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741749, 2001
P.Gerde3, B.A.Muggenburg1, M.Lundborg and A.R.Dahl2 in humans (1,2). With relative risk ratios usually 2, the
association is, however, not without dispute, mainly because
Institute of Environmental Medicine, Division of Inhalation Toxicology,
Karolinska Institutet, Box 210, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden and National of possible confounding effects of smoking (3). Nevertheless,
Institute for Working Life, Solna, Sweden, 1Lovelace Respiratory Research because of the large populations at risk of exposure, the
Institute, PO Box 5890, Albuquerque, NM 87185, USA and 2Battelle association warrants further investigation.
Memorial Institute, 505 King Avenue, Columbus, OH 43201-26, USA Diesel exhaust particles consist of an aggregated core of
3Towhom correspondence should be addressed ultrafine carbonaceous particles surrounded by an adsorbate/
Email: Per.Gerde@imm.ki.sc condensate of different hydrocarbons (4). The adsorbate/
Exposure to diesel exhaust may contribute to lung cancer condensate contains low concentrations of polycyclic aromatic
in humans. It remains unclear whether the carbonaceous hydrocarbons (PAHs) and nitrated PAHs (5), some of which
core of the soot particle or its coat of adsorbed/condensed are carcinogenic. Yet, the mechanism by which diesel exhaust
organics contributes most to cancer risk. Equally unclear may induce lung cancer remains unclear. The adsorbed PAHs
are the extent and rate at which organic procarcinogens were early suspects as causative agents (6) and diesel exhaust
desorb from soot particles in the lungs following inhalation was later shown to be a pulmonary carcinogen in rats following
exposure and the extent of their metabolic activation in chronic exposure by inhalation (5,7). However, the same effect
the lungs. To explore the basic relationship between a was also seen with carbon black and titanium dioxide particles
model polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) and a typical at similar exposure levels. The lung cancer incidence in rats
carrier particle, we investigated the rate and extent of correlated closely with an increased level of inflammation in
release and metabolic fate of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) the lung and build-up of particle deposits (8). Other rodent
adsorbed on the carbonaceous core of diesel soot. The species, such as hamsters and mice, were less sensitive (9). It
native organic content of the soot had been denuded by therefore remains unclear whether suspected lung cancers in
toluene extraction. Exogenous BaP was adsorbed onto the humans are linked to a genotoxic effect of the adsorbed organics
denuded soot as a surface coating corresponding to 25% or to an inflammatory process induced by the carbonaceous core
of a monomolecular layer. Dogs were exposed by inhalation particles of the soot (10). Thus, the PAHs in the organic coat
to an aerosol bolus of the soot-adsorbed BaP. Following of diesel soot may play a role in carcinogenesis, but the extent
deposition in the alveolar region a fraction of BaP was of its contribution to the carcinogenic process is unclear. The
rapidly desorbed from the soot and quickly absorbed into levels of extractable PAHs on diesel soot are quite low in
the circulation. Release rates then decreased drastically. comparison with their levels on other air pollution aerosols,
When coatings reached ~16% of a monolayer the remaining such as coal tar pitch, for which lung cancer risk has been
BaP was not bioavailable and was retained on the particles assessed with greater certainty (11). Vostal (12) even questioned
after 5.6 months in the lung. However, the bioavailability whether the carcinogenic PAHs on diesel soot are bioavailable
of particles transported to the lymph nodes was markedly at all in the lungs. Whereas PAHs can be easily extracted from
higher; after 5.6 months the surface coating of BaP was the soot particles with organic solvents, such as toluene or
reduced to 10%. BaP that remained adsorbed on the soot dichloromethane, results are tentative when liquids simulating
surface after this period was ~30% parent compound. In the lining layer of the lung are used (13,14). The most common
contrast, the rapidly released pulse of BaP, which was model solutions for the liquid lining of the lung have been
quickly absorbed through the alveolar epithelium after dispersions of surfactant liposomes in saline. Usually low or
inhalation, appeared mostly unmetabolized in the circula- undetected amounts of PAHs have been released from the
tion, along with low concentrations of phase I and phase diesel soot into these model solutions. Yet, elevated levels of
II BaP metabolites. However, within ~1 h this rapidly DNA adducts of PAHs in white blood cells have been observed
absorbed fraction of BaP was systemically metabolized in humans following exposure to diesel exhaust (15,16). To
into mostly conjugated phase II metabolites. The results further complicate the issue, in some cases exposure to carrier
indicate that absorption through the alveolar epithelium particles with much higher levels of organic extractable PAHs,
is an important route of entry to the circulation of un- such as tar pitch, has not led to elevated levels of DNA adducts
metabolized PAHs. in white blood cells (17,18). In the light of seemingly conflicting
results from exposure to particle-associated PAHs, we sought
to answer four fundamental questions regarding their toxicity:
Introduction (i) do PAHs have to be released from their carrier aerosols to
become toxic, i.e. metabolized, to surrounding tissues; (ii) if
Diesel soot particles are important contributors to the pollution so, how is the potential toxic level of PAHs on such particles
of some workplace atmospheres, as well as to urban air, and quantitated; (iii) what is the extracting capacity of organic
exposures are suspected of increasing the risk of lung cancer solvents in vitro compared with lung lining fluids in vivo; (iv)
once released from particles, how fast are PAHs absorbed
Abbreviations: BaP, benzo[a]pyrene; LSC, liquid scintillation counting; from the peripheral lung into the circulation and is this fraction
PAHs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. of PAHs metabolized in the lungs or elsewhere?
