Global Trends & Challenges in Water Science,

IWA Specialist Group

Research and Management
Directory
A compendium of hot topics and features from
IWA Specialist Groups
 IWA Specialist Groups

Global Trends & Challenges in

Water Science, Research
and Management

A compendium of hot topics and

features from IWA Specialist Groups

International Water Association

January 2012
 IWA Specialist Groups

Editor: Hong Li
Book title set by Keith Robertson
Copy-editing and type-setting: The Clyvedon Press Ltd, Cardiff, UK

Published by
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First published 2012

2012 IWA and the IWA Specialist Groups

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The information provided and the opinions given in this publication are not necessarily those of IWA and should not be acted
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ISBN 9781780401065
 IWA Specialist Groups

Contents

Page

Preface

Anaerobic Digestion 1

Assessment and Control of Hazardous Substances in Water 4

Biolms 8

Design, Operation and Maintenance of Drinking Water Treatment Plants 10

Disinfection 12

IAHR/IWA/IAHS Hydroinformatics Joint Committee 20

Groundwater: Perspectives, Challenges and Trends 27

Institutional Governance and Regulation 33

Outfall Systems 37

Marketing and Communications 42

Membrane Technology 44

Metals and Related Substances in Drinking Water 49

Microbial Ecology and Water Engineering 52

Off-Flavours in the Aquatic Environment: A Global Issue 58

Resources-Oriented Sanitation 64

Decentralised Wastewater Management: An Overview 68

Sludges, Residuals and Biosolids: Global Trends and Challenges 71

Statistics and Economics 77

Sustainability in the Water Sector 79

Rainfall Extremes and Urban Drainage 83

Wastewater Pond Technology 86

Water and Wastewater in Ancient Civilizations 90

Water Reuse: A Growing Option to Meet Water Needs 95

Watershed and River Basin Management 100

Winery Wastewater Treatment in a Sustainable Perspective 105

 IWA Specialist Groups

Preface

S
pecialist Groups represent the core vehicle for issue-based interaction on scientic, technical and management topics
within the International Water Association (IWA). Specialist Groups facilitate cooperation, networking and knowledge
generation, primarily through regular conferences and publications. They are a major source of channelling the
energy that is in the water professional community to organize events, spread news through regular newsletters, to generate
collaboration on a voluntary basis, etc. One of the larger voluntary efforts that nd an outlet through the Specialist Groups are
Task Groups that are formed within a hosting Specialist Group to perform a dened task, for example the production of a IWA
Scientic and Technical Report that describes the state-of-the-art in a certain discipline or a consensus to move forward on
a certain topic.

IWAs Specialist Groups are self-managed and cover all-important topics in the water management sector. In total some
50 Specialist Groups have been formed. They are an exceptionally effective means of information and knowledge sharing. To
improve the quality of knowledge sharing, for the rst time, the IWA has produced this report on Global Trends & Challenges
in Water Science, Research and Management. It is a compendium compiled from the submissions of IWA Specialist Groups.

This report aims to raise the proles of the IWA Specialist Groups and let Specialist Groups be better known by water profes-
sionals in the world, as well as to supply better knowledge dissemination. It is composed of papers from each group summariz-
ing the current state of knowledge within the SG topic/subtopics and future trends and challenges. It creates an understanding
of the topic for the reader, and shows the trends and challenges within the Specialist Groups by identifying, for example, three
hot topics that are expected to surface in the next ve years. No particular format was imposed, allowing the Specialist Groups
to develop their messages freely to the community.

There are in total 25 Specialist Group contributions in this rst compendium, to be distributed to IWA members, partners and
other water professionals. This effort will be continued periodically in order to keep information and knowledge up to date.

The work of the Specialist Groups is coordinated and supported by IWA Specialist Groups Manager Dr Hong Li. Please feel
free to contact her by email at hong.li@iwahq.org if you require any further information or have any questions about the
content of this report.

Enjoy the read and get an update on where things are and are moving to!

Professor Peter Vanrolleghem, PhD.

modelEAU Universit Laval, Qubec, Canada
Chairman IWA Strategic Council Sub-Committee on Specialist Groups

Anaerobic Digestion
Written by Damien Batstone, Henri Spanjers, Jorge Rodriguez, Jules van Lier, Eberhard
Morgenroth, M.M. Ghangrekar, R. Saravanane on behalf of the Specialist Group
Anaerobic Digestion is one of the most active Specialist
Groups, with over 1000 members, active sponsorship of
three task groups or working groups, and organisation of,
on average, one Specialist Group conference per year.
This is highlighted by our recent triennial conference
AD12 in Guadalajara, Mexico where some 500 delegates
attended, and 200 papers were presented, of which 80
were considered for publication in Water Science and
Technology. The themes at the AD conferences provide a
very good review of major themes of interest in anaerobic
digestion. Over the years, we have always observed a large
number of papers focusing on specic aspects related
to the themes of (a) solid waste and energy crop man-
agement, (b) biosolids and sludge management and (c)
industrial wastewater. These application areas have been
strongly supported by investigation into microbial ecology,
mathematical modelling, chemical analysis, process inno-
vations and novel technologies. Over the 10 years though,
we have seen several major new themes emerge. These
have been driven by both market opportunity and scien-
tic advances. The goal of this report is to further outline
challenges and opportunities for wastewater treatment
researchers and practitioners in these areas, as well as
the specic role of anaerobic digestion technologies within
these application areas.
Major emerging themes
The key topics we as a Specialist Group can identify as
major developing areas are the role of anaerobic processes
in waste mining and resource recovery, production of
chemicals through bioprocessing and bioproduction, and
integration of anaerobic digestion processes into the larger
evaluation framework, including upstream and down-
stream environmental systems, and advanced wastewater
treatment through emerging processes such as anaerobic
membrane bioreactor systems.
(a) Anaerobic processes for resource
recovery
Over the past two years there have been considerable uc-
tuations in phosphorus and nitrogen pricing, which has
emphasised the realisation that, in particular, phosphorus
is a non-renewable resource, with the peak in mineral
production expected to occur around 2030 (Cordell
et al. 2009). Added to this, nitrogen is very expensive
energetically to produce, and the other macronutrient
potassium is becoming depleted in major agricultural
zones. Although uctuations have stabilised, pricing
is currently of the order of $US5/kgP and $US1/kgN,
IWA Specialist Groups
and steadily rising. Although manure is a classic and
signicant source of nitrogen and phosphorus world-
wide (Cordell et al. 2009), for industrial agriculture, the
phosphorus market is dominated by mineral resources.
This has energised research into recovery of phosphorus
from waste streams, mainly as calcium and magnesium
phosphates, including struvite (MgNH4PO 4.6H2O)
(Le Corre et al. 2009). Even in highly industrialised
countries, such as Australia, with essentially 50% of food
(phosphorus) export, 25% of phosphorus and nitrogen,
and 100% of potassium, can be recovered from waste
streams (Tucker et al. 2011).
Anaerobic digestion is the only biochemical process that
removes carbon, while converting this into a useful energy
carrier, but has minimal impact on nutrient concentra-
tions. This has been previously seen as a limitation, but is
now emerging as a benet, with the energy content being
used in an integrated process to drive full nutrient recov-
ery (Verstraete et al. 2009). This will result in changes in
the modes of operation of anaerobic digestion to enhance
nutrient recovery further, and the focus is likely to move
beyond simply phosphorus to full recovery of nitrogen,
potassium and water by a range of novel techniques.
Nutrient recovery will also require a higher degree of
operational exibility and understanding of the underlying
anaerobic process, in order to enable treatment of differ-
ent waste streams (wastewater through to agroindustrial
solid wastes), as well as to cater for downstream processes
such as water recovery.
(b) Bioprocessing and bioproduction
Anaerobic processes have been used for thousands of
years to value add to organic feedstocks by convert-
ing them to a wide range of largely fermented foods and
beverages. This has also been widely used in the 20th cen-
tury in industrial biotechnology to produce bulk industrial
chemicals such as ethanol and organic acids, as well as
high-value products, including pharmaceuticals. Over the
past 10 years, we have seen two signicant and genuine
innovations that are dramatically changing the landscape
of industrial biotechnology.
Until recently, biotechnology focused on the use of pure
or highly enriched cultures to generate speciality products
from very pure feedstocks. This has limited applica-
tion of industrial biotechnology to higher value chemi-
cals, including higher cost feedstocks that compete with
food, and which often require expensive sterilisation of
both the reactor and the feed. In contrast, mixed culture
1
 IWA Specialist Groups
biotechnology uses environmentally ubiquitous microbes
to produce a mixture of chemicals (Kleerebezem and van
Loosdrecht 2007). These organisms are faster, can con-
vert more complex feedstocks and are capable of working
under different hydraulic regimes. The mixture of products
needs to be directed by manipulation of concentration,
temperature, pH and redox, and there needs to be a degree
of downstream separation. Research is now moving from
a focus on systems analysis to a deeper understanding of
how mixed culture fermentations (and biotechnology) is
inuenced by environmental conditions, and how control
handles can be best manipulated. This should be com-
bined with further research into downstream processing
to develop the concept of a biorenery that can generate
multiple products from raw feedstocks with a high degree
for market driven exibility.
Bioelectrochemical systems have been one of the major
developments in the anaerobic process world over the
past 10 years, with an initial focus on direct generation of
electricity from anodic biological processes (Lovley 2006).
The current cost of bioelectrochemical systems (approxi-
mately 100 times that of conventional anaerobic systems),
and relatively low performance makes them (currently) a
limited proposition for electricity generation. A far more
compelling application appears to be use of electrochemi-
cal systems with either pure or enriched cultures to gen-
erate specic products. These can either be done via
partial oxidation at the anode to generate partially oxidised
products (e.g. 1-3 propanediol from glycerol), or by reduc-
tion at the cathode (e.g. generation of CO2 from methane)
(Rabaey and Rozendal 2010). The exciting thing about this
is not just the enhanced and highly efcient use of electric-
ity. There is also the range of capabilities derived from the
enormous exibility of this technology, including the ability
to set potential, electrode material and cell geometry, the
ability to favour specic organisms, or planktonic versus
electrode biolms, and the ability to manipulate ion ow
through the membrane.
The two issues of mixed culture biotechnology and
bioelectrosynthesis are highly complementary, as mixed
culture biotechnology is generally needed as a pretreat-
ment process for bioelectrosynthesis, and both can
operate in complementary processes within the overall
biorenery process.
(c) Integrated systems assessment
This review has focused so far on the promise of anaero-
bic processes to replace existing technologies, including
activated sludge wastewater treatment, mineral fertiliser
production, and industrial chemical manufacturing. How-
ever, there will clearly be longer-term applications for both
practical integration of anaerobic digestion with larger
systems, as well as its integration with larger process
models. Integrated systems modelling, life cycle assess-
ment and integrated environmental assessment not need
to include the whole water and energy cycle, and anaero-
bic processes are emerging as a clear segment within
overall systems modelling. A clear example is emerging
methods to model larger wastewater treatment plants,
with adaptation and integration of biochemical models
such as the IWA developed Anaerobic Digestion Model
No. 1 (Batstone et al. 2002) into key integrated models
such as the Benchmark Simulation Model (Jeppsson et al.
2
2007). The process of integrating models has been very
complementary, not only providing important tools such
as interface models, but demonstrating the strengths of
each sub-model. As an example, the advanced pH model
within the Anaerobic Digestion Model No. 1 is clearly rel-
evant to the whole water cycle, and this has led to estab-
lishment of a new IWA task group on physicochemistry
modelling (Batstone 2009), which will not only enrich
modelling of aquatic chemistry, but is applicable to all
topics raised in this review.
(d) Advanced wastewater treatment
Modern high-rate technologies are successfully imple-
mented at a large variety of industries. Granular sludge
bed based systems are most commonly applied, whereas
China seems to be the most rapidly growing market. Very
3
high loading rates reaching 40 kg COD/m reactor per
day are feasible reducing reactor volumes to a minimum.
Current applications are limited by the maximum spe-
cic conversion capacity and/or efcient separation of
the produced biogas from the sludge. For more extreme
types of the wastewaters these limitations are more pro-
nounced resulting in disappointing loading potentials.
Examples are wastewaters characterised by high tem-
peratures, high salinity, presence of toxic compounds,
high fat, oil and grease content, high solids content, etc.
Various research groups are presently focusing on the
development of anaerobic membrane bioreactors mak-
ing use of either submerged or cross ow congurations
(Liao et al. 2006). The full retention of anaerobic biomass
prevents specic rinsing of key organisms for specic
substrate conversion, whereas the membrane assisted
separation process provides a solids-free efuent. The
growing number of research papers has led to separate
conference sessions at the anaerobic digestion specialist
triennial. Working at relatively high sludge concentrations,
cake layer management seems to determine membrane
uxes (Jeison and van Lier 2007; Lin et al. 2010). At
present, the impact of increased shear-forces on anaero-
bic microbiology, physiology and biochemistry is currently
being investigated (e.g. Menniti et al., 2009). With the
drop in membrane prices and the relatively low required
uxes with concentrated wastewaters, anaerobic mem-
brane bioreactor systems seem to be of particular interest
for those applications where successful granular sludge
bed systems cannot be guaranteed.
Conclusions
Anaerobic processes have a major role in future sustainable
water management, and across all areas of human activity,
including agriculture, industrial chemicals and energy gen-
eration. There are clearly novel areas to apply the basic
principles we have developed over the past 50 years of
research, including mixed culture biotechnology and elec-
trochemically mediated processes. In addition, new sci-
ence will be needed to fully enable resource recovery and
provide new downstream processing options for the biore-
nery of the future. At the same time, we need to recognise
that there has been an enormous amount of work done
already, which is particularly applicable to other elds such
as domestic wastewater treatment, including upstream
sewer processes. It will be important to retain this knowl-
edge as we move into new and exciting applications.
 IWA Specialist Groups

crystallization: a review. Critical Reviews in Environmental

References Science and Technology 39(6), 433477.
Liao, B.Q., Kraemer, J.T. and Bagley, D.M. (2006). Anaerobic
Batstone, D.J. (2009). Towards a generalised physicochemical
membrane bioreactors: applications and research directions.
modelling framework. Reviews in Environmental Science and
Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology
Biotechnology 8(2), 113114.
36(6), 489530.
Batstone, D.J., Keller, J., Angelidaki, I., Kalyuzhnyi, S., Pavlostathis,
Lin, H., Xie, K., Mahendran, B., Bagley, D., Leung, K., Liss, S.
S.G., Rozzi, A., Sanders, W., Siegrist, H. and Vavilin, V.
and Liao, Q. (2010) Factors affecting sludge cake formation
(2002). Anaerobic Digestion Model No. 1 (ADM1), IWA Task
in a submerged anaerobic membrane bioreactor. Journal of
Group for Mathematical Modelling of Anaerobic Digestion
Membrane Science 361(12), 126134.
Processes. London, IWA Publishing.
Lovley, D.R. (2006). Bug juice: harvesting electricity with micro-
Cordell, D., Drangert, J.O. and White, S. (2009). The story of
organisms. Nature Reviews Microbiology 4(7), 497508.
phosphorus: global food security and food for thought. Glo-
Menniti, A, Kang, S., Elimelech, M. and Morgenroth, E. (2009)
bal Environmental Change 19(2), 292305.
Inuence of shear on the production of extracellular poly-
Jeison, D. and van Lier, J.B. (2007). Cake formation and consoli-
meric substances in membrane bioreactors. Water Research
dation: main factors governing the applicable ux in anaero-
43(17), 43054315.
bic submerged membrane bioreactors (AnSMBR) treating
Rabaey, K. and Rozendal, R.A. (2010). Microbial electrosynthe-
acidied wastewaters. Separation and Purication Technol-
sis revisiting the electrical route for microbial production.
ogy 56(1), 7178.
Nature Reviews Microbiology 8(10), 706716.
Jeppsson, U., Pons, M.N., Nopens, I., Alex, J., Copp, J., Gernaey,
Tucker, R., Poad, G., et al. (2011). Fertiliser from waste: phase 1
K.V., Rosen, C., Steyer, J.-P., Vanrolleghem, P.A. (2007).
GRDC project UQ00046 output 1 report (nal). Brisbane,
Benchmark simulation model no 2: general protocol and ex-
Australia, Grains Research and Development Corporation,
ploratory case studies. Water Science & Technology 56(8),
Australia.
6778.
Verstraete, W., Van de Caveye, P. and Diamantis, V. (2009).
Kleerebezem, R. and van Loosdrecht, M.C.M. (2007). Mixed cul-
Maximum use of resources present in domestic used
ture biotechnology for bioenergy production. Current Opin-
water. Bioresource Technology 100(23), 55375545.
ion in Biotechnology 18(3), 207212.
Le Corre, K.S., Valsami-Jones, E., Hobbs, P. and Parsons, S.A.
(2009). Phosphorus recovery from wastewater by struvite

