concrete manifestation of some performance of the

actor. Actor always makes a hierarchy of his actions. This hierarchy is in relation to his

need and arrangement. Every actor arranges those need in a peculiar arrangement

depending on the particular context and moment. How you are acting is the gratification

(what are you acting, what motivate you and what is the cost of your acting) aspect and

orientation aspect (how are you acting). Need arrangement is always related to the cultural

contexts. It also depends on socialization of the particular person.

When an actor enters into the action, it is linked with role and status of the person. Every

person possesses different status. Status is a Positional aspect whereas role is Processural

aspect or functional aspect. Role and the status are the relational term. There is not

bifurcation of these two; it is just an analytical division. This even decides the position in

the society and your life chances in that society. Life chances are dependent on the status

of person. Status can be ascribed and achieved. Sex, religion, caste are ascribed status.

Class depends upon the occupation and therefore it is achieved status.

It is not always necessary that to play a role, one has to have a status. E.g. mother. Even

the reverse can be there, you may have a status but even then you are not playing any role.

Role and Status: role is a functional aspect of status and it is the expected behavior.

Role behavior: role is the expected behavior related to the status. There may be

cases when there are cases when there is difference between expected behavior and

actual behavior. Such differences lead to conflicts. Role behavior is the expected

behavior proportional to the statuss functional aspect. Such expectations are by the

society. It depends on many factors like psychological, biological and social factor.
 All these factors together help in actualizing the role. First criterion is ones own

willingness to perform ones role. There may be many norms attached to the role.

One plays many roles at the same time, which lead to deficiency in performing the

role. Such different roles affect ones performance towards the roles. There are

certain social experiences, life challenges and hereditary transfers which led to

transfer of some traits and genes, which affect how one would perform certain roles.

The role and their standards are decided by the society.

Role conflict: two types of conflicts: conflict which occurs within the own body of

roles (these is differences between expected role behaviors and the actual role

behavior.) another way is when as a one single person, you are playing multiple

role, there are chances that conflicts will arise. When such conflicts arise, there

comes the need arrangements concept.

Role taking: Sociologist Mead coined this term. This particular term is explained

with the help of playing house. They present the replica of their roles. One tries to

learn various roles present in the society. In this process socialization takes place.

Child at the very first stage observes the role independently and internalizes those

roles. This is the play stage. Next stage is of the Game Stage. Now the children take

all roles simultaneously and enact the roles. In this manner, he develops the concept

of significant others (mother, father or any primary role and close relation) and the

generalized (doctor, teacher and next relations to the significant others) others.

But in the current world, more than caretakers or mothers, most influential role is

of the peer groups in the life of individuals in the process of socialization.

 Ends and Means: socio- ethical perspective enters in this topic. Gandhian (means justify

the end) School of thought and Marxian school of thoughts (End justify the means). Ends and the

mens situation is a social dilemma. The means you are taking for undertaking a particular task

should justify the end. The use and choice of means is related to the need arrangement. Such

selection is also related to the cultural context. Bentham even justifies that end justify the means.

Cant believed that duty is to be obeyed and means are to be justified. It depends on the human

beings to choose one of the two schools of thought depending on the situation.

Social Condition: whatever are the barriers which are presented by the society. This is may be

related to infrastructure (transportation, communication), cultural (language, religion and

background) barrier or institutional (related to family, marriage) barriers and even personal

barriers. Such barriers are in relation to the actions of the actor.

This deals with how an individual performs his action in a social system.

Mechanism of a social system: it is operating just like a living organism. There are two

mechanisms for this:

Socialization: this is a learning process which starts the moment one takes birth. It deals

with how the personality changes. It deals with societal training and its influence. How the

society trains an individual is the subject matters of socialization. The primary socialization

agents are parents. It deals with training regarding every part of ones life. Personalities are

nothing but a concept of self and ego made by the society. In todays world, media and

social networking sites are the trainees in the process of socialization.

social control: it is the mechanism to regulate the behavior of an individual as per the norm.

the training and learning of the norm is provided the process of socialization. Its the careful
 examination of the behavior as per the established norms. Norms could be informal

sanction like customs and societal rules. It could be formal sanction even, e.g. law, a formal

structure of rules and regulation and provisions for punishment for its breach. The rules of

any institution can even be formal sanction. Informal mechanism varies from group to

group and it does not have any fixed structure. Fashion is also an informal social control.