Oxford University Press 741
P.Gerde et al.
742
Alveolar absorption of soot-adsorbed BaP
porosity of the soot were likely to be too large to contribute significantly to the organic extract was dried and redissolved in HPLC elution fluid. BaP
the overall mass transfer resistance of adsorbed BaP from micron-sized and metabolites were separated using a Beckman Ultrasphere C18 column
particles to surrounding lung medium (24). Delayed release of adsorbed BaP (5 m4.6 mm25 mm) eluted with a methanol/water gradient from 55 to
was, thus, likely to be caused by the kinetics of surface desorption. 100% (v/v). The chromatograms showed separation of BaP from its phase I
The dose of diesel soot deposited during the exposures was determined metabolites and peaks for individual metabolites.
using a total filter (Millipore AA 1.2 m, 25 mm) at the end of the endotracheal Recovery of diesel soot from tissues
tube in the exposure system. An aerosol bolus of the radiolabeled BaP/diesel
soot was forced through the filter at the same flow rate used for the exposures. Soot was recovered by a procedure modified from that of Sun et al. (27) to
The amount of BaP on the filter was determined by total combustion and analyze the content and nature of the BaP still adsorbed on the diesel soot
measurement of radioactivity by LSC. Converted to the amount of soot, the retained in tissues. The tracheo-bronchial lymph nodes or ~1 g peripheral
deposition was 36 20 g (n 6). The test series for particle deposition lung tissue from each dog were homogenized in separate experiments with a
were done in parallel with the exposures. To reduce the risk of tritium cross- Tissuemizer in 10 ml of distilled water. Five milliliters of the homogenate
contamination, the aerosol generator was cleaned between experiments not by was layered on top of 15 ml of 25% sucrose solution in a 38 ml centrifuge
rinsing with solvent, but by repeatedly ejecting gas without loading particles, tube (polycarbonate, 13.5 inches). The tubes were centrifuged for 2 h at
then catching loosened particles on a total filter. 100 000 g in an ultracentrifuge (Beckman L8-60M).
After centrifugation the upper water/tissue homogenate layer plus some of
Animals the sucrose layer was transferred to combustion thimbles and air dried for
Three 1-year-old beagle dogs, two female and one male, purchased from analysis of radioactivity by total combustion. Two 1.0 ml samples were taken
Marshall Farms (North Rose, NY), were used in this study. The dogs weighed from the sucrose layer and counted directly after adding 20 ml of Ultima
8.0 0.9 kg. Food was withheld for 18 h prior to the procedures. Each dog Gold. The rest of the sucrose layer was carefully decanted from the precipitated
was given 0.2 ml of acepromazine s.c. Anesthesia was induced 15 min later particles, which were wiped up with small balls of cotton and placed on filter
with isoflurane using a face mask. paper to air dry. When dry the cotton balls were folded into filter paper,
Exposures placed in a Soxhlet apparatus and refluxed with toluene for 24 h. Samples of
the extract were evaporated to dryness, then dissolved again in the elution
When light surgical anesthesia was achieved an endotracheal tube was put in fluid for HPLC. Drying removed the tritiated water. The remaining amount
place and a surgical level of anesthesia was maintained using isoflurane of radioactivity was considered equivalent to the molar amount of parent
inhaled via the tube. Dogs were prepared for aseptic procedures. A surgical compound and metabolites introduced by BaP. Using HPLC, the BaP-related
cut-down procedure over the femoral artery and vein was done and catheters radioactivity recovered from the particles was separated into parent compound,
filled with heparinized saline were passed into and positioned in the posterior organic-extractable metabolites and water-soluble metabolites (void volume)
vena cava close to the right chamber of the heart (blood entering the lungs) by comparison of elution times with standards.