3
 IWA Specialist Groups
Assessment and Control of
Hazardous Substances in Water
Written by M. Frhacker, A. Bruchet, S. Martin, F. Leusch, T. Ternes on behalf of the Specialist Group
Introduction
Micropollutants: A global issue
For the Assessment and Control of Hazardous Substances
in Water Specialist Group, the biggest challenge is the
risk evaluation and management of the real or perceived
increasing contamination of freshwater or marine sys-
tems with thousands of industrial and natural chemical
compounds. This is one of the key environmental ques-
tions for the safety of human and environmental health.
Besides well-known contaminants such as heavy metals,
pesticides or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, for which
monitoring and management strategies are already set in
different legal regulations, there is another group of con-
taminants for which less information is available. These
so-called emerging contaminants are potentially toxic sub-
stances whose effects or presence is poorly known, either
because they are new and just starting to spread out, or
they are well-known contaminants but their environmen-
tal fate gained more attention with better instrumentation.
Therefore emerging contaminants can be dened as con-
taminants that are currently not included in routine moni-
toring programs and which may be candidates for future
regulation, depending on research on their (eco)toxicity,
potential health effects, public perception and monitoring
data revealing their occurrence in different environmental
compartments (Petrovic and Barcel 2006).
Advances in the area
Sources of micropollutants
Sources of hazardous substances may include wastewater
from industry or manufacture of e.g. metal, pulp and paper,
chemicals, food, drugs as well as many others. For point
sources best available technologies are already worked out
or will be dened in the near future. Environmentally haz-
ardous substances are increasingly released from diffuse
sources and consumer-related municipal sources rather
than from production-related industrial point-sources. Dif-
fuse sources are deposition, agriculture (e.g. pesticide
application, groundwater recharge, sewage sludge appli-
cation to land), trafc, power generation, mining, waste
disposal (e.g. incineration, landlls) or could be accidental
releases (e.g. spills).
For a long time, eutrophication and oxygen depletion were
critical conditions in surface water and contamination
with nitrate, solvents and selected pesticides, especially
4
lipophilic substances, was in the focus of groundwater
contamination. In sewage sludge the interesting substances
were mainly heavy metals, polychlorinated dibenzodiox-
ins and furans and polychlorinated biphenyls. Nowadays
chemists have improved the analytical methods and are
able to detect concentrations of drugs, polar personal
care products (e.g. musk fragrances, repellents), techni-
cal products (e.g. bisphenol A, tributyl tin compounds,
lubricants, dyes, motor oils, paint thinners and remov-
ers, creosote, wood preservers, lipophilic and hydrophilic
pesticides and metabolites, peruorinated compounds
(PFS), detergents (linear alkyl sulphonates), alkylphenol
ethoxylates and metabolites, quaternary ammonium com-
pounds), contaminations from construction materials (e.g.
pesticides, titanium dioxide), contamination from trafc
(e.g. heavy metals, oxygenates, polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons, nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, mineral
oils), food ingredients (articial sweeteners) and biocides,
nanoparticles and other persistent organic pollutants and
their metabolites, transformation products and chemical
by-products generated during production usually in the
nanogram and sub-nanogram range per litre (Daughton
and Ternes 1999; Giger 2009; Richardson 2009).
Although many of the new compounds are present in the
aquatic environment at low to very low concentrations
(picograms per litre to nanograms per litre), some of these
contaminants show carcinogenic or mutagenic reactions
or are toxic for reproduction (CMR substances) or are aller-
gens or endocrine disruptors; but others are less toxic or
do not show toxic effects in the measured concentrations.
Identification and monitoring methods
Advances in analytical methods have been a major driver
for the identication and monitoring of emerging contami-
nants. Gas chromatography (GC) or liquid chromatography
coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) remain the gold
standards for trace organics analysis. The cost of GC/
MS systems have drastically dropped and GCMS/MS
systems that yield ultimate sensitivity for the determina-
tion of traces in complex matrices can now be acquired
for the cost of a single GC/MS instrument from 2 years
ago. GC-high resolution MS is necessary to quantify con-
taminants at ultratrace levels such as dioxins and dibenzo-
furans. This approach could prove necessary to reach the
very low environmental quality standards dened in spe-
cic regulations (e.g. 0.5 ng/L for polybrominated diphe-
nylethers in natural waters as dened in the European
Water Framework Directive). GC combined with induc-
tively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP/MS) seems
to emerge as the method of choice to detect organotins

at their extremely low environmental quality standards.
Although GC/MS is restricted to non-polar and semi-polar
contaminants, liquid chromatography (LC)MS/MS has
allowed the determination of much more polar substances
(pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs, estrogenic hormones ) at
levels of parts per trillion. Once restricted to target com-
pound analysis, with the advent of very high resolution
instruments, LC tandem MS and LC-Orbitrap MS now
offer the possibility of identifying and quantifying unknown
polar compounds in all kinds of environmental matrices, a
feature that will contribute to the discovery of an increas-
ing number of emerging contaminants and hopefully their
transformation and degradation by-products. Another
trend lies in the miniaturisation of laboratory-scale instru-
ments such as GC/MS, which will likely allow on-line moni-
toring in the future. A miniature GC/MS with a submersible
purge-and-trap probe is already commercially available
with potential application for on-line monitoring of volatile
organic compounds.
On the other hand, with the exception of fullerene nano-
particles that can be determined by LCMS, there are no
adequate methods to determine other organic nanoparti-
cles such as carbon nanotubes at environmental levels.
Bioanalytical methods, common in the pharmaceutical
industry, are growing in popularity for water quality and
treatment efcacy monitoring. These in vitro bioassay
tools can provide an integrative measure of mixture tox-
icity. Although several practical questions remain to be
answered, in particular their exact role in regulation (if
any), bioanalytical tools are a promising development in
water quality testing.
Treatment methods
The removal performances of existing treatment proc-
esses are currently well known for an increasing number
of substances (Poseidon 2004; Snyder et al. 2007; Joss
et al. 2008; Choubert et al. 2011).
Coagulation and settling can be efcient for very
adsorbable substances (e.g. polychlorinated biphenyls),
but few emerging compounds are retained.
Biological processes like activated sludge or xed-
lm processes can achieve a signicant reduction of
micropollutant loads in wastewater treatment plants.
Removal mechanisms like biotransformation, stripping
and adsorption on sludge are involved. Parameters like
sludge age and nitrifying capacity appear to be critical
to maximise removal efciencies. Membrane separation
of sludge seems to bring additional retention perform-
ance towards several emerging compounds. However,
substances are generally not really removed in biological
treatments: about two-thirds of the regulated substanc-
es are mainly transferred to sludge, whereas many polar
emerging compounds are partly biodegraded with for-
mation of by-products. Thus, complementary advanced
tertiary processes are generally required to guarantee
an efcient removal.
Oxidation with ozone appears an efcient advanced treat-
ment, with more than 80% removal, for most emerging
substances so long as their molecular structure presents
accessible electrons. However, the fate and toxicity of
by-products still remains an issue to be investigated.
Optimisation of ozone dose depending on water quality
IWA Specialist Groups
and combination with ultraviolet light and hydrogen per-
oxide through advanced oxidation processes are still
being studied, especially for wastewater applications.
Other oxidants (chlorine, chlorine dioxide, permanga-
nate, ultraviolet light alone) are generally not efcient
for micropollutant removal, and may present the risk of
generating more harmful by-products.
Activated carbon adsorption (granular or powder)
appears as well as an interesting treatment for mi-
cropollutants. Again, more than 80% removal for
most substances is achievable. Substance properties
(log Kow, pKa) and operating conditions (dose, contact
time) will determine the actual efciency of retention.
Only a few molecules like iodinated contrast media or
some antibiotics present limited afnity for activated
carbon. In the eld of wastewater treatment, more re-
turns of experience in terms of life duration in lters or
achievable polyaluminium chloride recovery rates are
still needed. The fate of used activated carbon, either in
sludge or in lters, may also be an issue.
Membrane retention processes like reverse osmosis and
nanoltration allow the most efcient retention of a wide
range of substances, but they need an extensive pre-
treatment and they are the most energy intensive. Addi-
tionally, the fate of the concentrate should be mastered
to get a completely sustainable process. Their high cost
makes their application to wastewater treatment very
limited, except in conditions of high water stress. In large
potable water treatment plants, the combination of dif-
ferent advanced processes in a multi-barrier approach
is already applied to ensure a maximum removal.
The best solution remains the reduction at the source to
avoid the introduction of emerging contaminants in the
water cycle.
Regulation trends
In general, the standard setting is either based on the
precautionary principle, on risk assessment or on tech-
nical feasibility. The precautionary principle has the big
advantage that it allows legal action without the compre-
hensive knowledge on the fate and effects of the respec-
tive substance as required for risk assessment. In the risk
assessment approach, for the identication of hazardous
substances we distinguish between substances with and
substances without threshold, e.g. the cancerogenic,
mutagenic and substances toxic for reproduction. These
different assumptions are made as well in human risk
assessment (WHO 2006, 2008) as also in environmen-
tal risk assessment (TGD 2003; ECHA 2010). For some
substances there are already sufcient signicant ecotoxi-
cological data to suggest that the compound can cause
adverse effects on wildlife, or that there is a signicant
risk to human health. For example, in the European Union
those compounds are listed under the EC Water Framework
Directive 2006/60/EC (EC 2006) as priority substances or
priority hazardous substances as they are bioaccumula-
tive, persistent and toxic. Also the UNEP compiled a list of
persistent organic pollutants that full the dened criteria
for persistence, bioaccumulation and long-range trans-
port. Both lists have international reporting and minimisa-
tion/phase out requirements and are under rolling revision.
Pharmaceuticals and polar personal care products are not
subject to any regulation yet and have not been monitored
within the European Water Frame Work Directive (Directive
5
 IWA Specialist Groups
2000/60/EC). Also the new policy on chemicals REACH
(Regulation on Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and
Restriction of Chemicals), which entered into force on 1
June 2007, will increase the information on chemicals in
the European Union.
The challenges and future research
directions
The detection of so many new compounds in surface
water, groundwater and drinking water raises consider-
able public concern. Especially when guideline values are
not available, the questions are whether detected concen-
trations will affect human or environmental health at low
concentrations and how these components will react in
complex mixtures.
One of the biggest challenges for the near future will be the
effect assessment and risk evaluation for human health
and the aquatic environment for the thousands of syn-
thetic and natural trace contaminants that may be present
in water at low to very low concentrations (picograms per
litre to nanograms per litre).
The chemical monitoring of single substances will be very
time consuming and costly, without giving the satisfy-
ing answers as we see additional effects beside carcino-
genic, mutagenic and reprotoxic substances properties,
for example endocrine-disrupting, neurotoxic or allergic
effects. Therefore a tiered approach of effect monitor-
ing should be developed. Especially for substances with
insufcient data, a quick evaluation method is required.
This can be based, for example, on the concept of the
threshold of toxicological concern, which applies also in
the case of an incomplete human toxicological database.
Health-related indication values could also be applied for
all substances based on information on the structural and
activity relations, which are not primarily genotoxic, but
at the same time cannot be toxicologically assessed on
the basis of chronic or subchronic animal experiments,
and which show no signs, however, of neurotoxic, immu-
notoxic or germ-cell toxic potential (Umweltbundesamt
2008). Such new policy is applied in Germany for quick
assessment of non-relevant metabolites of pesticides. In
this case, the guidance value of 0.1 g/L based on the
precautionary principle can be exceeded when it is proven
that the substance is neither genotoxic nor neurotoxic. This
change in paradigm would be also potentially applicable
for complex samples instead of multiple single-substance
measurements.
Another challenge is the answer of the question, do we
need to remove the trace contaminants from wastewater
and drinking water should we effort it and to which
extent? Will micrograms per litre be sufcient or do we have
to go below? Are our risk assessment methods adequate
to answer this question? Which drinking water treatment
processes shall we apply and what will be the trade off in
terms of re-growth or other effects?
Conclusions
The ongoing and future challenges like the risk evaluation,
decision making, risk management and communication
6
cannot be handled by the Assessment and Control of
Hazardous Substances in Water Specialist Group alone,
but need to be harmonised between different other IWA
Specialist Groups such as those on Diffuse Pollution,
Modelling, Institutional Governance and Regulation, Mem-
brane Technologies, Design, Operation and Costs of Large
Wastewater Treatment Plants, Design, Operation and
Maintenance of Drinking Water Treatment Plants, Sludge
Management, Nano and Water, Pretreatment of Industrial
Wastewaters and many others.
References
Daughton, C. and Ternes, T. (1999). Pharmaceuticals and per-
sonal care products in the environment: agents of subtle
change? Environmental Health Perspectives, 907938.
ECHA (2010). Guidance on Derivation of DNEL/DMEL from
Human Data DRAFT (Rev.:2.1)http://guidance.echa.eu-
ropa.eu /docs /draft_documents /R8_DNEL_HD_Draft_
Rev2.1_nal_clean.pdf.
Choubert J.M., et al. (2011). Limiting the emissions of micro-
pollutants: what efciency can we expect from wastewater
treatment plants? Water Science and Technology 63(1),
5765.
Giger, W. (2009). Hydrophilic and amphiphilic water pollutants:
using advanced analytical methods for classic and emerging
contaminants. Anal Bioanal Chem 393, 3744.
Grummt, T. and Fuerhacker, M. (2011). Risk Assessment
for Emerging Contaminants in the Water Cycle: Recent
Advances and Future Needs. In Chapter Theme 4: Emerg-
ing contaminants and micropollutants, Proceedings of the
14th International Conference, IWA Diffuse Pollution Spe-
cialist Group: Diffuse Pollution and Eutrophication (DIP-
CON) OECD Co-operative Research Programme spon-
sored conference, Beaupr, QC, Canada, September 1217,
2010. In press.
Joss A., Siegrist H. and Ternes T.A. (2008). Are we about to up-
grade wastewater treatment for removing organic micropol-
lutants? Water Science and Technology 57(2), 251255.
Petrovic, M. and Barcel, D. (2006). Liquid chromatography-
mass spectrometry in the analysis of emerging environmen-
tal contaminants. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
385, 422424.
POSEIDON (2004). Assessment of Technologies for the removal
of Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in sewage
and drinking water facilities to improve the indirect potable
water reuse. Contract EVK1-CT-(2000-00047. Detailed
report, 58 p.
Richardson, S. (2009). Water analysis: emerging contaminants
and current issues. Analytical Chemistry 81, 46454677.
Snyder S.A. et al. (2007). Role of membranes and activated
carbon in the removal of endocrine disruptors and pharma-
ceuticals. Desalination 202(13), 156181.
REACH (2006). Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 con-
cerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and
Restriction of Chemicals (REACH), establishing a European
Chemicals Agency, amending Directive 1999/45/EC
and repealing Council Regulation (EEC) No 793/93 and
Commission Regulation (EC) No 1488/94 as well as Council
Directive 76/769/EEC and Commission Directives 91/155/
EEC, 93/67/EEC, 93/105/EC and 2000/21/EC.
TGD (2003). Technical guidance document, Technical Guidance
Document (TGD) on Risk Assessment in support of
Commission Directive 93/67/EEC on Risk Assessment
for new notied substances, Commission Regulation
(EC) No 1488/94 on Risk Assessment for existing sub-
stances, Directive 98/8/EC of the European Parliament
and of the Council concerning the placing of biocidal
products on the market. http://ecb.jrc.it/cgi-bin/reframer.
pl?A=ECB&B=/tgdoc/.
 IWA Specialist Groups

Umweltbundesamt (2008). Trinkwasserhygienische Bewertung WHO (2008). Guidelines for drinking water quality. 3rd edition;
stoffrechtlich nicht relevanter Metaboliten von Wirkstoffen Geneva.
aus Panzenschutzmitteln im Trinkwasser. Empfehlung WHO (2006). Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta
des Umweltbundesamtes nach Anhrung der Trinkwasser- and greywater. Volume 2: Wastewater use in agriculture.
kommission des Bundesministeriums fr Gesundheit beim
Umweltbundesamt. http://www.umweltdaten.de/wasser-e/
empfnichtbewertbstoffe-english.pdfhttp://resources.metapress.
com/pdf-preview.axd?code =21n1042mv8327820&size
=largest und Bundesgesundheitsbl-Gesundheitsforsch-
Gesundheitsschutz 51:797-801 (2008) English: http://www.
umweltdaten.de/wasser-e/hygiene-related_assessment_
of_non-rele-vant_metabolites_recommondation_april_
2008.pdf.

7
 IWA Specialist Groups
Biofilms
Written by Zbigniew Lewandowski on behalf of the Specialist Group
The mission of the Biolms Specialist Group is to provide a
forum for the exchange of scientic and technical informa-
tion among researchers and practitioners involved in the
eld of biolms. The scope of the Groups interests includes
on the one hand all engineered and natural aquatic sys-
tems, in which sessile bacteria are found, and on the other
all biological, chemical and physical processes, which are
relevant for biolm behaviour. The Management Commit-
tee of the Specialist Group organises specialised biolm
conferences, conference sessions, workshops, courses,
and runs a Biolm Scientic Discussion Group. The Dis-
cussion Group facilitates fast transfer of information and
news. It is a forum to ask questions, exchange ideas, share
experiences, and discuss solutions for everyday workplace
problems encountered by researchers and practitioners
dealing with biolms.
The description of the Biolms Specialist Group can be
found o the IWA homepage at http://www.iwahq.org/
Home/Networks/Specialist_groups/List_of_groups/Bio-
lms/.
The Biolms Specialist Group also runs its own homepage
at http://www.iwa-biolm.org/ where more details about
our activities can be found. The Biolm Discussion Group
can be reached at biolm-group@eawag.ch.
One of the perpetual activities of the Specialist Group is to
organise specialised biolm conferences. These themes of
the conferences are alternating to cover (a) biolm proc-
esses and (b) biolm technologies. The most recently
organised conference by the Biolms Specialist Group was
dedicated to biolm processes and was held from 27 to 30
October 2011 in Shanghai, China. The website of the con-
ference at www.iwabiolm2011.com species the main
topics of the conference:
methods and tools to study biolms;
extracellular polymeric substances; biolm structure
and activity;
biolm microbiology and ecology;
mathematic modelling of biolm processes;
biolm technologies in water and wastewater treat-
ment;
biofouling and biolm control.
We also offered a workshop dedicated to aerobic granu-
lated sludge, which is one of the most promised technolo-
gies based on the biolm-type microorganisms.
To engage young researchers we had dedicated sessions
run entirely by the Young Water Professionals.
8
Terminology
There is no commonly accepted denition of the term
biolm. Although self-explanatory to biolm researchers,
it is regarded as controversial by many in other elds of
research. The most popular denition says that biolms are
microorganisms attached to surfaces although some bio-
lm researchers argue that biolms should be regarded as
a mode of microbial growth, in the same manner as micro-
bial growth in suspension is, rather than as physical struc-
tures formed by microorganisms attached to surfaces.
The term biolm refers only to the microbial deposits on a
surface imbedded in the matrix of extracellular polymers.
The broader term, biolm system, includes other compo-
nents affecting the biolm formation:
the surface to which the microorganisms are attached;
the biolm (the microorganisms and the matrix of extra-
cellular polymers);
the solution of nutrients;
the gas phase (if present).
Another term often used when referring to the attached
microbial growth is biofouling (of surfaces). It is derived
from the term fouling of surfaces, which refers to the
process of contaminating surfaces with (usually) mineral
deposits. In principle, the term refers to the same proc-
ess as the term fouling does, but it emphasises the fact
that the deposits on the fouled surfaces are composed of
mineral substances mixed with living microorganisms and
macro organisms and with extracellular polymers excreted
by the microorganisms.
The term biofouling deposits is sometimes considered an
equivalent of the term biolms, particularly in industrial
settings, where it is used to emphasise the presence of
scaling deposits or corrosion products imbedded in the
extracellular polymers excreted by the microorganisms
attached to surfaces.
When larger organisms accumulate on surfaces, as is
common in marine environments for example, the term
macrofouling is used.
Existing Specialist Group knowledge
Biolms are ubiquitous and develop on water-immersed
surfaces whether we want them or not. Depending on the
effect of the biolm desirable or not in engineered sys-
tems we try to control its development by either promoting