The formal social control is needed to be a structured sanction. Informal social control is

the practices whereas the formal social control is the guidelines which are to be mandatorily

followed. Fashion is one of the controlling mechanism in all of the societies.

o informal social control: doing something against the family norms

o formal social control: doing some against the state.

Levels of the social system

the small groups:

o family: smallest unit in the sociology. Primary relationship exists in family. Its

basic sociological unit.

o Any other small group which have primary relationship and have promixity among

them can even be considered under this.

o Two criterions: no. of the individuals and the kind of relationship existing among

the members.

Organisation: where the relationship is formal. The no. of individuals in organization is

more than small groups. The proximity level are low.

Society: national societies, some scholars are consider that there should be community in

between organisation and society. But the antithesis to this that community and society are

more or less same terms. The relationship is more abstract and not definable in nature. It is
 the combination of the all the above groups and therefore, much variation comes. The no.

of individuals is huge.

Global society: at the international stage, whole group is becoming ones group. Its abstract

form of relationship in this.

 SOCIALIZATION AND CULTURE

SOCIALIZATION:

whenever a new member comes, he is introduced to the rules and norms of the society so as to

bring harmony among the members. Learning about the norms of the society continues when one

remains in the society. Socialization is the training given by society to its members so that they

can internalize the norms of the society in their personality and behave in accordance with such

norms so as to bring harmony and solidarity. This process star ts with the birth of an individual

and ends at the death. From scientific view, majority of this training is done in the initial years of

the personality development. Physical maturity and social maturity goes on simultaneously but are

two different concepts. Social maturity depends more on social exposure. As one grows, more

options of social exposure is present for an individual. Through this socialization one develops his

self concept. Sociologists believe that when one takes birth, he takes birth with a self concept.

Society possesses difference of opinions due to difference in socialization. This socialization has

various types and stages.

Conditions of an effective socialization:

Concept of reward and punishment associated with ones actions: the social agents try to

make one understand the social norms and if such person voluntarily does not follow such

norm or he is not able to follow such norm, a punishment is attached to such dissent. With

ones action, where he does not adhere to the norms, a punishment is there. But if one goes

with the norms of the society, they are rewarded. This might happen due to certain flaw in

the training programme itself. This concept is associated with the concept of learning
 process only. Rewards encourages individual to do more good and his actions would be in

consonance of the norms of the society. Giving more punishment may lead to

disassociation of the individual from the group.

Control over the frustration: The outcome of punishment may lead to conflicts and

frustrations. If frustration is not controlled, it may lead to mental disorder or may affect the

mental growth. The conflict leads to frustration, which leads to aggression and which lead

to repression and that leads to mental disorder. The frustration is the definite consequence

of socialization and learning.

Distinction between the norms: distinction between the old norms which one has already

learnt and the new norms which the society is now offering them. This is also called

difference between traditionalism and new morality. This leads to clash as new learning is

not happening and they are not able to accommodate to the new norms. Learning of the

new norms and the accommodation to the new norms and recycling of the old norms lead

to effective socialization.

Various stages of socialization:

No strict correlation between physical maturity and social maturity or socialization.

Socialization only depends upon the social exposure.

Oral: Birth 1 year: learning the identification of persons, the child is not able to

differentiate between his identity and his mothers identity. The common learning is that

of dependency. There is a correlation between the needs and the demand fulfillment. His

identification of his personality is there, but such identity is merged with his mother. The

self existence concept is developed. The self development starts.

 Anal: 1 year to 3 year: learning the norms of the society e.g. toilet training, the child

understands that there are certain groups whose norms are expected to be followed by him,

he also learns the concept of reward and punishment, he identifies how these concepts is

related with following the social norms, differentiation between the personality of his

mother and his own identity, the mother or his caretaker becomes the mediator between

him and the external world and they become the most important social agent, here the social

learning transfers from society to mother and lastly to the child.