and in the thoracic aorta (blood leaving the lungs). The anesthetized dog was The filter paper extracted with the Soxhlet apparatus was air dried for 24 h,
connected to the exposure apparatus shown in Figure 1. Immediately before then combusted. For each sample the total amount of radioactivity in the
exposure the dog was hyperventilated for 3 min to obtain an equally long toluene extract (MTE) was compared with that in the combusted filter paper
period of apnea, then the line to the anesthesia machine was closed. With its containing the extracted particles. We assumed that the fraction of total
exit tube closed, the aerosol generator was triggered and ~220 ml of aerosol radioactivity not extracted with toluene in a Soxhlet apparatus was the same
was generated. As soon as the generator syringe was filled the aerosol bolus whether the particles had resided in the lungs or not. This allowed the amount
was gently pushed into the apneic dog over a 45 s period. The aerosol bolus of soot retained in the tissues to be calculated, as well as the total amount of
was immediately followed by 90 ml of clean air from the large syringe to radioactivity expected to have been associated with this soot before exposure
help push the aerosol into the alveolar region. The aerosol was allowed to (MTOT), assuming a homogeneous distribution. By comparing MTOT with
precipitate in the inflated lungs for ~2 min while the dog was still apneic. MTE, the amount of BaP recovered in the toluene extract, and with MEP, the
Next, the dog was ventilated several times through a total filter for a short amount remaining on the extracted particles as measured by combustion, the
period to remove the remaining suspended aerosol, then reconnected to the fractional bioavailability (BA) of soot-adsorbed BaP in the tissues was
anesthesia machine. calculated according to:
Blood sampling began at the moment the clean air was injected after the
aerosol bolus. During a 1 h period blood (~1 ml/sample) was sampled with BA 1 (MTE MEP)/MTOT
increasing intervals from every 12 s to every 5 min from both sides of the
systemic circulation. Immediately following sampling ~0.2 ml of each blood We assumed that the fraction of firmly adsorbed BaP not removed by Soxhlet
sample was transferred to 2 ml paper thimbles (Packard Instruments) for extraction in toluene was the same whether the particles had resided in tissues
determination of total radioactivity. The samples were immediately frozen or not. Therefore, the non-extractable fraction of BaP could be used as an
at 80C, as were the remaining fractions of the blood intended for metabol- indicator of the amount of soot particles in a sample, which in turn allowed
ite analysis. us to calculate an approximate long-term BA of BaP on the soot. One possible
After the blood sampling period the catheters were removed, the blood error would be if over time in vivo the radiolabeled BaP migrated from the
vessels repaired and the surgical incisions closed. The dogs were carefully tightly bound sites to loosely bound sites and then desorbed. The low standard
observed during recovery. Then 5.6 months after the alveolar exposures, the deviation between samples from two types of tissues, lymph nodes and
dogs were killed following exposure of the occluded trachea to the same peripheral lung, in three different dogs indicates a clear limit to release
preparation of diesel soot with adsorbed BaP. At this point the four tracheo- affected by this potential pathway.
bronchial lymph nodes and some peripheral lung tissue were sampled for
analysis of soot from the presented peripheral lung exposures. These tissues
were stored at 80C until processing. Results
Radiochemical analysis and metabolite fractionation After the bolus with denuded diesel soot and adsorbed BaP was
Before further analysis the samples were dried by vacuum distillation with deposited in the peripheral lung, desorbing BaP-equivalents
collection of water, including tritiated water, for LSC. When dry, the BaP- appeared rapidly in the systemic circulation (Figure 2). The
derived tritium in blood and tissue samples was measured after combustion
by LSC of the tritiated water generated according to a previously published concentration in the blood peaked at 2.1 0.6 min (n 3)
method (25). in all three dogs. However, dog C had an ~4-fold higher
The metabolites in blood and tissues were determined as previously systemic level of BaP in the blood than the other two, most
described (26). In brief, the dried blood samples were resuspended in saline likely because of a greater amount of diesel soot in the
and extracted five times with ethyl acetate by centrifugation between extractions aerosol bolus (Figure 2C). For each dog clearance of BaP-
and the organic fraction was decanted. The organic fraction contained parent
compound and its lipophilic phase I metabolites. The aqueous fraction was equivalents from the lungs was estimated by trapezoid
centrifuged and the supernatant and separated pellet were combusted separately. integration of the net increase in concentration of BaP in blood
Water-soluble radioactivity came from conjugated phase II metabolites and after passage through the lungs multiplied by the cardiac
the radioactivity of the separated pellet gave the covalently bound fraction of output (1.42 l/min) over the period when a net influx of
BaP. To improve uptake of BaP and its lipophilic metabolites into the HPLC
elution fluid from the pooled organic fraction the lipids were saponified with BaP-equivalents entered the circulation. Whereas cumulative
calcium oxide and re-extracted with ethyl acetate. After centrifugation and clearance was higher in dog C than in dogs A and B, the
washing of the precipitate by resuspending with ethyl acetate and precipitating, fractional retention of BaP-equivalents, as determined by
743
P.Gerde et al.