or inhibiting the microbial growth in the biolm. Often physi-
cal removal of biolms is used as well, which is considered
an effective way of controlling undesirable biolms.
Several technologies taking advantage of biolms have
been developed in the water and wastewater treatment.
They often offer benets over the more traditional tech-
nologies based on the suspended growth of microorgan-
isms. Designing and operation of the large-scale biolm
reactors poses many challenges. Most advances in under-
standing biolm processes resulted from laboratory- and
bench-scale studies. Implementing these advances to the
design and operation of full-scale reactors is not trivial and
the rules for a scale-up of biolm processes are not clear.
Applied research exists that provides a basis for the mech-
anistic understanding of biolm reactors. Unfortunately,
little information exists to bridge the gap between our cur-
rent understanding of biolm fundamentals derived from
the bench-scale studies and the empirical information
derived from operating large-scale reactors. The empirical
information derived from applied research has been used
to develop design criteria for biolm reactors and remains
the basis for biolm reactor design despite the emergence
of mathematical models as reliable tools for research and
practice. We are experiencing an exponential increase in
the number of biolm based technologies applied in the
water and wastewater treatment. One of our goals is to
develop reliable procedures based on mathematical mod-
els of the processes in biolms and use them to design
biolm reactors in water and wastewater treatment.
Biolms also develop on surfaces where their presence has
negative effects, such as the biolms developing on the
surfaces of the ltration membranes, for example. There
is a variety of undesirable effects the biolms may cause.
Depending on the affected processes, biolms may increase
the mass transport resistance, increase the heat transfer
resistance, increase the pressure drop in pipes, have a
negative effect on the material performance by accelerat-
ing corrosion, and have negative effects on human health
by harbouring pathogens. Traditional methods of controlling
microbial contamination, mostly based on the use of antimi-
crobials, are much less effective when used to control bio-
lms. The unusual resistance of biolms to antimicrobials
remains mysterious and much research has been devoted
to understanding and overcoming this effect.
General trends and challenges
It is difcult to point out a few of the most important top-
ics to be addressed in complex biolm systems, but it is
much easier to point out a group of topics that need to be
addressed in the near future to achieve progress toward
implementing biolm-based technologies in water and
wastewater industries:
1. Developing rational criteria for the design and operation
of biolm reactors, based on the mathematical models
of biolm processes.
IWA Specialist Groups
2. Developing rational and effective approaches to biolm
control.
3. Determining the structure and function of the extracel-
lular polymeric substances in biolms and their role in
biolm processes.
Conclusions
One of the emerging conclusions from our discussions is
that several IWA Specialist Groups have been converg-
ing on similar problems, and they all have a common
denominator: biolms. We see therefore the most prom-
ising progress in integrating the knowledge developed in
the Specialist Groups dealing with problems related to our
activities. Examples of these Specialist Groups are Mem-
brane Technology, Microbial Ecology and Water Engineer-
ing (formerly Activated Sludge Population Dynamics),
Nutrient Removal and Recovery, and Water Reuse.
Rapid progress in molecular biology opens new perspec-
tive and offers new insights to the processes studied by
several specialist groups, including the Biolm Special-
ist Group. The implementation of the new insights into
the practice depends largely on the rate of transferring
the knowledge developed by the groups dedicated to
life sciences to the groups dominated by engineers, and
focused on the technical aspects of biolm processes
and biolm-based technologies in water and wastewater
treatment. To provide a platform for the discussion among
the life scientists and engineers, IWA initiated the Bio-
Cluster initiative, of which the Biolm Specialist Group is
a member. The charter for the Bio-Cluster initiative was
discussed at the IWA meeting in Lisbon, the concepts
were further distilled at the Water Congress in Montreal
in 2010, and the rst Bio-Cluster meeting, dedicated to
biolms on ltration membranes, was held in Singapore
in July 2011.
Because one of our goals is to develop rational criteria for
the design and operation of large-scale biolm reactors
for water and wastewater treatment, we make conscious
efforts to exchange information with those who actu-
ally design and operate them. Some of our conferences
emphasise the microbial processes in biolms whereas
other emphasise the design and operation of the biolm
reactors. In 2010 we organised a joint WEF/IWA confer-
ence on Biolm Reactor Technology with the mission to
provide a forum for biolm researchers and practitioners
to exchange ideas, to review recent advances in biolm
reactor technologies, and to assess the impact of biolms
on natural and engineered processes in water and waste-
water treatment. We received very positive feedback after
this conference and we plan to continue such joint meet-
ings as these types of events put together researchers
and practitioners and allow them to determine the gaps
in knowledge that need to be lled to provide progress
in implementing biolm-based technologies. Our next
conference dedicated to biolm reactors will be in Paris,
France, in 2013.
9
 IWA Specialist Groups
Design, operation and maintenance
of drinking water treatment plants
Objectives
Prepare reports and newsletters of Group activities and
developments.
Convene conferences and workshops.
Support young professionals.
Cooperate with other Specialist Groups (e.g. Natural
Organic Matter (NOM) Removal, Strategic Asset Man-
agement, Wastewater Treatment).
Contribute to share experience and operational feed-
back in the eld of different practical issues related to
full-scale water treatment plants everyday operation and
management.
Management
At the end of 2010 the management committee was
re-organised after Jol Mallevialle retired from his position
as Chair. Nominations for the new Specialist Group man-
agement team were received and the current ofcers of
the Specialist Group are as follows:
Chair: Dr Zdravka Do Quang
Secretary: Dr John Bridgeman
The Management Committee of the Specialist Group com-
prises
Dr Jol Mallevialle (Past Chair)
Zuhair T. Al-Shaikhli
Ms Svetlana Karabas
The Management Committee is now working on the devel-
opment of a programme of work for the Specialist Group
for the next few years. This will include further conference
and workshop organisation and the production of relevant
position papers, the need for which will be identied by
the Specialist Group membership.
Group Past Activities
Over the past three years, the Specialist Group has organ-
ised the following events.
It organised a workshop on Assessment and manage-
ment of health risk related to emerging parameters
on drinking water treatment plants: case studies and
examples of application to full-scale operations dur-
ing the World Water Congress in Vienna in September
2008.
In 2010 during the IWA World Water Congress in
Montreal the Specialist Group organised a workshop
10
on Assessment and application of biological tools and
new technologies for water quality surveillance related to
emerging pollutants effects.
Joint Activities with other Specialist
Groups
Together with the Specialist Group on NOM Removal
our group organised the 4th IWA specialist confer-
ence on NOM in Bath, UK (September 2008). A total
of 94 abstracts were submitted from all over the world.
The Specialist Group submitted three abstracts on
operational issues related to the NOM (by-products,
membranes). Three members of the Specialist Group
were on the Programme Committee in charge of the
abstracts review, the establishment of the scientic pro-
gramme and chairing the conference sessions.
Together with the Specialist Group on AOP, a confer-
ence was organised during the Wasser Berlin exhibition
in April 2009 on the application of Ozone and Related
Oxidants for Innovative & Current Technologies.
Specialist Group on Wastewater Treatment Plants:
organisation in 2009 and 2010 of the IWA specialised
conference Water and Wastewater Treatment Plants
in Towns and Communities of the XXI Century: Tech-
nologies, Design & Operation during the ECWATECH
exhibition and conference in June 2010 in Moscow.
The contribution of the Specialist Group was in the con-
stitution of the scientic programme of the conference
for the drinking water part applications, the constitution
of the scientic committee, in the research of speakers
and sponsors, and in the review of the abstracts and
papers. More than 500 abstracts were submitted.
Existing Specialist Group Knowledge
on Priority Topics
Solving operational issues (e.g. case studies) on regu-
lated water quality issues (e.g. turbidity, NOM, etc.).
Deployment of tools (technologies and recommenda-
tions) for practical application by the operators.
Collection and sharing of operational feedback (opera-
tors training).
Maintenance procedures (e.g. asset management).
General Trends and Challenges
Assessing the future waterborne health risks (e.g.
emerging parameters) by integrating the new regulatory

changes (e.g. new approaches such as health risk
management tools operational deployment) and
anticipating water treatment plants evolution (upgrad-
ing and retrotting) to cope with the new water quality
targets (e.g. emerging pollutants, non-regulated water
quality parameters) by implementing new treatment
strategies.
IWA Specialist Groups
Securing the produced and distributed water quality by
on-line measure and control with micro-sensors (real-
time network monitoring).
Prevent water resources from pollution and associated
economic issues (CAPEX and OPEX): What cost for
which quality of water?
11
 IWA Specialist Groups
Disinfection
Written by A. Cabaj, Ch. Chen, Th. Haider, B. Jimnez, K. OHalloran, G. Hirschmann, Ch. Shang,
H. Shuval, R. Sommer, S.K. Tiwari and R.R. Trussell on behalf of the Specialist Group
Introduction
Disinfection is one of the most important steps in the treat-
ment of water, wastewater and sludge. In any treatment
scheme this step is always included. Moreover, many text
books present the treatment of water and wastewater
as a series of steps to prepare water for disinfection, as
this is considered as key to protect public health. Even
though the disinfection of drinking water is considered to
have been mastered in developed countries, new chal-
lenges have arisen such as the need to look for different
approaches to disinfect water in order to remove Crypt-
osporidium, an emerging pathogen that has been the
cause of outbreaks and even deaths in some countries
(McKenzie et al. 1994; Goldstein et al. 1996, Yamamoto
et al. 1996; Willocks et al. 1998; Semenza and Nichols
2007). Something similar can be said for developing coun-
tries, where new challenges are adding to existing ones.
For instance, Helicobacter pylori, a bacterium recently
linked to gastric ulcers and cancers (Watanabe et al.
2005) has been the cause of diseases in children under
10 years of age with rates up to 15 times higher than those
observed in developed countries and these rates are 10%
higher in rural than in urban areas and may be linked
to unsafe water consumption (Klein et al. 1991; Mitchel
et al. 1992; Pounder and Ng 1995), Although humankind
has made great progress in research on the macroscopic
scale, the microbial eld remains a challenge. There is
a need for research and technology to develop different
and more efcient ways to disinfect water, wastewater and
sludge and avoid the production of side effects. This text
is intended to present the state of the art and outline the
future challenges in this eld.
Main challenges
It may sound trite but the rst and greatest challenge for
disinfection is to dene the expectations of the process.
Disinfection is often mistaken for sterilisation in which
there is an expectation of a complete kill of all microorgan-
isms. This is clearly not the case and it is widely agreed
that a risk based multi-barrier approach to water purica-
tion is the most sensible approach to providing water that
is t to drink.
Having understood that disinfection is one part of an inte-
grated approach to water purication, albeit perhaps the
most important part, there is now the challenge of under-
standing the strength and limitations of disinfection. In
other words clearly understanding what disinfection can
and cannot do denes the links between disinfection
12
and upstream and downstream processes. For example
most disinfection processes are far more effective with
a minimisation of solids load in the water, this therefore
creates the link with the efcacy of upstream ltration.
Similarly, the characteristics of the downstream reticula-
tion and governing regulation will dene the link between
primary disinfection and downstream processes such as
secondary or residual disinfection, corrosion control and
uoridation.
Once the integration map for disinfection has been estab-
lished then the operational aspects of disinfection can
be examined in detail, and performance criteria and
minimum standards can be established. Herein lies the
next key challenge; how do we assess the performance
of disinfection and what standards are adequate? A use-
ful way to approach this is in the context of the environ-
ment in which disinfection is practised, for example, what
are the main microbial challenges present in the water to
be disinfected, viral, bacterial, protozoan, or all of these?
There has been much discussion amongst learned col-
leagues regarding the efcacy of different disinfectants
and in truth there is no one disinfection process that is
the best in all cases, but it is true that chlorination remains
the most widely used form of disinfection and it is usu-
ally targeted towards acceptable inactivation of chlorine
resistant viruses, hereby accepting that attaining this level
of disinfection will accommodate adequate inactivation of
bacteria as well. In this case there will be an inherent reli-
ance on the upstream ltration process for the removal of
protozoan challenges.
There now remains a key challenge of disinfection which
virus do we target to establish our disinfection perform-
ance targets? Again there is no one choice that is best
for all as viral prevalence in raw water catchments varies
greatly throughout the world and indeed between neigh-
bouring catchments with different land uses. However,
taking tropical and sub-tropical environments as an exam-
ple the coxsackieviruses have been the target pathogens
of choice due to their prevalence and resilience in the
environment.
Finally, we arrive at the challenge of determining an accept-
able performance for disinfection. Certainly a CT-based
approach based on log inactivation has gained widespread
popularity however, it is not universally accepted and again
a risk based approach involving full consultation between
all stakeholders is essential from the very beginning of
designing a disinfection process and should be maintained
as the vehicle for management for disinfection reviews and
responses to changing environments.