Oedipus: upto the age of 12 from 4-5, how the male and female develops an interactionist

approach. The person identifies with the same sex instead of having attracted to the

opposite sex. This is primary way of understanding gender socialization. Male identifies

with his father or brother. After such identification, the child learns the norms attached to

such particular sex. Against this, Sigmund Freud provided that in this stage opposite sex

attraction starts.

Adolescence: 12-18: a person witnesses lots of physical, psychological changes. Now, the

society demands gender socialization and the same reflection of such norms in the society.

Here different social institutions demands conformity with the social norms. Lots of

confusions arises as at one hand social pressures are coming to him and on the other hand,

he hi witnessing psychological and physical changes. This pressure leads to conflicts in the

society and in the personality. Personality may be submissive or dominating. Aggression

comes due to conflicts. Personality changes occur as the individual starts accommodating

on the terms of the societal demands.

Adult: above 18 yrs: adult socialization seems simple as one has already learned all the

basic norms and the personalaity fixation is already done. But if one learns new norms in
 this stage, this becomes very difficult for him to accommodate such norms. E.g. norms of

equality taught to girls, which may not be the real case. Here one have to replace ones old

norms to the new norms, which creates difficulties and makes the process of socialization

more complex.

Types of socialization

Early socialization: it has something to do with the early period of human life. It includes

oral and anal stage. Very early phase of the life where parents, school, peers and social

media play the influential role in this type. Development of self concept, identification of

yourself as a different human, leanring of the concept of rewards and punishment and

understanding . base for the development of other kinds of socialization. Here the focus is

on giving the right knowledge as in future such human either extends those norms or learn

new norms.

Anticipatory socialization: in anticipation of joining of a new group, the human starts

learning new norms. One has not yet joined a new group but the learning is in the

anticipation for joining the other group as prior knowledge of such new group is needed to

get inducted to such new group. This is the practicing phase for joining the new group. E.g.

preparing for army

Developmental: extension of the early socialization. One adds more and more in the early

socialization. E.g. girls life after her marriage. Here one already have some learning,

something more to such prior knowledge happens. Such new learning is not in contrast of

the old learning, it is in the extension of the old norms.

Re-socialization: it happens rarely. It means completely moulding and replacing the old

norms with the new norms and acquiring the new norms. E.g. joining prostitution as
 profession; complete retransformation of life and personality. From one personality to a

new personality which is completely in contrast with the prior personality. It may be

negative transformation as well as positive transformation.

Social agent and theories of socialization: On the basis of principle of authority, it can be divided

into two groups

Having the control or authority over the learner: Parents, teachers (social status of these

agents is that they have authoritative capacity over the learners);

Having same social status as that of learner: friends, social media

10-20 years back, the influence of the first category people was considered as more on the learner.

True even today to only some extent as the early socialization if still influenced by this group. Due

to changing family system, family may even be converted into the second category. Having more

social agents belonging to the first category creates frustrations among the learners and therefore

it is one of the negative aspect of socialization.

THEORIES OF SOCIALIZATION:

When one takes birth, there is the presence of self concept. It is always there within oneself.

Socio-psychologists: self concept is a social concept. Self is not there within oneself. Sub

culture influence is always there which shapes the self concept.

Cooleys looking glass self theory: self is a social concept; it is constructed by the society

itself. I am not what I think I am, I am not what you think I am, I am what I think you think

what I am. It is some imaginary propositions made by person, regarding to what he think
 others think if himself. What the reality is different, and what one believes what the reality

is, is different.

Herbert Mead: concept of role playing; child adopts the roles of the significant others,

through this game, the child learns the domain of the roles which the society have made

for different persons. By looking at the role, the child learns the value of these significant

others. As the child grows, his domain of understanding theses significant others increases.

He also gave the concept of generalized other where the child simultaneously learns the

conversation and communication and interaction happening between these players. It

shows the game stage and the play stage.