dogs there was an early net influx of tritiated water from the
lungs, indicating a rapid onset of metabolism in airway mucosa.
In dog A this net influx persisted throughout the 1 h blood
sampling period. However, the dominant fraction of BaP-
equivalent activity entering the blood during the rapid initial
pulse was parent compound, with smaller amounts of phase I
and phase II metabolites (Figure 7). Note that the release in
Figure 6 is related only to the readily available fraction of
BaP, whereas the release in Figure 7 is related to the total
amount of BaP on the soot. The rapid initial pulse of BaP
decreased quickly towards a much lower and steadier level
that slowly tapered off. Within 40 min of exposure the
slowly declining fraction of radioactivity in the blood became
dominated by phase II metabolites and bound radioactivity
(Figure 7).
Diesel soot was recovered by ultracentrifugation from tissues
of the peripheral lung and lymph nodes after 5.6 0.6 months
(n 3) retention time. Of the originally adsorbed BaP 37
3 (n 3) and 59 2% (n 3) had desorbed from the soot
in peripheral lung and lymph nodes, respectively (Figure 4).
During centrifugation of peripheral lung tissue and lymph
nodes 99 0.5 and 91 12% (n 3), respectively, of the
radioactivity was recovered from below the sucrose layer, i.e. Fig. 6. The concentration of tritiated water in blood, expressed as Bq
from the particles. The rest was in the tissue homogenate- tritium/ml, as a function of time in dogs (A)(C) following exposure to an
containing layer on top. This suggests that most of the tissue- aerosol bolus of denuded diesel soot with adsorbed BaP. Note that the
concentration scale in (C) is different from those in (A) and (B).
retained radioactivity came from particle-associated BaP rather
than tissue-bound BaP. For dogs A and B, but not dog C, the
amount of soot recovered from the lung tissues corresponded after 5.6 months retention in lung tissues, nearly one-third
to a long-term retention of soot in the lungs of ~77%, which remained as BaP parent compound (Table I). When added as
is close to the measured long-term retention of inert particles a solute to the tracheal mucosa (29) parent BaP was reduced
in the dog lung (28). Analysis of BaP-equivalents extracted to similar fractions within a mere 3 h; an ~1000-fold difference
from soot retained in the lungs for 5.6 months showed that in reactivity. The fraction of metabolites or decay products of
about one-third remained as parent compound on the particles BaP adsorbed on the soot surface after 5.6 months retention
(Table I), with nearly half being lipophilic metabolites/decay in tissues should be taken as an indication of stability rather
products of BaP (Figure 8). than reactivity. With the short range of the sorptive forces in
liquid media, once desorbed and before binding to the active
Discussion and conclusions site of the P450 enzyme the metabolic fate of the BaP
The results indicate that a particle-adsorbed fraction of BaP molecule should be independent of a previous history of
in the lungs is essentially non-reactive and must be released particle adsorption (30). It is likely that the relationship
in order to participate in toxicity to the surrounding lung between particle-bound BaP/low reactivity and free BaP/high
tissues. Of the radioactivity recovered from the soot surface reactivity in the lungs also holds for a collection of genotoxic
745
P.Gerde et al.
Peripheral lung 16 6 50 7 34 13
Lymph nodes 22 3 49 16 29 17
rapidly desorbed from carrier particles that are deposited on 16. Sabro Nielsen,P., Okkels,H., Sigsgaard,T., Kyrtopoulos,S. and Autrup,H.
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