Drinking water disinfection
The issues that drinking water disinfection needs to
account for include not just pathogen elimination but also
bio-stability and corrosion control in the distribution system
as well as the DBP formation. In some cases, disinfect-
ants were applied as the oxidants to help the coagulation
performance in the water treatment plants. The multiple
requirements and subtle balance between each require-
ment have made drinking water disinfection one of the
most troublesome and comprehensive tasks in water
industry although the direct cost of disinfectant addition
is very limited.
Pathogen elimination is the rst goal of disinfectants.
The existence of chlorine-resistant pathogens, such as
Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Legionella, Mycobacteria, have
driven the development of new disinfectants or process
in the past and forward decades (Corona-Vasquez et. al.,
2002; Haas & Kaymak, 2003; Kim et. al., 2002; Hilborn
et. al., 2006). Free chlorine, as liquid chlorine or sodium
hypochlorite, will still serve as the primary disinfectant due
to its high efciency to inactivate the majority of bacte-
ria and viruses. Chlorine dioxide has better performance
on bacteria including Legionella and Mycobacteria than
chlorine (Huang et. al., 1997). Its application increased
rapidly in small water treatment plants but limited in large
WTPs due to the concern of chlorite where high dosage
needed. UV radiation has been proven to be the best avail-
able technology for Cryptosporidium and Giardia control
(Linden et. al., 2002). However, UV disinfection does not
improve the chemical quality of water. Therefore it can-
not lower down the subsequent chlorine demand. Ozone,
potassium permanganate and potassium monopersulfate
will be applied more as oxidants rather than disinfect-
ants although they have better inactivation efciency on
the mentioned chlorine-resistant pathogens (Roy 2010).
Physical barrier, esp. membrane ltration could also be
regarded as the effective disinfection method in the sense
that it is very efcient at removing relatively high size path-
ogens from water.
However, the majority of disinfectant consumption was
due to requirement of maintaining the residual disinfectant
till the tap rather than inactivating the pathogens. Control
of bacteria re-growth and biolm, or bio-stability problem
were even more difcult than inactivation since the micro-
organism existed in the complex niche such as scale and
sediments. Chlorine and chlorine dioxide decayed quickly
due to the reaction with organics in bulk water and reduc-
tive matters such as ferrous on the wall. They are applied
in small scale networks or low-DOC-concentration atmos-
phere. That is the reason why chloramination performed
well as secondary disinfectant in metropolitans with huge
networks. Ozone and UV cannot satisfy the residual
requirement in the distribution system.
One of the other side effects of disinfectant addition is the
corrosion control. Strong oxidants support the formation of
passivation layer on the pipe wall (Kuch, 1988). However,
the replacement of chloramines instead of free chlorine
led to the release of lead or iron in some cases (Lytle &
Shock, 2005).
DBP formation has been the main driving force of alterna-
tive disinfectants development since 1970s. However, the
IWA Specialist Groups
high-expected chloramination has been proven to yield
more toxic DBPs, such as nitrosamines and iodo-DBPs in
some cases (Krasner et. al., 2006). The new generation
of DBPs reminds that DBP precursor removal might be
safer than developing new disinfectants.
In all, drinking water disinfection can never be simply
regarded as one single step for pathogen inactivation.
The combination of multiple disinfectants and precursor
removal by enhanced water treatment processes could
be the only nal solution for comprehensive water safety.
Enhance conventional process will guarantee the efuent
turbidity as low as 0.1 NTU which will benet the inacti-
vation of pathogen. Ozone and GAC are applied for DBP
precursor removal on the basis of conventional process.
UV is used for Cryptosporidium and other pathogen con-
trol and limit dosage of chlorine, chloramines or chlorine
dioxide is added to maintain the residual disinfectant and
suppress the biolm formation in the distribution system
with the aid of nutrient removal during the water treatment
process.
Requirements on drinking water disinfection
by UV irradiation
The disinfection of water by UV irradiation has become
a credible alternative to chemical disinfection procedures
using chlorine or ozone, especially since it was demon-
strated that this technology is very effective against (oo)
cysts of the protozoa Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Another
reason for the increased acceptance of UV drinking water
disinfection throughout the world is attributed to the bet-
ter understanding of the process and the higher quality
assurance of the UV disinfection plants. Establishment of
quality standards on the requirements as well as validation
testing and certication of commercial UV plants have pro-
vided the basis for the safe application of drinking water
disinfection by UV irradiation. Two different techniques
of UV irradiation have been established for water disin-
fection: low pressure lamps with quasi monochromatic
emission at 253.7 nm and medium pressure lamps with
polychromatic emission. In the latter case, it is even more
complex to determine the microbicidal UV uence, since
the wavelengths account differently for the inactivation of
microorganisms (Cabaj et al. 2001). As an example a 3-log
reduction of spores of Bacillus subtilis requires a uence of
800 J/m at a wavelength of 254 nm, whereas at a wave-
length of 334 nm a uence of 2.000.000 (2 million) J/m
is needed (Cabaj et al. 2002). Owing to the differences
in lamp emission and the consequences thereof the UV
uence generated by UV low pressure lamps and that by
UV medium pressure lamps cannot be compared directly.
Therefore is advisable to deal with these two techniques
separately.
Although UV inactivation is already known since 100 years
many concerns have been raised regarding its reliability for
water disinfection. This lack of trust hampered the applica-
tion and the distribution of this technology for a long time.
The main objections have been the following:
no objective criteria for the efciency of UV disinfection
systems and therefore no possibility to compare differ-
ent types of commercially available UV plants (competi-
tion on the market distorted);
13
 IWA Specialist Groups
no possibility of an independent check of the proper
function of the UV plant during practical operating (lack
of condence);
no direct measurement of the disinfectant possible The resulting reduction of the biodosimeter is converted by
(lack of control).
Besides the many advantages of the UV technology, it
became evident that the UV uence (dose) delivered by
a UV system can still not be directly measured nor can
it be calculated. This is because during UV irradiation in
a ow-through system several factors act in a complex
combination: the output of the UV lamps, the water ow,
the UV transmittance of the water being irradiated and
especially important the hydraulic properties of the
UV device. As a consequence of inhomogeneous irra-
diation geometries and UV plant specic, unpredictable
hydraulic behaviour each microorganism receives an indi-
vidual UV uence. Therefore large uence distributions
within the microorganisms may occur (Cabaj et al. 1996).
New technologies like computational uid dynamics or
Lagrangian Actinometry with dyed microspheres provide
additional information, verication with biodosimetry is
still essential.
For the quality assurance of safe UV water disinfection a
four-step approach has been proven useful: (a) the knowl-
edge of the UV resistance of pathogenic microorganisms
transmittable by water to choose a sufcient high UV u-
ence (UV dose); (c) a standardised measuring window
and a UV sensor for the measurement of the UV irradi-
ance which allows checks against ofcial specications
(W/m), (c) a standardised evaluation of the microbicidal
efcacy of commercial UV plants by biodosimetric testing
and (d) the surveillance of the operating parameters (ow,
irradiance, UV transmittance) during practical operation
by means of dened alarm points.
UV irradiation proved being broadly effective against
all pathogens (bacteria, viruses and protozoa) that can
be transmitted through drinking water. Of these patho-
gens, viruses (especially Adenovirus 40) are more UV
resistant than bacteria, which are more resistant than
Cryptosporidium and Giardia (Clancy et al. 2000; Craig
et al. 2000; Meng and Gerba 1996). Inactivation stud-
ies under controlled laboratory conditions have been per-
formed in recent decades providing a valuable data base.
For an overview see Hijnen et al. (2006).
In view of the factors mentioned above, it was necessary to
develop and establish standard protocols for the validation
of UV disinfection systems. This has been carried out by
three organisations:
the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA
2006);
the German Association for Gas and Water (DVGW
2006);
the Austrian Standards Institute (NORM M 5873-
1:2001, low pressure systems and NORM M 5873-
2:2003, medium pressure systems).
The use of biodosimetry to measure the disinfection
capacity of commercial UV disinfection plants is common
to the UV disinfection standards of all three organisations
(Sommer et al. 2008). The investigation is performed in
full scale under controlled operating conditions usually
at a test centre (Sommer et al. 1993). In biodosimetry a
14
UV-253,7 nm calibrated microorganism (e.g. spores of
Bacillus subtilis or phage MS2) is introduced to the UV
irradiation chamber under different operating conditions.
means of the UV-254,7 nm calibration curve into Reduc-
tion Equivalent Fluence, REF (J/m) with the following for-
mula, where N/No is the survival rate, k is the slope of the
linear part of the survival curve in m/J (UV-sensitivity) and
d is the distance between the intercept of the linear part
with the ordinate and the origin.
d
1 N 10
REF =  log 1
1110
1
log
N0
K
Owing to the different history of origins specic distinc-
tions occur between these UV disinfection standards. The
following highlights some important differences of the
approaches.
Considering the general goal of safe drinking water disin-
fection, represented by a reduction of the concentration
of drinking water transmittable, relevant pathogenic para-
sites and viruses by 3 and 4 log, respectively, a UV u-
ence (253.7 nm) of 400 J/m is demanded in the Austrian
and German standards (Austrian Standards Institute 2001
2003; Deutsche Vereinigung fr das Gas- und Wasserfach
2006). The UV uence of 400 J/m also covers photorepair
of bacteria possessing the enzyme photolyase (Sommer
et al. 2000) and includes a 4-log inactivation of most of the
relevant viruses, e.g. hepatitis A virus, rotavirus, poliovirus
and calicivirus (Sommer et al. 1989; De Roda Husman
et al. 2004). The high UV resistance of adenovirus is not
taken into account. In Austria and Germany UV irradia-
tion often represents the only disinfection step. Therefore
especially high requirements have to be demanded.
The drinking water disinfection in the USEPA standard is
based on the inactivation of target pathogens individually
dened for a specic water treatment plant. Therefore the
demanded UV-253,7 nm uences vary and are as low as
120 J/m for a 3 log inactivation of Cryptosporidium and
Giardia but even high as 1860 J/m for a 4 log reduction of
adenovirus. In this regard UV disinfection is often used for
the inactivation of parasites and combined with chlorina-
tion to cover the inactivation of viruses as well. Accord-
ing to USEPA UV systems validated according to NORM
and DVGW are granted 3 log inactivation of (oo)cysts of
Cryptosporidium and Giardia.
Wastewater disinfection
History
The worlds population has signicantly surpassed the
extent to which the natural environment is able to ade-
quately assimilate pathogens that are present in waste-
water. Although wastewater is not universally disinfected,
many countries have implemented disinfection efforts to
protect recreational and drinking water systems, as well
as waterways supporting natural resources such as sh,
shellsh and wildlife. Traditionally, chlorine has been the
disinfectant of choice to mitigate acute health risks asso-
ciated with the oral-fecal route of disease transmission

through water (Tchobanoglous et al. 2003). In the past
three decades, concerns have arisen in relation to the use
of chlorine and chloramines that are formed when chlorine
is added to wastewater. These concerns include: resist-
ance of some pathogens (such as spores, (oo)cysts and
some enteric viruses), as well as the formation of an array
of toxic disinfection by-products (DBPs), namely THMs,
HAAs and NDMA, and the need to address trace organic
pollutants. These ndings have fuelled the consideration
of alternative disinfectants (U.S. EPA, 1986; Tang et al.
2010; Tchobanoglous et al. 2003).
Alternative disinfection options
In light of the current knowledge base, the ideal disinfec-
tion process, removes a wide range of target pathogens,
minimises the unintended consequences of disinfection
(i.e. DBPs formation) and reduces trace organic pollutants
(i.e. a modern concern as drinking water resources and
wastewater become more integrated) (Tang et al. 2011).
Established disinfection options include: chloramination,
breakpoint chlorination, ultraviolet irradiation (UV) and
ozonation (Leong et al. 2009). It is important to note that
the majority of disinfection processes pose a DBP chal-
lenge, so the goal is to minimise the formation of DBPs. An
attractive alternative to any single disinfectant is the com-
bination of disinfectants, which is advantageous because
a wider spectrum of pathogens are attenuated, the extent
of DBP formation is often reduced and trace organics are
typically better addressed. The following combinations are
gaining popularity: sequential chlorination (Maguin et al.
2009); peracetic acid (a peroxide) and UV; ozone and UV;
and chlorine and UV (Leong et al. 2009).
Emerging concerns
Several developments have unveiled and continue to
unveil several unforeseen challenges in relation to the dis-
infection of wastewater. Recent ndings and trends that
deserve additional attention include:
As challenges with water and wastewater begin to amal-
gamate, with increased indirect potable and de facto (or
unplanned) reuse, proper disinfection becomes increas-
ingly critical. The natural barriers that we once relied
upon are disappearing quickly and need to be augment-
ed through treatment barriers.
The characteristics of the wastewater are rapidly chang-
ing as the world become more integrated, leading to the
need to address a wider variety of contaminants, be-
cause diseases prevalent in one region, are apt to show
up in another region.
The discovery of new contaminants is expanding much
faster than we are able to address them and adequately
understand their effect on human health. For example,
prions are known to exist in wastewater, but their signi-
cance and the treatment mechanism for their removal
are poorly understood, and potential interference of
nanoparticles with disinfection is also not well under-
stood.
Continued research efforts are necessary for innova-
tive technologies, which include peracetic acid, ferrate,
brominated chemicals, pasteurisation and combined
treatment options. Combined treatment options are
especially promising, because the unique efcacies of
IWA Specialist Groups
different disinfection options can be capitalised in one
process.
Given that there are still things yet to be discovered and
constituents of concern continue to grow steadily, it is
important to implement an on-going program to assess
new contaminants in wastewater, as well as treatment
by-products. Given this situation, most changes and
developments are likely to emerge out of necessity.
New products for disinfection
The need for effective new
secondary residual disinfectants:
hydrogen peroxide/silver (HP/AG)
formulations
The approaching end of the chlorine era is already result-
ing in a move by the water industry, worldwide, to evaluate
and introduce alternative primary disinfectants with less
negative public health and taste and odour problems. The
most likely candidates for alternative primary disinfectants
to replace chlorine are ozone, UV radiation and ultra/nano-
ltration. These are all effective water disinfection proc-
esses but they do not provide residual disinfection effects
which are required by regulations in the USA, England and
many other countries. However, USEPA regulations spec-
ify chlorine as the sole residual disinfectant. Thus, with the
growing interest in ending the use of chlorine, and chlo-
ramines there is a need for the approval of new second-
ary-residual disinfectants. The USEPA has the authority to
develop the protocol required for the testing and approval
of effective alternative secondary disinfectants, but to date
has not been done so. This has resulted in an obstacle
in the development of alternative non-chlorine secondary
disinfectants.
Bromine, Iodine and Ag used as disinfectants in camping
and private homes have not been approved for municipal
water supplies in any country. Hydrogen peroxide-silver
(HP/AG) formulations have been approved for drinking
water disinfection in Europe and have been registered as
safe from a toxicological point of view by FIFRA-EPA (FIFRA
Sec (c) April 18th 2008-EPA Registration No.84526-1).
Hydrogen peroxide (HP) is a well known, mild disinfect-
ant. HP used alone has not been found to serve as an
effective drinking water disinfectant. Research and devel-
opment work initially in Europe (Deak and Kadar, 1987)
and later in Israel (Pedhazur et al. 1995; Pehazur et al.
1997) revealed that formulations of HP combined with
very small concentrations of oligodynamic silver (AG) as
an activating/potentiation agent (HP/AG) provide a disin-
fectant power some 100 times greater against faecal indi-
cator organisms, such as E. coli bacteria, than HP alone
and has a long lasting residual disinfectant-bactericidal/
bacteriostatic effect in water distribution systems, tanks,
and reservoirs lasting many days and months.(Shuval
1999; Liberti et al. 2000) The HP/AG formulations have
been found to be particularly effective in cooling towers
and in controlling Legionella bacteria in hot water systems
since their efcacy increases with increasing temperature
(Armon et al. 2000; Shuval, et al. 2009). Other advan-
tages are taste and odour control and reduction of THM
residuals (Batterman et al. 2000). Studies have indicated
15
 IWA Specialist Groups
that the probable bactericidal mode of action of the com-
bined formulation is a biological potentiation interaction at
the molecular level which apparently increases the entry
and penetration of the biocide through the bacterial cell
wall and facilitates intra-cellular inactivation (Pedhazur
et al. 1997, 2000).
In drinking water disinfection HP/AG formulations are
generally applied so that the initial concentration of HP
is from 5-30 ppm, and the initial concentration of AG is
from 5-30 ppb. While not yet widely used in drinking water
treatment, especially in Europe, HP/AG formulations most
probable future niche in the world water treatment eld is
as an effective, non-toxic long acting secondary residual
drinking water disinfectant used in conjunction with ozone,
UV or nanoltration which provide no residual disinfectant
action (Shuval 1999; Warila et al. 2001). In the USA this
would require EPA approval as an equivalent to chlorine
for residual treatment. Studies show that HP/AG meets
those criteria. The patented HP/AG formulations provide
a stable product with a long shelf life (Gitye and Gomori
2010). Further information is available from the commer-
cial rms. There may well be other promising alternative
secondary residual disinfectants waiting in the pipeline for
the opportunity to be tested and approved and enter into
the market. An initiative by the USEPA and/or WHO on this
could be of value.
By-products
After the recognition of chloroform as a probable carcino-
gen and by-product produced after chlorine disinfection of
natural waters in 1970s (Rook, 1974), balancing the risk of
communicable disease transmission spread by waterborne
microorganisms against the risk of toxicity from exposure
to disinfection by-products (DBPs) has long become an
important task in water quality control. The over 30 years
of efforts from water professionals allow us to understand
the signicance and health risks of some DBPs includ-
ing trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs)
and others, leading to the promulgation of regulations
and guidelines (USEPA 2006; WHO 2008) and the fol-
low-up development of technological solutions for control
of these DBPs. In general, the common practices for by-
product control fall into three categories: the use of alter-
native disinfectants such as chloramines, UV, ozone and
chlorine dioxide; modication of the operating condition
(e.g., changing pH) to suppress the formation; and further
reduction of precursors by processes such as enhanced
coagulation and granular activated carbon adsorption.
Nevertheless, new knowledge of toxicity, formation, and
control of DBPs have been continuously being revealed.
Several emerging DBPs have been recognised for their sig-
nicance. The most well-known one is N-nitrosodimeth-
ylamine, which is favourably formed from chloramination
and in wastewater (Mitch and Sedlak 2002; Mitch et al.
2003). Other emerging nitrogenous DBPs include other
nitrosamines, heloacetonitriles, haloamides, and heloni-
tromethanes, many of which have be found more genotoxic
and cytotoxic than the regulated DBPs (Plewa et al. 2008;
Richardson et al. 2007). Iodinated DBPs, which are formed
in signicant higher quantity in chloraminated drinking
water (Krasner et al. 2006), are found more toxic than the
brominated and chlorinated analogues (Richardson et al.
16
2007). The discovery of these emerging DBPs with higher
health risk suggests the need for looking into their forma-
tion and control, although their concentrations in waters
are much lower than those of the regulated ones.
Attention is also being paid to discover new DBPs from dif-
ferent disinfection means and in different water matrices
including disinfected potable water, wastewater efuents
and swimming pool water. Although there are about 700
polar and non-polar DBPs reported in the literature, lit-
tle is known about their quantities, after disinfection, and
their health impacts. Alternatives including assessing total
organic halogens, overall toxicity, and precursor availability
in nished waters are being considered. Efforts are also
being made to understand the ecological impacts of DBPs
in receiving waters and, for potable and swimming pool
waters, the signicance of our exposure to some DBPs
through inhalation and dermal contact. Combining two
disinfection means is being considered to provide both
multiple disinfection barriers and by-product control.
Sludge disinfection
The treatment of sludge is commonly presented as a sta-
bilisation process in which treatment is applied to produce
a semi-solid material which does not cause harm when
disposed of into the soil or to a land ll. The objective is
to produce a material that biodegrades easily, does not
leach and does not contain pathogenic microorganisms.
Owing to climate change concerns, the disposal of munici-
pal sludge to landlls is becoming increasingly difcult.
The disposal of sludge to agricultural land may therefore
increase, especially as a tool to sequester carbon. Rec-
lamation of sludge in agricultural elds is still the most
common way to dispose of municipal biosolids worldwide
(Leblanc, et al. 2008). Among the problems to safely
reclaim sludge in this way is the need to produce cleaner
biosolids and properly disinfect the sludge. In contrast to
wastewater, disinfection requirements for sludge in devel-
oped and developing countries are dramatically different.
The microbial sludge content reects public health condi-
tions. The disinfection of sludge is and will be an important
challenge in developing countries as the microbial content
is not only notably higher but also includes a wider variety
of extremely resistant microorganisms (Jimnez-Cisneros
2011, Table 1). The complexity of the matrix in sludge
(high organic matter and particle content) poses a real
challenge to efciently inactivate pathogens. This occurs
particularly in basic sanitation processes intended for low
income regions, for which non-sophisticated but highly
robust technology must be used.
Conclusions
Disinfection is one of the most important steps in the treat-
ment of water, wastewater and sludge as it is included in
any treatment scheme. Even though disinfection might be
considered as a mastered practice, challenges remain to
proper disinfect water, wastewater and sludge face to new
pollutants and the production of disinfection by-products.
The impressive scientic and technical work performed
in the past 20 years in the eld of UV drinking water
disinfection has led to a high enhancement of quality
 IWA Specialist Groups

Table 1 Helminth ova content in the wastewater and sludge of different countries (Jimnez-Cisneros 2011)
1 1
Country/region Municipal wastewater HO L Sludge HO g TS
Developing countries 703000 70735
Brazil 166202 75
Egypt 642 Mean: 67; Maximum: 735
Ghana No data 76
Jordan 300 No data
Mexico 698 in cities 73177
Up to 330 in rural and peri-urban areas

Morocco 840 No data

Syria 800 No data
Ukraine 60 No data
France 9 57
Germany No data <1
Great Britain No data <6
United States 18 213

resulting in acceptance and trust in this disinfection tech-
nique. Owing to this progress UV disinfection ts into
modern approaches for safe drinking water based on
risk assessment and water safety plans. The operating
parameters UV irradiance (W/m) and water ow (optional
additional water transmittance-253,7 nm) serve as critical
control points in the HAACCP concept of the water safety
plan protecting public health. Biodosimetry is a powerful
tool to determine germicidal uence of a UV ow through
system. One may deduce that the quality assurance of UV
disinfection reached by the international quality standards
is meanwhile superior to other disinfection methods as
treatment with chlorine or ozone.
In contrast to wastewater, disinfection requirements for
sludge in developed and developing countries are dramati-
cally different. The disinfection of sludge is and will be an
important challenge in developing countries as the microbial
content is not only notably higher but also includes a wider
variety of extremely resistant microorganisms demanding
for more efcient but low cost procedures to disinfect.
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19
 IWA Specialist Groups
IAHR/IWA/IAHS HydroInformatics
Joint Committee
This was Hydroinformatics vision 2011, the synoptic report of the working group,
edited by K.P. Holz, WG Chair, J.A. Cunge, R. Lehfeldt and D. Savic
Hydroinformatics where do we
stand?
Hydroinformatics has a tradition and remarkable merits in
the development of computational simulation software for
physical processes of the water-environment world. Never-
theless it is felt that for a long time now there has been a
limitation in innovation areas as compared to developments
and evolution of what is called water sector. Hydroinfor-
matics, which within the IAHR stemmed from the activities
of numerical simulation and hydrodynamic modelling, is
still, within this environment, generally understood in such
limited way. Steps are now needed to reshape Hydroinfor-
matics to the needs of today and, even more important, of
the future.
Indeed, already now and more in the future there is the
need for creative solutions to the challenges coming about
with the move of society towards open information, to glo-
balisation of business and markets and to networking in
the Internet. The potential and options of modern Informa-
tion and Communication Technologies (ICT) will be imple-
mented everywhere within the water domain. Question is:
will these future developments occur without being based
on, inuenced, helped by the experience of the IAHR/IWA
hydroinformatics currently existing community or does
this community steps aside and constraints its interest to
modelling technologies in hydrodynamics? In other terms,
there is an alternative:
Either this community concentrates on academic
research in hydraulics and hydrology using to that end
all ICT developments available and leaving water sector
industry and stakeholders to use the results of the
research.
Or this community will participate proactively, offer and
use its past experience, in developing a new approach
to water sector activities of research, implementation,
applications, communication, information management,
in common with all stakeholders (engineering, manage-
ment, political, citizens), through innovative interwoven
way of collaboration ?
For the second possibility of the alternative (second
bullet point above) the framework of the existing (since
1992) IAHR/IWA Hydroinformatics Committee is obvi-
ously too limited. That is why rst of all enlargement of
the Committee to the IAHS (International Association for
Scientic Hydrology) was decided couple of years ago
but up to now has not been implemented effectively.
More signicantly the Committee, choosing to follow the
20
second possibility of the alternative decided to create a
Working Group with the purpose to try to dene a Vision
for this domain. With obvious background thinking that
the future must not be constrained by IAHR/IWA/IAHS
limits but must extend bridges towards all domains of
interest concerning water where hydroinformatics con-
cepts exist or will appear.
HydroInformatics Vision aspects as
perceived by the Working Group
What is a vision? Various aspects of HydroInformatics
(HI) vision as conceived by the authors of the Report are:
General aspects : HI is a domain of science and tech-
nology covering the management of information on
the eld of water and related subjects. This does not
provide clear cut frontiers and allows for overlapping
with other domains. It does not dene any specic
(except for the word water) clarication or limita-
tions. Both drinking water pressurised pipe networks
and socio-economic consequences down to legisla-
tion concerning water use may serve here as a typical
examples of this domain. Vision: What this domain
will become within next, say, 10 years?
Specic aspects : HI ambitions to coordinate sciences
and technologies related to water and water sector thus
assuming horizontal role in interweaving the ndings,
initiatives, policies. Vision: The interweaving, coordi-
nating and synergetic use of ndings and technology
will become conscious and organised activity. In other
words: post industrial ICT revolution and increasing
importance for humanity of water will at any rate tend
automatically to link all strings together. This unavoid-
able evolution can be guided, accelerated and aided
to reduce as much error as possible rst through the
wide recognition of that situation by concerned stake-
holders and then thanks to their conscious attitudes
and activities. This can be considered as the vision
for ambitious community. The vision leading to ally
and unite concepts in ways most useful for human
purposes. It involves the problems of ethics, sustain-
ability, future of the planet earth, etc., etc., although
the Report has no ambition to develop them all.
Organisational aspects : Related to HI ambitions but,
this time, to coordinate and interweave organisations,
governments and individuals such as IAHR/IWA/IAHS
Committee on Hydroinformatics, governmental agen-
cies, etc. Those are many visions, not just one! Vision:
Staying within our (current HI community) frontiers

of possibilities and competences the ambition could
be limited to build bridges over the gaps, to act upon
educational aspects, to encourage research in certain
directions, to convince the stakeholders from and out-
side of engineering domains to work together using
means of information management and of exchange
that we can supply.
Changes that condition
HydroInformatics vision-background
The background against which one must consider the
place of HydroInformatics changed dramatically during last
decade. Essential characteristic of the change in water/
environmental areas is the reciprocal interactive evolution
of societal and technical domains.
Water/environment issues, within these present days of cli-
mate change and growing global population have become
a major challenge for human economies and their social
organisations. They necessitate more and more complex
approaches at a more and more trans-national level. The
essential aim of such management is to avoid, if possible
or at least minimise, the risks of crises in water supply and
waste water treatment for populations, in water scarcity for
irrigation, in management of consequences of oods, and
so forth. The traditional vision of a water domain founded
on a separation of problems and cycles (small/large) on
one hand and professions (drinking water, sewage and
evacuation, hydrology, uvial, maritime, groundwater...) on
the other hand seems to fade away, leaving the room for
unication/integration of all of this into a coherent unity.
Society over recent decades has become much more aware
of the threatened sustainability of the second economy
which we commonly call the natural environment. Most
built infrastructures are considered as interferences in the
environment and their impacts must be correspondingly
minimised and, if possible, made controllable. This trend
is supported in more recent times by the long-ongoing dis-
cussion on climate change. The water world, especially,
has become much more sensitive to and aware of these
issues. A new awareness of the notion of environmental
footprints introduced itself in the society.
Awareness and sensitivity in a society which is becoming
more open, transparent and communicative, has been
multiplied by modern developments of the ICT. The Inter-
net is accessible nearly everywhere at any time providing
Web-services for communication, information and sharing
on documents, pictures, music and videos. Because of
ease of access to and variety of information and views the
citizens in a post-modern condition of society (commonly
associated with what the European Union Lisbon agenda
likes to call an information society) have become more
curious and active, and even proactive about upcoming
changes and the consequences of these for their futures,
and even for their lives. Politically-oriented developments
within societies that are, ostensibly at least, directed
towards more educated and more engaged citizens, have
led to more individuals and public interest groups who
want to understand what is happening within their environ-
ments: what is being planned on the local or global political
level and why this should be good and benecial to them.
Groups want to be heard and to participate in decision
IWA Specialist Groups
making processes: they want to be involved in matters
about which they care and communicate. It is essential,
however, that they clearly understand if and which are the
objective constraints related to physical laws or political/
economic reasons and that whatever is done or wished is
the subject to these constraints. The technical means for
communication and information necessary to these ends
are at hand. ICTs have dramatically changed whole econo-
mies and societies, system components are becoming
smaller and increasingly network-orientated and mobile
and the exibility of software is opening new dimensions.
Information-sharing and Cooperation between citizens
and stakeholders, consultants, authorities and lawmakers
have become a central and feasible issue of the day.
Professional engineering and business are unthinkable today
without the evolution of the Internet and mobile devices
meanwhile representing the dominant infrastructure of ICT.
Networking-embedded systems and networking services
are offering new perspectives in nearly all elds from engi-
neering to households; they are pushing developments in
all areas, representing an enormous business market which
will also reect mentally on societal developments.
In view of these societal and technological changes, all
of what is called water sector activities (including all
activities and aspects of use, management, legislation and
directives, protection and political decisions concerning
water) is being completely transformed and modied.
These transformations are founded on three pillars:
(i) Dealing with water problems on different scales of
structures and the integration in face of foreseen
scarcity, generalised pollution, climate change and
the growth of mega-cities.
(ii) Change in the composition of decision making bod-
ies: instead of engineers only, a whole new entity
composed of stakeholders including the general pop-
ulation, elected bodies, NGOs, the media etc. is now
evolving.
(iii) Penetration of all activities, structures, behaviour and
reexes of the whole water industry and indeed of all
concerned groups and individuals by ICT, Internet
and mobile communication networks.
It is in this context that the denition of HydroInformatics as
collection (including data surveys, etc.), creation (including
modelling), interpretation (including integration of various
domains inputs), communication (including projection of
the results and impacts towards large public) and manage-
ment (including aid in participation of decision makers)
of information concerning water sector activities should
be used. This is new and to underscore this evolution the
Working Group proposes to use from now onwards the term
HydroInformatics (with capital I) rather than traditional one
of Hydroinformatics. Indeed, HydroInformatics, for becom-
ing an accepted player in these elds, has to change mental-
ity and views; it has to implement techniques and methods
from ICT and information science to collaborate intensively
with other disciplines, not only on the technical level. Only
in this way can relevant aspects of socio-economics, law
and regulations, culture and traditions as well as workow,
psychology, information policies and media be integrated
into system approaches. Such systems will change the
working situation of engineers, their education objectives,
21
 IWA Specialist Groups
create job opportunities and inuence societies; they will
support decision making in collaboration with the public
showing benet and risk to involved citizens and stakehold-
ers and help generating consensus.
HI takes and will take advantage of the general progresses
of ICT (hard and soft), as all human activities do. Clearly,
the increase of CPU power (massive parallel computing,
cloud computing, etc.) extends the possibilities of our
numerical models, and of 3-D displays; clearly Web 2.x
opens the access to our information to millions of new
users; and the new products in the elds of micro-sensors,
alternative power supply, wireless telecoms, revolutionise
the whole domain of real-time monitoring and, conse-
quently real-time management. But the evolution in HI is
nally driven, not by these techno-progresses, but by the
growing awareness that, even if modelling is historically the
centre of HI, it should be connected-interwoven with all
the various aspects-businesses of the Water- Environment
domain.
Viewed like that HI is the template to business process
approach of all projects as well as implementation of man-
1
agement systems within water sector.
HydroInformatics and its main areas
of interest and activities against
the background
Informatics and Information in the
Water Sector
HydroInformatics comprehends all information technol-
ogies, methods, models, processes and systems applied
in the water-sector and water-issues related neigh-
bouring elds. Information is understood in an abstract
sense; it may be about physics, environment, economy,
social issues, organisation, law, regulations and more.
Models and processes concern physics, business, work-
ow, communication, management and more again. Thus
HydroInformatics applies, generates, models, manages,
transforms, condenses and archives information concern-
ing the water-sector.
Traditionally HydroInformatics has been focused on the
numerical simulation of physical processes in so-called
models. This limitation is too narrow. The term model
has to be widened up to any kind of information to be mod-
elled in the water sector. As information combines data,
methods, syntax and semantic, any simulation model is
just a piece of information in the same manner as an engi-
neering report, a digital elevation model (DEM), a water
level monitoring application, an operational plan of a treat-
ment plant or a workow map.
Activities in the water sector are oriented towards build-
ing, managing and operating water-related infrastructure
and utilities as well as towards observation/understanding/
management of hydro environment for providing water,
1
A business process or business method is a collection of related, structured activities or tasks that produce a specic service or product
(serve a particular goal) for a particular customer or customers. Business Processes can be modeled through a large number of methods
and techniques.
22
for improving its quality, for managing its quantity and for
protecting against damages in view of sustainability and
climate change. The activities are embedded in the objec-
tives of a sustainable socio-economic development of
society and communication processes between citizens,
stakeholders, companies and politicians.
We are at a time when the inuence of modelling is growing
rapidly. Models of complex physical and human behaviour
are coming into routine use. Ordinary, everyday devices
contain inbuilt processors running embedded models.
We barely notice the insidious spread of models into our
lives. HydroInformatics community should be leading the
way by embracing and promoting many and varied uses
of models in water and environmental management and
engineering.
Besides techniques and methods directed towards the
description and functioning of systems, models remain
the core technological elements of HydroInformatics, but
have to be understood, however, in a wider than traditional
sense. Traditionally they described the physics of ow and
transport and its interaction with other aspects such as the
growth and decay of species, habitats and populations,
and then in terms of quality and quantity. These models
interact with further models about socio-economic and
societal developments of regions, generating a nonlinearly
interacting system of models of whatever is supposed to
constitute the real world.
Projects, infrastructure and the business of organisational
units have to be managed and coordinated. Strategies for
workow and for running processes of technical, busi-
ness, nancial and communication systems have to be
designed for in-house and public and political environ-
ments. The transformation and interfacing of information
from various elds has to be modelled by descriptions and
methods which support their implementation in digital
form. To create tools and methods allowing all water sector
stakeholders to conceive and interweave (if not normalise)
integrated and coherent Information Systems is no doubt
the future.
Models of physics and organisational processes might be
seen just as generators of information providing raw data
from diverse application elds. In HydroInformatics this
information has to be cultivated according to the pragmat-
ics for which it has been produced. It has to be processed
and adapted to the needs and objectives of the water sec-
tor. Important aspects are of course the diverse nature of
interacting simulation models of physics, environments,
societies, economies and organisations.
Models, however, are not the only aspects: information, be
it raw from observation or from simulation, has to be trans-
formed in such a way as to be communicated in a trans-
parent manner to professionals, politicians and citizens for
decision making and consensual understanding. More-
over, models are not necessarily in the form of software;
they may be also be intellectual concepts which, if they
concern the water sector and if they ask for informatics

to be forwarded, must be put into action or disseminated
within the HydroInformatics domain.
HydroInformatics domain, activity or movement embraces
2
the full range of what is commonly called business models
from public open-source developments through to private
commercial developments, without bias towards any par-
ticular business model.
Some explicit examples of the subjects that HydroInformat-
ics is related to and with which close interactivity, already
existing, will develop tremendously:
(i) Major role played by GIS as system structuring all
information, as pivotal point of integrated Information
System. Note that GIS as specic tool fades away,
becomes a part of other bases like ORACLE Spatial.
(ii) Real time problems: sensors, SCADA, Real Time
databases, related telecom systems;
(iii) Tools of operational management (work manage-
ment systems), of the maintenance and of asset
Management.
Whenever water related problems, or, more widely, the envi-
ronmental questions are concerned , there is continuity in
the background of all of the activities that follow. Typically in
most situations there is an initial problem stemming from
engineering needs, from political or investment projects,
etc. Then one tries to nd solutions that are nothing else
but elements leading to or aiding the decisions. This logical
chain from generating fact to the solution-decision goes
across a number of businesses or stakeholders and
must be repeatable at any time. So it is obviously highly
desirable to maintain strong consistency in concepts, data,
and information along this chain. Such is not necessarily
the case but precisely this is a major point for HydroInfor-
matics because it is its natural role to ensure such con-
sistency, mainly by conservation of uniqueness of data and
information. When one considers the chain beginning with
projects conceived by, say, administration or politicians
and continuing through design, impact studies, decision to
implement, construction and operation there is a need for
guidelines ensuring the consistency. HydroInformatics can
supply means and ways to elaborate such guidelines for
various types of activities related to water sector.
Research and Science
The sustainable development of the water sector comes
down, in implementation and praxis, to engineering tasks
and thus HydroInformatics must be seen as an engi-
neering discipline. In this sense, HydroInformatics has
its own research objectives which aim at the foundation
and promotion of the water sector in all its aspects.
In short, research in HI domain might be summarised,
albeit very unconventionally, under the term: information
2
A business model describes the rationale of how an organization creates, delivers, and captures value economic, social, or other forms
of value. The process of business model design is part of business strategy.
In theory and practice the term business model is used for a broad range of informal and formal descriptions to represent core aspects of
a business, including purpose, offerings, strategies, infrastructure, organizational structures, trading practices, and operational processes
and policies. Hence, it gives a complete picture of an organization from high-level perspective.
IWA Specialist Groups
and its model building. This may be understood in the
sense of structuring information about physical and organ-
isational processes. New techniques have to be devel-
oped, new methods designed, the range of validity and
performance investigated and models be interfaced by a
standardisation of procedures and data. Innovative con-
cepts about geometrical representation and information-
dened objects using by modern ICT must be investigated,
with virtual communication and collaboration processes
considered with emphasis on non-engineering clients,
such as partners, as well as processes for education and
promoting understanding in decision making. Integrated
processes reected in HI tools, which are sufciently
interconnected, may open new request and necessities
for further applied research, basically in the bottle necks
of existing technologies (such as new features in graphical
tools, much faster computational engines, wireless nets
and mobility etc.).
Education and Life Long Learning
HydroInformatics aims at the education of staff to do these
kinds of jobs; such persons might even be seen as infor-
mation managers and advisors. Their prole is not one that
is supposed to manage people or organisations: they are
supposed to manage information within the complex areas
of the water sector and to that end they must be knowledge-
able in specic domains of this area. They must be knowl-
edgeable enough to understand the constraints, difculties,
limitations and possibilities of these domains in order to be
able to coordinate the information coming from each such
domain and to organise the feedbacks and interactions that
will be benecial to the further development of both.
These persons must have a sufcient knowledge about
water and environmental processes to run and validate the
corresponding models; they must understand the proc-
esses that are mapped in the related models; they must be
able to condense and interface information; they must be
able to organise workow and information processes; they
must be able to manage documentation and presentation;
they must be able to make information transparent so as to
advice decision makers and communicate with the public.
Social skills in collaborating with people of different profes-
sional and cultural backgrounds are needed. To optimise
this whole they must be able to make information and nd-
ings ow in interactive ways from one domain to another
so that the knowledge, the progress, the innovations and
the applications in a domain can be improved thanks to
information coming from other domains.
This prole demands knowledge about the physics of water
in hydraulics, hydrology and the environment, about math-
ematics and computational methods, about information
modelling and communication as well as about the support-
ive means of ICT. Complementary to these are methods of
geometrical modelling, presentation, documentation and
a spectrum of selected topics from computer and social
science, economy and psychology, the latter supporting
23
 IWA Specialist Groups
the skills necessary for a multicultural interdisciplinary col-
laboration in an international, sometimes virtual, environ-
ment. Those concerned should have a minimum of culture
in civil engineering because of its central role in project
implementation but also in water/environmental legislation
as well as in geography and cartography. The education
should be hands on with models of all kind. The proc-
ess of taking responsibilities should be inculcated through
training by internships in companies. The outcome of such
curricula should be an engineer who can support consen-
sual views and actions of decision makers and users, on
the one hand, and executive professionals and engineers,
on the other hand, with respect to science, engineering
and social environments. The engineer should be able to
maintain this qualication life-long by corresponding learn-
ing periods.
This leads to an intensive demand for HydroInformatics
educated engineers, managers and, above all, leaders in
public services and in the private sector in a rapidly chang-
ing society.
Universities, Research and Professions
Universities are changing in modern times with the transi-
tion towards an information society, under the Bologna
Declaration and as mass education institutions. They are
reacting to their new role by introducing new proles and
grades of professionalism. In Europe the Bachelor is
seen as a rst profession qualication degree while the
Master has become the second degree that may or may
not be sought by the future professionals, whether praxis
or research-oriented. The Dr.-Thesis is a grade awarded
at the end of a system of corresponding courses and a
research project that in many cases is trivial or formal;
in most cases it has nothing common with requirements
of new contribution to the eld as it used to be until the
middle of second part of 20th century. This requires
universities to react correspondingly in terms of numbers
and qualications and this requires a clear prole and
denition of HydroInformatics education. At present,
the prole is pretty vague and differs from place to place.
Therefore, due to the international character of HydroIn-
formatics and in order to guarantee as much as possible
the sanity of the Profession some standards concerning
the educational prole are needed. The Universities in
the short term (some 1015 years) should standardise
their ideas about what is an objective and professional
HydroInformatics prole. Without this the Profession
cannot interact or provide feedback to the University and
the University cannot satisfy the needs of the Profession.
Todays most common idea on both sides is that HydroIn-
formatics = modelling and/or GIS and/or programming,
etc. etc. and that is clearly not sufcient.
Standards cannot be imposed formally: they have to be
developed by Academia in collaboration with the Profes-
sion and its Praxis. If there is a known curriculum frame-
work and if the Water Sector professions recognise in
practice the minimum content of this curriculum, such as
is necessary to be called a HydroInformatics diploma,
then the prole of HydroInformatician will need to be
clearly dened and founded. Note that, following Bologna
agreement the fundamental change of concept concern-
ing doctors degree opens the way to better specication
of HydroInformatics curricula in the sense that it gives
24
3 years more for specialised studies that replace original
research required in time for Dr. degree.
Currently the link between the research and practice is
weak and the time necessary to transfer the R&D results
towards practice is shockingly long if one compares it with
ICT domain. To improve the situation there is a need to open
existing HydroInformatics community to (or even more: to
create larger HI community inclusive of) engineering con-
sultants that do the bulk of water-related engineering as
well as to the water systems management companies and
institutions (specically urban water utilities).
And the IAHR/IWA Committee
It should be remembered that the present document is
elaborated by a Working Group of the joint IAHR/IWA
Committee and both IAHR and IWA have an obvious role
in the future of HydroInformatics. This role should be
experienced through a number of activities:
The research within the aquatic domain in areas such
as modelling, measuring, surveying and computational
hydraulics is traditional within the IAHR/IWA member-
ship. However, the task to promote the links between
this research and the requirements, quests and prob-
lems coming from Water Sector through HydroInformat-
ics should be better understood and carried out within
all concerned groups.
University Education: IAHR, by its very composition of
a majority of university researchers and teachers should
proactively participate in the Universities and Profes-
sion activities described above.
Within the Water Sector many HydroInformatics activi-
ties have been implemented and created (e.g. within
IWA, but this is only an example). It should be the
IAHRs role to try to bridge the relational gaps between
these groups and institutions by offering them what the
IAHR in this domain has been developed during the last
decades.
The above points can be considered as the tasks for the
HI Committee.
HydroInformatics - Quo vadis?
What to do?
There are two aspects of the future that are concerned in
our present initiative. One is objective: whatever we wish,
whatever we do, what is going to happen within next, say,
1015 years; another one is subjective: what we wish, what
we can do, what we shall try to do during this period.
(i) What is going to happen? It seems clear today that
the whole water sector is going to be completely
penetrated by ICT and Internet-like technologies. All
this may lead in a more or less distant future to the
unication and possibly the standardisation of man-
agement of information within areas of water indus-
try. The things will converge towards the concept of
smart water networking including of course projects
and implementation of works in coastal areas and
river basins, for food and agriculture, for industrial
use, energy production and biogas, for drinking and

waste processing. Nevertheless it is very likely that the
driving force towards this will be urban water manage-
ment and utilities. This is so because the population
needs today are greatest in this area, because most
of human population is going to be regrouped in the
megacities, because this area is today very far behind
the sophistication of ICT tools used in other water
domains (e.g. numerical modelling) and, hence, the
gradient of implemented innovative applications will
be the steepest. Quite obviously all other domains will
join in the run and the driving forces will come from
the ICT industry, not from the hydraulic research,
because the former produces industrially applica-
ble, often off-the-shelf systems and devices that may
modify the whole systemic approach while the latter
can only produced embeddable tools like 4th genera-
tion modelling software. Because of the importance
of the water these developments will very quickly
penetrate the domain of decision making, i.e. politics,
nancing of investments, social sciences, information
& communication with citizens etc. On the other side
of the spectrum they will most likely completely mod-
ify current (traditional) way of working of consulting
and also the relationship between the applications/
industry (including consulting and contractors) and
university research on the eld of hydraulics, hydrol-
ogy and water management:
It is very likely that todays market of the model-
ling software will decline and possibly fade away. It
may well be replaced by Modelling Software and
Expertise as a Service. All recent developments of
Software as a Service, Infrastructure as a Serv-
ice, Development as a Service that so far have
been limited to the area of computer and informat-
ics applications will no doubt overow into the water
domain within next couple of years. Already most
of applications we use on our laptops are stored
somewhere in the cyberspace. And cloud comput-
ing will help it.
This will lead to a pressure from modelling soft-
ware & expertise business on the water-oriented
research to go beyond todays limitations in math-
ematical theory computational hydraulics and
computational uid dynamics. Same will happen
to physics, e.g. sedimentation theories. This will
also lead to a pressure on the university educa-
tion and curricula. Indeed, such enormous, revo-
lutionary changes will ask for different technical
leadership within the structures of water sector
industry, i.e. for different generation of engineers.
Given minimal 5 years cycle of engineering educa-
tion, given the delay necessary to the education
institutions to adapt themselves (at least another
5 or 10 years) there will be enormous push, com-
ing from the needs of industry, towards LLL and
postgraduate specialisation in specic courses
and institutions.
Networking-embedded systems and network-
ing services are offering new perspectives in
nearly all elds of technological infrastructure
from engineering to households; they are pushing
developments in all areas, representing an enor-
mous business market. This also holds for the eld
3
Taken from aa paper in Forbes Magazine but seems correct!
IWA Specialist Groups
of HydroInformatics. Integrated intelligent electron-
ic nets of all components and services must be de-
signed and operated for generation, management,
distribution and billing of fresh and waste water in
cities, on the level of water-basins, for the manage-
ment of oods and droughts beyond the regional
level. But also the interlinking of water systems with
other areas such as power generation, cooling and
intermediate storage of energy under ever chang-
ing conditions has to be considered. Only through
the use of such technologies the challenges put by
global warming and climate change could possibly
be faced in the future.
As an example of what would happen whatever we do
consider the one of currently predominant business mod-
els: the sale or granting of in-perpetuity (generally 20 or
25 year) licenses to use software packages. We denitely
see the demand for pay-by-use software and technology
advances now supports this business model in a reason-
able way. But we are already on the way towards Soft-
ware as a Service becoming a regular business model for
HydroInformatics. There are already few companies doing
just this, the information conrmed by the comments from
1st and 2nd Circles of persons participating in elaboration
of present Reports. It is clear that current model based
on selling packages is changing and will not last in the
future. What we do not know is what will replace it there
are a number of possibilities!
(ii) What we wish or can do? We, i.e. what we used to
call up to now and typically within IAHR/IWA territory,
the HydroInformatics Community? Assuming that
what will happen at any rate within the near future
was correctly described above, there are two possi-
bilities: either we stay where we are and look on this
new world from the top of our ivory towers; or we try to
accompany the movement, to accelerate it as much
as possible, to make some parts of it more coher-
ent, take the leadership of our immediate neighbour-
hood towards integrating these changes. Incidentally
it means of course to stretch our networks beyond
IAHR trying, however, to keep intellectual leader-
ship in order not to lose the experience and tradition
gained during last 30 years of existence of our IAHR
HydroInformatics Community.
In this context, assuming that we chose the second way
and that we can consider ourselves as leaders (among
others) in the area, what should we do? One may identify
three skills that are necessary for leading strategically for
long-term growth: understanding the operational environ-
ment, making clear decisions and involving others in the
3
strategic process. .
Actually the most of the preceding paragraphs are
devoted to understanding the operational environ-
ment. The very attempt to describe (in a lengthy way)
what we understand by HydroInformatics, as well as
the present situation in industry and education, is pre-
cisely that.
Making clear decisions. In our case it is rst to state
clearly the ambitions we have, and next the decisions of
actions that we should take.
25
 IWA Specialist Groups
Ambitions, even though we limit their extension to our
domain of possible inuence (that is rather limited)
are considerable. Namely, we wish to promote and main-
tain the name of HydroInformatics. We wish to make it
accepted as a domain, the essence of which is to coor-
dinate the results and the contents of a number of vari-
ous elds of knowledge (including some soft science
elds); to facilitate interactive transfers of concepts and
ways of thinking from one eld to another; to help in
the elaboration of decisions (projects, actions, and poli-
cies) based on synergetic considerations of the results
of various elds; to pave feedback paths from social
requirements, through HydroInformatics ways, tools and
means, towards various elds while transferring con-
cepts from one eld to another in order to enrich them
and to progress. Conceived as such HydroInformatics is
enriching itself through the progress of other domains
and directing them towards applications. HydroInformat-
ics is itself a generator of innovations by the very fact of
being a transversal approach that uses the progress of
various disciplines. Our ambition is to push this concept
through and participate in its development.
There would seem to be a role for the Hydroinformatics
Community not only to adapt to improved ICT but also to
propose, test and communicate changing business and
delivery models. This can be done through exchanges of
opinions, criticism, etc. Such exchanges imply some kind
of permanent correspondence platform or forum.
New business models will be imposed by the market
following ICT progress but the HI Community can help to
discard what` is not so good.
The actions we can take:
To develop a wide (as wide as possible, within and
outside of IAHR/IWA/IAHS) network of people and
institutions interested and willing to participate in
discussions, exchanges of view, of information.
26
To inuence the education (LLL, graduate, under-
graduate), both the institutions and curricula in order
to help the advent of new engineering leadership.
To accompany, as individuals and members of insti-
tutions, of projects, of associations the objective
developments and events as described above, trying
to make those that are within our area as coherent
and bold as possible.
To use as a springboard to this the IAHR/IWA/IAHS
HydroInformatics Committee, International Journal
of HydroInformatics, HydroInformatics bi-annual
conferences.
Involving others in the strategic process. This of
course is the essence of leadership activity (as dis-
tinct from management). It actually is the way of imple-
menting the actions enumerated above. Our Working
Group activity is the rst step. The further steps would
follow stemming from our Report.We should take more
of a coordination role by more actively making links
with other organisations involved in the development
of HydroInformatics. For example, there is consider-
able overlap between the activities of the integrated
environmental modelling community and HydroIn-
formatics. Because of this situation the HI Working
Group will initiate, before the formal end of its activi-
ties, launching contacts with a number of organiza-
tions. The full Report will be sent to them and they will
be asked to participate in setting up together some
kind of the mailing-exchange list of addresses to con-
tact. But then again it will be for the HI community,
with the IAHR/IWA/IAHS Committee as the basis, to
organize and act.
 IWA Specialist Groups

Groundwater: perspectives,
challenges and trends
Written by S. Adams, M. Dimki, H. Garduo and M.C. Kavanaugh on behalf of the Specialist Group

TERMINOLOGY
Adaptive management. An iterative process of optimal decision making in the face of uncertainty, with an aim to reducing
uncertainty over time via system monitoring.

Aquifer. A geological formation which has structures or textures that hold water or permit appreciable water movement
through them.

Hydrogeology. The study of the interrelationship of geologic materials and processes with water.

Unsaturated zone. That part of the geological stratum above the water table where interstices and voids contain a
combination of air and water.

Introduction of the world, groundwater still receives very little protection

Most liquid freshwater available on Earth is stored in aqui-
fers; groundwater therefore dominates, by volume. It is
estimated that groundwater is a primary source of drinking
water for as many as two billion people and drives a signi-
cant part of the worlds irrigated agriculture (Morris et al.
2003; Kemper 2004). Groundwater is broadly dened as,
The excess soil moisture that saturates subsurface soil or
rock and migrates downward under the inuence of grav-
ity. In the literal sense, all water below the ground surface
is groundwater; in hydrogeologic terms, however, the top of
this saturated zone is called the water table, and the water
below the water table is called groundwater. Under natu-
ral conditions, groundwater moves by gravity ow through
rock and soil zones until it seeps into a streambed, lake,
or ocean, or discharges as a spring (Encyclopedic Diction-
ary of Hydrogeology, Poehls and Smith 2009). Subsurface
hydrology is mainly concerned with the quantity and ow
of water and other uids and the transport of solutes and
energy through porous media (RNAAS 2005). Subsurface
hydrology includes the following:
groundwater hydrology;
contaminant hydrology;
unsaturated zone hydrology.
Droughts and increased demands have triggered the
search for alternative water supply options. This has led
to an increase in the exploitation of groundwater supplies,
especially in semi-arid and arid regions, often with little
understanding and management of the consequences (e.g.
saltwater intrusion, mining of groundwater and impacts on
linked systems). In some places poor land-use planning
threatens the quality of the groundwater or increases the
cost of treating the usually good quality water. In many areas
within water laws and is often considered to be only linked
to the land above the aquifer being exploited (i.e. consid-
ered as private water). Groundwater should be managed
within an integrated framework that takes into account
the impacts on and by linked systems and the effects of
land-use planning. It should be noted that groundwater
systems are more complex and thus inherently more dif-
cult to manage than surface water. The perceptions of
the public and policy-makers or their lack of awareness
of groundwater, as well as the generally poor understand-
ing of its behaviour and occurrence, represent important
causes of emerging problems (Burke and Moench 2000;
Quevauviller 2007). It is not unusual to nd potential and
real polluting activities above the most productive parts of
an aquifer or that aquifers are pumped at unsustainable
rates. This paper will highlight some of the challenges and
trends within the discipline of subsurface hydrology.
Perspectives on subsurface hydrology
Over the past number of decades hydrogeology has
evolved from a science of how to nd and exploit ground-
water into the integrated management of this nite and
interconnected resource as well as emphasis on the qual-
ity of the water. This can be seen by the progressive laws
and regulations, governing groundwater use and protec-
tion, being developed across the world. Advances in sub-
surface hydrology include, among others:
Estimation techniques for hydraulic properties
Groundwater-surface water interactions
Mapping and modelling of large-scale aquifer systems
The nature and variability of groundwater recharge
Vulnerability assessments

27
 IWA Specialist Groups
Techniques for enhancing recharge, storage and
recovery
Transboundary aquifer management
Groundwater- or aquifer-dependent ecosystems
Fractured and heterogeneous aquifer behaviour
Improved monitoring techniques (including remote
sensing)
Improved modelling systems
Unsaturated zone linkages
Challenges and Trends
Environmental stress is driven by the growth in population
and urbanisation and the resulting energy, transport and
development trends at country and global levels (World
Bank 2010). High-level challenges, that are not necessar-
ily unique to groundwater, include:
Global change (e.g. climate change and variability)
(Ground)water pollution and depletion
Rapid urbanisation with increasing supply demands and
higher pollutant loads
Coupling of the various reservoir uxes in time and
space
Governance of water and related resources
Groundwater valuation and nancing
Data collection (monitoring) and data availability (man-
agement)
Uncertainty quantication (e.g. model and parameter
uncertainties)
Poor land-use planning
Scale and heterogeneity
Capacity development
Complete description of complex systems
Challenges related to groundwater management are
numerous and overlapping; we will only deal with some
of the key challenges. Giordano (2009) and Morris et al.
(2003) give a more detailed global assessment of the
issues and solutions facing groundwater. Groundwater
is often poorly understood because of its hidden nature
and assessments often rely on indirect measurements
and long-term investigations and investments to deter-
mine fully the behaviour of complex aquifer systems.
The invisibility of the resource may be complicating the
management thereof. However, groundwater cannot be
considered a mysterious phenomenon or resource any-
more; it can be described using established scientic laws
(Narasimhan 2009). Standard groundwater management
approaches depend on the presence of basic data and
on institutional capacities (FAO 2003). Data, and the col-
lection and management thereof, remain a major area of
concern. Remotely sensed information is used routinely
for characterisation and extrapolation but cannot be seen
as a substitute for ground-based programmes or detailed
eldwork.
The integrated water resource management (IWRM)
approach should strengthen frameworks for water govern-
ance to foster good decision making in response to chang-
ing needs and situations (Cap-Net 2010) and provide
mechanisms for the adaptive and holistic management
of the water cycle over time. However, different funding
approaches are followed in managing the two resources
due to the inherent difculty with quantifying the economic
28
value of groundwater resources and the general lack of
appreciation of groundwater as a resource. IWRM as a
concept has its own set of challenges (e.g. Medema et al.
2008) and perceptions and will not be discussed here.
Changing patterns of precipitation and evapotranspira-
tion will inevitably alter groundwater ow patterns through
changes in recharge-discharge relationships (Narasim-
han 2009). Groundwater systems are affected by cli-
mate change in various ways, depending on whether an
area becomes wetter or drier. Groundwater availability is
less sensitive to annual and inter-annual rainfall uctua-
tions (i.e. climate variability) than surface water (Giordano
2009). However, the overall impact of climate change on
groundwater and surface water resources is expected to
be negative over the long term. The role that groundwater
can play in mitigating climate change threats is also sig-
nicant (Foster et al. 2010b). Adaptation strategies will
rely on investment in better and more accessible infor-
mation, stronger and cooperating institutions, and natural
and man-made infrastructure to store, transport and treat
water (Sadoff and Muller 2009).
Future research trends mainly deal with reducing uncer-
tainty and risk and are intimately linked with the chal-
lenges faced. The dearth of information on most aquifer
systems often results in poor management plans. The
trend is towards adaptive management strategies and
this pragmatic approach is now recognised as an alterna-
tive solution for systems where we have an incomplete
understanding of the behaviour of a system (Gleeson
et al. 2011; Holman and Trawick 2010; Brodie et al. 2007;
Seward et al. 2006). However, it is also evident from the
literature that adaptive management can be understood
from a variety of perspectives and is often perceived as
yet another catch phrase (Allan and Curtis 2005). The
adaptive or learning-by-doing approach is a exible man-
agement framework that allows for changing conditions
of the (ground)water and institutional systems. To ensure
the success of the approach existing institutional and
cultural constraints will have to be mapped and changed
to effectively transition into an adaptive management
approach. The continuous monitoring of these systems
remains crucial for the provision of background data and
information to evaluate and validate adaptive management
approaches. For planned high-risk activities the adaptive
management or monitoring approach must be preceded
by detailed studies and a good grasp of how the system
behaves; adaptive management is about urgency and
reducing uncertainty and risk over time. Clean-up of a
contaminated system is extremely difcult and costly. In
the absence of local information and protocols, interna-
tional best practices should be adapted to local conditions
(Adams 2009).
The remainder of this paper gives an overview of the 4
main issues that have been identied to be the focus of
the Groundwater Restoration and Management Specialist
Group for the next few years.
Urban groundwater management: the
institutional challenge in developing nations
Half of the worlds population reside in cities and, within
two decades, nearly 60% of the worlds population will
be urban dwellers. The following paragraphs provide a

summary of the main on-the-eld lessons learnt from work
carried out in the groundwater/urban interface under the
World Banks GW-Mate Programme (Strategic Overview
Series No. 3) based on Foster et al. (2010c). Groundwater
is generally more signicant for urban water supply in
developing cities and towns than is commonly appreciated
and is also often the invisible link between various fac-
ets of the urban infrastructure. Regrettably, organisations
concerned with urban water supply and environmental
management often have a poor understanding of ground-
water this needs to be corrected. Groundwater is a fun-
damental component of the urban water cycle and there is
always need for it to be integrated when making decisions
on urban infrastructure planning and investment. But this
is not as simple as it might at rst appear, because it is
widely acknowledged that there has been little recognition
of the groundwater dimensions of urban water and land
management.
In most developing cities the installation of mains
sewerage systems and wastewater treatment facilities
lags considerably behind population growth meanwhile
shallow groundwater can become contaminated from
inadequate in situ sanitation. It may be years before the
full extent of pollution becomes apparent, because con-
tamination of large aquifers is a gradual and hidden proc-
ess, and full remediation of entrenched problems may
be prohibitively expensive. Thus it is critically important
to recognise the incipient signs of groundwater pollution
at an early stage and put in place groundwater protec-
tion measures.
Urban groundwater tends to affect everybody, but is often
the responsibility of no body. There are clear examples
of places where action is being taken with support of the
World Bank to ll this institutional vacuum and to remedy
lack of concern or decient coordination regarding urban
groundwater:
Brazil Agencia Nacional de guas established a national
programme in 2008 to strengthen groundwater man-
agement at state-government level, including proactive
consideration of urban groundwater use policy
India a recent in-depth study for the Ministry of Water
Resources on pragmatic action to address groundwater
overexploitation, recommended substantial strengthen-
ing of state groundwater management agencies, and
one of their key roles would be the required institu-
tional coordination for addressing urban groundwater
(although in this case the question of powers on pollu-
tion control are not yet included)
Sub-Saharan Africa an initiative of the SADC (Southern
African Development Community), is the establishment
of a Groundwater Management Institute of Southern
Africa, geared to practical approaches for groundwater
management, including urban groundwater use and
protection issues
However, these top-down initiatives should be com-
plemented with bottom-up provisions. Mechanisms for
groundwater stakeholder participation are usually much
less dened in urban than in rural areas (where groups
tend to nucleate around a common interest in ground-
water use for irrigated agriculture or groundwater con-
servation to support dependent aquatic ecosystems).
Nevertheless, the representation and engagement of
IWA Specialist Groups
major stakeholder groups will be an essential compo-
nent of any action plan for urban groundwater resource
management and protection.
Groundwater contamination and restoration
Throughout the world, aquifers capable of providing water
of high quality for potable use are threatened by organic
and inorganic contamination emanating from human activ-
ities. Worldwide, numerous examples can be cited of water
supply aquifers rendered un-useable without treatment
due to releases of contaminants from various agricultural,
industrial, commercial and other sources. Contamination
of aquifers presents major technical, regulatory and man-
agement challenges. Treatment of contaminated ground-
water is also complex due to the type and concentrations
of contaminants that may result from these releases. The
extent of anthropogenic contamination of groundwater
aquifers worldwide is not known.
Current and future challenges for urban groundwater
basin managers include regulatory options for oversight of
drinking water projects treating severely impaired ground-
water sources, use of groundwater models to evaluate
management options for contaminated aquifers, fate and
transport of organic and metal contaminants of signicant
concern, and current options for source control, includ-
ing both soil and groundwater remediation technologies to
prevent continued or future contamination of water supply
aquifers. Other potential future topics of interest include
vulnerability assessments of groundwater resources, use
of aquifers for recharge and recovery of treated water or
wastewaters, assessment of the treatment capabilities of
subsurface environments, and groundwater remediation
and treatment options for chemicals known to be recalci-
trant in aerobic aquifers such as perchlorate, 1,4-dioxane,
1,2,3-trichloropropane, and other emerging and unregu-
lated contaminants such as pharmaceuticals and personal
care products reaching groundwater through natural or
articial groundwater recharge.
Despite signicant advances in subsurface characteri-
sation and remediation technologies over the past few
decades, there are signicant technical barriers to restora-
tion. These barriers have been thoroughly reviewed in the
literature, and summarised in several reports issued by the
National Research Council of the National Academies in
the USA (see NRC 1994, 1999, 2005). Subsurface hetero-
geneities render certain portions of an aquifer inaccessible
to uids used to ush out or destroy contaminants. Several
recalcitrant chemical compounds have proven resistant
to remediation efforts, including chlorinated solvents and
other organic compounds present as organic liquids,
and with a density greater than water. These dense non-
aqueous phase liquids or DNAPLs (e.g. trichloroethene)
can penetrate signicant depths through low-permeability
layers, are difcult to locate, and are difcult to remove
from the subsurface.
Management of large urban groundwater basins becomes
particularly challenging in the context of past, continuing
and future contamination of aquifers from residual con-
tamination that remains persistent at detectable levels.
Some of these issues have been summarised in a recent
IWA publication on this topic (Kavanaugh and Krecic
2008; Dimki et al. 2008).
29
 IWA Specialist Groups
Importance of oxic conditions in
groundwater, especially in alluvial aquifers
Alluvial groundwater is extremely important, both for
human society and for the natural environment. In an allu-
vial aquifer, its degree of oxicity is very important both for
the formation of a baseline groundwater quality, and for
processes of its transformation. In water supply, the bank
ltration method is most widely applied and very important
(Schmidt et al., 2003). The level of groundwater oxicity
attained in this case depends on the oxygen saturation
of the river water, the oxidation-reduction processes of
organic and inorganic matter, as well as the level of oxy-
gen renewal in the aquifer. Oxic conditions more frequently
occur in aquifers in the upper part of the river basin, less
so in the medium part, and the least in the lower part of
the basin. Besides the degree of loading with organic mat-
ter, the mineralogical consumption of oxygen should also
be taken into consideration. Minerals with ferrous iron con-
tent are particularly signicant.
In oxic conditions, oxidation takes place through oxygen
dissolved in water. In anoxic conditions, biochemical oxi-
dation is based mainly on nitrates, compounds of ferric
iron and tetravalent manganese, as well as sulphates.
Oxic environments are generally more favourable for self-
purication processes. However, some substances can
also degrade in anoxic conditions. Knowledge of the effects
of the degree of groundwater oxicity on the baseline qual-
ity of groundwater, as well as the process of purication of
river water to the baseline quality level, is fundamental for
the design, use and protection of groundwater resources
(Dimki et al., 2011c).
In this regard it is necessary to consider the ltration proc-
ess that takes place starting from the water source (river,
inltration basin) towards the groundwater abstraction
structure (well, drainage gallery). While dening the protec-
tion zone and appropriate measures during the establish-
ment of the groundwater source, it is necessary to consider
the aquifer as a unique physico-biochemical reactor,
complementary to the other elements of water treatment.
Besides the basic properties of the aquifer, while solving
the related problems, it is necessary to take account of
the behaviour of typical substances, classied according to
their pronounced characteristics, such as toxicity, sorbicity,
degradation in oxic and anoxic conditions, etc. Such sub-
stances are, for instance, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, or
some substances that are very mobile in groundwater. The
knowledge of the well colmatations is equally important for
the development of water sources and their maintenance,
and is usually linked to considerable investments (Dimki
et al. 2011a, b). Among these, biochemical colmatation is
largely linked to the level of aquifer oxicity.
In general, in the world more than 50% of water supply
is from groundwater sources, and of these 50% originate
from alluvial aquifers. In order to resolve issues related
to the protection and use of these waters it is necessary
to adequately take into account factors related to aquifer
oxicity. Here, there is a need for better understanding of
relations between:
1. Genesis of aquifers, their mineralogical composition on
the one hand, and oxygen consumption on the other
hand.
30
2. Hydrochemical, hydrological and hydrodynamic condi-
tions in the aquifer - and oxygen consumption.
3. Process of quality transformation of different (charac-
teristic) substances and their adequate inclusion into
problem solving.
4. Linking the intensity and kinetics of the well-ageing
process, through the change of hydraulic losses taking
place on well lters, with oxic and other related condi-
tions in the aquifer.
Fluxes between reservoirs
Groundwater is still managed and legislated separately
from surface water resources the trend worldwide is to
manage it as a single resource. The two systems behave
differently in time and space and must be studied sepa-
rately at the fundamental level. However, a major challenge
among water resource practitioners as well as among soil
scientists is the use of different terminologies or differ-
ent understanding of a common terminology instead
of common understanding of the terminology and the
different terms used. The Cap-Net (2010) report notes
that: Traditional institutional separation of surface water
from groundwater has created fundamental communica-
tion barriers that now extend from technical expertise to
policy developers, operational managers and water users.
These barriers impede the understanding of the proc-
esses and consequences of groundwater-surface water
interactions.
Integrated water resource management and the increas-
ing impact of groundwater abstractions on linked surface
water bodies call for an improved understanding and
quantitative description of the interactions between the
different components of the hydrological cycle (atmos-
phere, surface and subsurface).The main challenge is
the issue of scale, especially temporal scales, as surface
water responses are generally faster than those of ground-
water. Various approaches and methods have been devel-
oped to study the interactions at different temporal and
spatial scales usually involving modelling approaches.
Exchanges between reservoirs are often invisible and the
uxes measured indirectly. Quantication of the uxes is
extremely difcult and fraught with uncertainty. Because
of the differences in approaches for surface water and
groundwater the incompatibility of data sets and con-
ceptual understanding complicates groundwater-surface
water assessments. The NRC (2004) gives a detailed
account of the challenges and research focus to solve
these problems. The main challenges identied were
(NRC 2004):
1. Our ability to quantify spatial and temporal variability in
recharge and discharge is inadequate.
2. The roles of groundwater storage, and recharge and
discharge uxes in the climate system are under-
appreciated and poorly understood.
3. Groundwater measurements are needed across a range
of temporal and spatial scales.
Modellers are continuously developing tools to integrate
the various reservoirs at different scales using various,

often manipulated, data sources obtained from direct and
indirect measurements. The main challenges that affect
hydraulic and hydrological modelling are improper formu-
lation of conceptual models (NRC 2001) and the lack of
uncertainty estimation (Pappenberger and Beven 2006)
which is inherent in the modelling process.
Conclusions
Efcient management of groundwater relies on the effec-
tiveness of applicable legislation and institutional arrange-
ments as well as good understanding of the behaviour of
the aquifer or well-eld being managed (i.e. quality and
quantity) (Dimki and Milovanovi 2008). Groundwater
management has developed into an interdisciplinary sci-
ence and is not just the purview of the hydrogeologist. The
discipline-specic approach to solving specic research
questions is important but on its own it cannot address
current environmental problems. A coordinated approach
that links various disciplines is important. It is thus good
to see that water research is becoming more multidiscipli-
nary in nature (see Kamalski 2010; Foster et al 2010a).
However, there seem to be very few management tools
that are able to coordinate such activities at the local scale.
Research on a country and global level often takes place in
parallel and is uncoordinated. Managing groundwater over
multigenerational timescales will require management that
is integrated, adaptive, inclusive and local (Gleeson et al.
2011). The challenge to all stakeholders is how we trans-
late our ever-growing scientic knowledge into improved
management of all resources and bringing about change
in human behaviour.
References
Adams, S. (2009) Basement aquifers of southern Africa:
Overview and research needs. In: Titus et al. (eds.)
The Basement Aquifers of Southern Africa. WRC Report No.
TT428/09, Water Research Commission, Pretoria, South
Africa.
Allan, C. and Curtis, A. (2005) Nipped in the bud: Why regional
scale adaptive management is not blooming. Environmental
Management 36(3), 414425.
Brodie, R., Sundaram, B., Tottenham, R., Hostetler, S. and
Ransley, T. (2007) An Adaptive Management Framework
for Connected GroundwaterSurface Water Resources in
Australia. Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra, Australia.
Burke, J.J. and Moench, M.H. (2000) Groundwater and Society:
Resources, Tensions and Opportunities. United Nations.
Cap-Net (2010) Groundwater Management in IWRM: Training
Manual. Cap-Net, Pretoria, South Africa..
Dimki, M., Brauch H. and Kavanaugh, M.C. (Eds.) (2008)
Groundwater Management in Large Urban Basins. IWA
Publishing, London.
Dimki, M. and Milovanovi, M. (2008) Basic functions of ground-
water management. In: Dimkic, M. et al. (eds) Ground-
water Management in Large River Basins. IWA Publishing,
London.
Dimki, M., Pui, M., Vidovi, D., Petkovi, A. and Boreli-
Zdravkovi, Dj. (2011a) Several natural indicators of radial
well ageing at the Belgrade Groundwater Source, Part 1.
Water Science and Technology 63(11), 25602566.
Dimki, M., Pui, M. and Obradovi, V. (2011b) Several natural
indicators of radial well ageing at the Belgrade groundwater
source. Part 2. Water Science and Technology 63(11), doi:
10.2166/wst.2011.564.
IWA Specialist Groups
Dimki, M., Pui, M. and Obradovi, V. (2011c) Certain impli-
cations of oxic conditions in alluvial groundwater. Water
Research and Management 1.1, 2743.
FAO (2003) Groundwater management: The search for practical
approaches. Water Reports 25. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
Foster, S., Garduo, H., Tuinhof, A. and Tovey, C. (2010a) Ground-
water Governance: Conceptual Framework for Assessment of
Provisions and Needs. GW-MATE Strategic Overview Series
No.1. GW-MATE The World Bank, GWP, BNWPP & DFID.
Foster, S., van Steenbergen, F., Zuleta, J. and Garduo, H.
(2010b) Conjunctive Use of Groundwater and Surface Water:
From Spontaneous Coping Strategy to Adaptive Resource
Management. GW-MATE Strategic Overview Series No. 2.
The World Bank, GWP, BNWPP & DFID.
Foster, S., Hirata, R., Misra, S. and Garduo, H. (2010c) Ur-
ban Groundwater Use Policy: Balancing the Benets and
Risks in Developing Nations. World Bank-GW-MATE, Stra-
tegic Overview Series No. 3. (All GW-MATE publications
available at http://water.worldbank.org/water/related-topics/
groundwater-management-advisory-team).
Giordano, M. (2009) Global groundwater? Issues and solutions.
Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 34(7),
7.17.26.
Gleeson, T. et al. (2011) Towards sustainable groundwater
use: Setting long-term goals, backcasting, and managing
adaptively. Ground Water, doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6584.2011.
00825.x. [Epub ahead of print].
Holman, I.P. and Trawick, P. (2011) Developing adaptive capacity
within groundwater abstraction management systems.
Journal of Environmental Management 92(6), 15421549.
Kamalski, J. (2010) Identifying expertise in water management.
Research Trends, Issue 19. http://www.researchtrends.com/
category/issue19-september-2010/ (Accessed 16 June 2011).
Kavanaugh, M.C. and Krei, N. (2008) Large urban groundwater
basins: water quality threats and aquifer restoration. In:
Dimkic M. et al. (eds.) Groundwater Management in Large
River Basins. IWA Publishing, London.
Kemper, K.E. (2004). Groundwater from development to
management. Hydrogeology Journal 12, 35.
Medema, W., McIntosh, B.S. and Jeffrey, P.J. (2008) From premise
to practice: a critical assessment of integrated water resources
management and adaptive management approaches in the
water sector. Ecology and Society 13, 229.
Morris, B.L., Lawrence, A.R.L., Chilton, P.J.C., Adams, B., Calow,
R.C. and Klinck, B.A. (2003) Groundwater and its Suscep-
tibility to Degradation: A Global Assessment of the Problem
and Options for Management. Early Warning and Assess-
ment Report Series, RS. 03-3. United Nations Environment
Programme, Nairobi, Kenya.
Narasimhan, T.N. (2009) Groundwater: from mystery to manage-
ment. Environmental Research Letters 4, 035002, 111.
NRC (1994) Alternatives for Ground Water Cleanup. National
Academies Press, Washington, DC.
NRC (1999) Groundwater and Soil Cleanup: Improving
Management of Persistent Contaminants. National Acad-
emies Press, Washington, DC.
NRC (2001) Conceptual Models of Flow and Transport in the Frac-
tured Vadose Zone. National Academy of Sciences. National
Academies Press, Washington, DC.
NRC (2004) Groundwater Fluxes across Interfaces. National
Academy of Sciences. National Academies Press,
Washington, DC.
NRC, (2005) Contaminants in the Subsurface: Source Zone
Assessment and Remediation. National Academy Press.
Washington, DC, pp. 370.
Pappenberger, F. and Beven, K.J. (2006) Ignorance is bliss:
Or seven reasons not to use uncertainty analysis. Water
Resources Research 42(5), 18.
Poehls, D.J. and Smith, G.J. (2009) Encyclopedic Diction-
ary of Hydrogeology. Boston: Academic Press. 978-0-12-
55690-0. pp 517.
31
 IWA Specialist Groups
Quevauviller, P. (2007) General Introduction: The Need to Protect
Groundwater. In Quevauviller, P. (ed.) Groundwater Science
and Policy: An International Overview. 1st edition. Royal
Society of Chemistry.
Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (RNAAS)
(2005) Turning the Water Wheel Inside Out: Foresight
Study on Hydrological Science in the Netherlands. Royal
Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam,
The Netherlands.
Sadoff, C.W. and Muller, M. (2009) Better Water Resources
Management: Greater Resilience Today, More Effective
Adaptation Tomorrow A Climate and Water Perspectives
Paper. Stockholm, Global Water Partnership.
Schmidt, C.K., Lange, F.T., Brauch, H.J. and Khn, W. (2003)
Experiences with riverbank ltration and inltration in
32
Germany. Proceedings International Symposium on Articial
Recharge of Groundwater, 14.11.2003, Daejon, Korea.
pp. 115141.
Seward, P., Xu, Y. and Brendonck, L. (2006) Sustainable ground-
water use, the capture principle, and adaptive management.
Water SA 32(4), 473482.
World Bank (2010) Monitoring environmental sustainability:
Trends, Challenges and the Way forward. In: 2010
Environmental Strategy: Analytical Background Papers. The
World Bank Group. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/
EXTENVSTRATEGY/Resources/6975692-1289855310673
/20101209-Monitoring-Environmental-Sustainability.pdf
(accessed 11 June 2011).

Institutional Governance
and Regulation
Water resources management in the conditions of global climate change: set-up,
trends and challenges
Written by Slava Dineva and Jennifer McKay on behalf of the Specialist Group
Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is
now evident from observations of increases in global
average air and ocean temperatures, widespread
melting of snow and ice and rising global average
sea level
Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (2007)
Scientists have high condence that global temperatures
will continue to rise for decades to come, largely owing to
greenhouse gasses produced by human activities. Accord-
ing to the IPCC, the extent of climate change effects on
individual regions will vary over time and with the ability of
different societal and environmental systems to mitigate or
adapt to change. However, there is not general agreement
about climate change in all jurisdictions so there is con-
ict between and within nations.Policy makers in several
nations are looking at adaptive policy mechanisms and
seeking new ways to manage this conict and the risk.
In some places the increases in temperatures with pro-
duce benecial growing seasons and in others there could
be an increased risk of ooding, yet in others dryness will
increase.
During the remainder of this century, different locations
will experience greater or lesser increases in temperature,
with the greatest impact toward the North Pole and the
least increase toward the South Pole and in the tropics. In
terms of global climate change, future trends are shown
in Table 1.
Table 1 Global climate change: future trends according to IPCC
Phenomena
Contraction of snow cover areas, increased thaw in permafrost regions, decrease
in sea ice extent
Increased frequency of hot extremes, heat waves and heavy precipitation
Increase in tropical cyclone intensity
Precipitation increases in high latitudes
Precipitation decreases in subtropical land regions
Decreased water resources in many semi-arid areas,
including western USA and Mediterranean basin
*Denitions of likelihood ranges used to express the assessed probability of occurrence: virtually certain >99%; very likely >90%;
likely >66%.
Source: IPCC (2007).
IWA Specialist Groups
Carbon dioxide levels in our atmosphere are rising. Both
images in Figure 1 show the spreading of carbon dioxide
around the globe as it follows large-scale patterns of circu-
lation in the atmosphere. The atmospheric carbon dioxide
has increased since the Industrial Revolution.
The current warming trend is of particular signicance
because most of it is very likely human-induced and pro-
ceeding at a rate that is unprecedented in the past 1,300
years.
The heat-trapping nature of carbon dioxide and other
gases was demonstrated in the mid-19th century. They
have ability to affect the transfer of infrared energy through
the atmosphere. Increased levels of greenhouse gases
must cause the Earth to warm in response.
Ice cores drawn from Greenland, Antarctica, and tropical
mountain glaciers show that the Earths climate responds
to changes in solar output, in the Earths orbit, and in
greenhouse gas levels. They also show that in the past,
large changes in climate have happened very quickly, in
tens of years, not in millions or even thousands.
Water resources management in the
conditions of climate change
Water and its scarcity or over abundance will impact
people, ecosystems and economies. Therefore, water
Likelihood of trend*
Virtually certain
Very likely to occur
Likely to occur
Very likely to occur
Very likely to occur
High condence
33
 IWA Specialist Groups
Figure 1 (A) Carbon counter. Left: July 2003. Right: July 2007. Images from the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) instru-
ment onboard NASAs Aqua spacecraft. Credit: NASA/JPL. (B) Carbon dioxide increasing since the Industrial Revolution.
Source: NOAA.
resources management should be a focus for adapta-
tion to climate change through adaptation strategies and
frameworks for actions at the local, regional and interna-
tional transboundary domains. McKay 2011. Sustainable
development is needed and regimes to promote this and
ensure international cooperation are needed. There are
many ways to do this at all levels and examples exist and
are available on the websites of IWA member governments
and the private sector.
Climate change adaptation in water management is
related to nding the right mix of the three Is (informa-
tion, institutions and infrastructure) to achieve the desired
balance between the three Es (equity, environment and
economics). Water management is weakest in the poorest
countries. It is predicted they to face the greatest negative
impacts of climate change in the future. Therefore, invest-
ment in national water resources, management capacity,
institutions and infrastructure should be a priority. Main-
streamed funding will help ensure that long term capacity is
built and retained in the institutions. The environment has
a crucial role in building resilience to climate change and
reducing the vulnerability of communities and economies.
As water is at the centre of climate change impacts, this
demands a focus on resilience to impacts on water. Well-
functioning watersheds and intact oodplains and coasts
provide water storage, ood control and coastal defence.
Water resources management implies the integration and
stable development of both natural and social systems.
34
Sustainability is related to the balance between economic
development, lifestyle and protecting the water environ-
ment from irreversible damage. Managers need correct
quality and quantity data on water resource at spatial and
temporal scales. Such records are maintained in most
countries and there are some international sets as well.
Furthermore, sociological information is necessary on
non-hydrological drivers and impacts, such as ownership,
the real or implicit cost of land and water. Water resource
managers are on the pressure owing to the variable cli-
matic regimes in many areas, ever-increasing demands for
better quality water by expanding populations. Mathemati-
cal models are essential operational tools.
Governance and management for sustainable water
resources comprise issues such as the following:
governance processes and organisations;
institutional framework for water management;
water management tasks: planning, development,
monitoring;
nance, pricing, and economic regulation;
water allocation and use; water supply and public
health; wastewater and water quality; river basin man-
agement and regional authorities, irrigation and drain-
age; instream ow management; ood disaster manage-
ment, and dam ownership;
utility and water agency management and organisation;
public-private relationships;
environmental governance and social equity;

governance of water services in developing countries;
trans-boundary water problems;
water law and regulation;
administrative law and processes for governance;
stewardship and social responsibility.
Increasing global pressure on water resources requires
actions by governments to achieve sustainable water use
(Grigg 2010). That involves management tasks such as
project development and utility operation. The degree of
interdependence among the many participants in water
management is so great that additional regulatory and
coordination mechanisms are needed to control water
development and uses.
Integrating Water Resources Management (Gooch et al.
2010) implies the following:
developing guidelines for interdisciplinary methods;
assessing of transferability of case study results;
enhancing the dialogue between decision-makers,
stakeholders and scientists;
disseminating data and information to stakeholders to
promote planning and integrated decision-making.
Water security refer to early adaptation strategy that will
deliver immediate benets to vulnerable and underserved
populations, and strengthening systems and capac-
ity for climate risk management. It will need investment
in stronger and more adaptable Institutions, and natural
and man-made infrastructure to store, transport and treat
water. Information, consultation and adaptive manage-
ment will be essential.
The best adaption investments for any country in trans-
boundary basins might be outside its borders - in basin-
wide monitoring systems, investments in joint infrastructure
and operating systems in a neighbouring country. Strate-
gies should promote cooperative transboundary river basin
solutions to generate public goods, keeping the best inter-
est of all riparians by means of cost-effective tools.
Overall management of water incorporates all available
water resources to meet the countrys water demands.
Water management solutions should encompass problem
identication and data collection, hydrological, hydro-
geological and engineering investigations, economic
feasibility studies and Implementation.
Measurement and monitoring imply maximising efciency
through water loss prevention. Basic inefciencies such
as leaking pipes result in enormous wastefulness in water
infrastructures. In regions short of water, the local water
technology solutions should lead to a wide range of prod-
ucts, systems and applications to monitor and measure
water and identify leakages. Preventing of water loss is
dependent on the quality and reliability of the systems
infrastructure.
Developing of resilience of communities to climate change
impacts on water resources requires investments in deci-
sion making processes that consider current and potential
future users. In terms of climate change adaptation, the
water and climate change community realise the impor-
tance of empowerment for adaptation and the need to
make institutions t for uncertainty.
IWA Specialist Groups
Future challenges
Creation of new water professionals
This is the key issue to be worked on by the SG.
Climate adaptation challenges and the
coordination of water quality objectives and
carbon reduction
The basic climate adaptation challenges that arise are
water quality (Bogaart 2009) infrastructure inadequacy,
water scarcity, oods, increasing competition for water,
pollution risk, health risk, and reducing the emissions of
greenhouse gases. Local governments have very different
powers and responsibilities but the case studies under-
score important commonalities.
Adapting water management to climate
change and the energy water nexus
For many decades the governing paradigm for urban water
management has been reliability. Water supply, sanitation,
and storm water control in cities should be engineered for
a high level of reliability over the historic range of climate
variables. Climate change has already shifted that para-
digm (Reiter 2009; Glassmann et al. 2011). Now we must
nd a way to resilience developing adaptive strategies
that reduce vulnerability to uncertain but changing climate
scenarios. System adaptation is a job for water engineers,
climate experts, governments. National governments bear
the primary responsibility for funding and regulation to
ensure water security.
Setting the adaptation agenda
Mayors and local elected ofcials have to rally and inform
citizens, convene businesses and civil society, and pro-
mote cross-jurisdictional collaboration. Adaptation and
resilience will require new values, changed consumer and
business choices, and a mix of regulations and incentives.
Local governments have to build the political will to support
this work.
Mainstreaming adaptation and resilience
strategies in multiple city agencies
Effective urban adaptation to climate change requires the
participation of the whole range of municipal agencies,
not just the water department. Health, solid waste, roads,
parks, building regulators, re and emergency services,
and more all should be active in implementing changes
for water security and water safety. Local ofcials have to
ensure that adaptation priorities are mainstreamed in all
city programs.
Localising risk and vulnerability
assessments
Water-related climate risks are highly localised in cities
since half the worlds population living in urban areas. In
35
 IWA Specialist Groups
order to ensure realistic risk and vulnerability assessments,
downscaled climate information from climate experts must
be matched with locally-generated data from city agencies
demographics, mapping of infrastructure and public
services, topography, land uses, neighbourhood pro-
les, socio-economic statistics, and cultural norms. Local
ofcials have to provide and analyze this information.
Increasing in demand for water in arid and
semi-arid regions of the world
Serious water crisis is becoming in Western Asia, the Mid-
dle East and, in some cases, North Africa. Water resources
have now become the dividing line between life and death.
In many of that countries, the water crisis is caused by
both water shortage or even water scarcity and wrong
water management. Considering these regional condi-
tions, future will probably be more dependent on desalina-
tion plants, long distance water transfer, and also recycling
and reusing of unconventional water resources, especially
in agriculture.
References
Bogaart, M. (2009). The coordination of water quality objectives
and carbon reduction: the possibilities for less stringent
obligations under the WFD and the IPPC Directive. Journal
of Water Law 186.
36
Gooch, G., Rieu-Clarke, A. and Stalnacke, P. (eds) (2010).
Integrating Water Resources Management. London: IWA
Publishing.
Glassmann, D. et al. (2011) The Water Energy Nexus: Adding Wa-
ter to the Energy Agenda (New York and Zurich: World Policy
Institute & EBG Capital) and World Economic Forum, Energy
Vision Update 2009 - Thirsty Energy: Water and Energy in the
21st Century (Geneva: WEF 2009). For recent references,
as well as US Department Of Energy, Energy Demands on
Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdepend-
ency of Energy And Water, December 2006, http://www.
Sandia.Gov/Energy-Water/, accessed 11 August 2011 for
the seminal reference on this topic.
Grigg, N. (2010). Governance and Management for Sustainable
Water Systems. London: IWA Publishing.
IPCC (2007). Summary for Policymakers. IPCC Synthesis
Report.
Reiter, P. (2009). Water, Climate and Energy. IWA Member
Newsletter, no. 38.
McKay J 2011 Evidentiary Issues with the Implementation of
the Sustainability Duty of Care in the Basin Plan, chapter
published in the book Basin Futures: Water reform in the
Murray-Darling Basin, by Daniel Connell and R.Quentin
Grafton. ANu E Press ISBN 9781921862250.
NASA. Global Climate Change.
NOAA. Paleoclimatology.

Outfall Systems
Written by T. Bleninger and P.J.W. Roberts on behalf of the Specialist Group
Introduction
Worldwide, the use of marine outfall systems is increas-
ing rapidly. Submerged multiport diffusers are gaining
increased acceptance as effective means for the disposal
of treated municipal or industrial wastewater, storm water
and combined sewer overows, cooling water, and brine
concentrate from desalination plants into coastal waters.
Although this global trend has triggered advances in sci-
ence and technology for the design and construction of
such installations there are still considerable challenges for
Water Science, Research and Management.
The recent International Symposium on Outfall Systems,
held from 15 to 19 May 2011, in Mar del Plata, Argentina
(ISOS 2011) provided in its technical sessions information
on the state of the art of outfall system science and technol-
ogy, and discussed and dened the challenges during open-
forum meetings. Both will be summarised in this article.
Characteristics of outfall systems
A typical engineering system for marine wastewater dis-
posal is shown schematically in Figure 1. It usually consists
of a treatment plant and a discharge structure - the outfall.
The outfall is a pipeline or tunnel, or combination of the
two, which terminates in a diffuser that efciently mixes
the efuent in the receiving water. It thus follows two main
principles: (1) locate the disposal area into environmentally
less sensitive, and anthropogenically less used, offshore
regions, which in addition have higher mixing and assimi-
Figure 1. A marine outfall system: Treatment plant, outfall pipe, diffuser, and near eld (Roberts et al. 2010)
IWA Specialist Groups
lative characteristics, and (2) enhance the initial mixing by
multiport diffuser systems, providing efcient and fast ini-
tial mixing in a limited zone that reduces pollutant levels to
ambient standard requirements, and facilitates the natural
assimilative processes.
The size and discharge rates of these schemes vary
widely, but the outfalls typically range from 1 to 4 km long
and discharge into waters 2070 m deep. Some may lie
outside these ranges, for example lengths of 500 m or
less and discharge depths of 150 m or more when the
seabed slope is very steep, or lengths of more than 5 km
when the slope is very gradual. The disposal system can
be thought of as the treatment plant, outfall, diffuser, and
also the region round the diffuser (known as the near eld)
where rapid mixing and dilution occurs.
Marine wastewater discharges through outfalls have unique
characteristics that are shown in Figure 1. The wastewater
is usually ejected horizontally as round turbulent jets from
a multiport diffuser. The ports may be spaced uniformly
along both sides of the diffuser or clustered in risers
attached to the outfall pipe.
Buoyancy and oceanic density stratication play funda-
mental roles in determining the fate and transport of marine
discharges. Because the density of most efuents (i.e.
domestic sewage) is close to that of fresh water, it is very
buoyant in seawater. The jets therefore begin rising to the
surface and may merge with their neighbours as they rise.
The turbulence and entrainment induced by the jets causes
rapid mixing and dilution. The region in which this occurs is
called the near eld. If the water is deep enough, oceanic
37
 IWA Specialist Groups
density stratication may trap the rising plumes below the
water surface; they stop rising and begin to spread laterally.
The wasteeld then drifts with the ocean current and is dif-
fused by oceanic turbulence in a region called the far eld.
The rate of mixing, or increase of dilution, is much slower in
the far eld than in the near eld. As the wasteeld drifts,
particles may deposit on the ocean oor and oatables
may reach the ocean surface to be transported by wind
and currents. Finally, large-scale ushing and chemical
and biological decay processes removes contaminants and
prevents long-term accumulation of pollutants.
The mixing performance is usually expressed by a dilu-
tion value, which is a measure of contaminant concentra-
tion reduction. It is generally dened as the reciprocal of
the volume fraction of efuent in a sample (i.e. total sam-
ple volume volume of efuent in the sample). Dilutions
achieved within the near eld are typically of the order of
hundreds to even thousands to one. Multiport diffuser out-
falls are efcient mixing devices and if they are located
in regions with high transport and assimilative capacities
they can have minimal environmental impacts.
The fate and transport of discharged efuents is inu-
enced by processes that operate over a wide range of
length and time scales. The orders of magnitude of these
processes are tens of metres and minutes for the near-
eld, and kilometres and hours to days for the far-eld.
The near-eld is governed by the initial jet discharge
momentum and buoyancy uxes and outfall geometry
which inuence the efuent trajectory and mixing. Outfall
designers can usually affect the initial mixing characteris-
tics through appropriate manipulation of design variables,
thus inuencing effects within the near-eld region. In the
far-eld, ambient conditions control plume trajectory and
dilution through buoyant spreading motions and density
currents, passive diffusion, and advection by the usually
time-varying velocity eld.
Treatment and disposal: Public
involvement and Regulations
Wastewater systems, namely sewage collection and
wastewater treatment, have been growing rapidly in coun-
tries with advancing economies. Reports from the United
Nations Environmental Program (UNEP 2002, 2004)
and the World Bank (2007) indicate continuous growth
especially in South America and Asia. The rst keynote
given at the International Symposium on Outfall Systems
Figure 2. Mar del Plata shoreline discharge
38
(ISOS 2011) by Henry Salas (Salas 2011), formerly of the
Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), however,
indicated that many wastewater projects in Latin Amer-
ica did not yet conclude the outfall system. More than
10 large-scale projects (each more than 1 million popula-
tion served) were mentioned where almost completely raw
sewage has been continuously discharged at the shoreline
for more than 10 years. One example was observed by
the participants of ISOS 2011, as shown in Figure 2. Mar
del Plata (approximately 1 million inhabitants served) is
a major tourist resort of Argentina, currently discharges
their efuent (2.8 m/s) 9 km north the city, directly on
the shoreline.
Studies presented during ISOS 2011 showed consider-
able degradation of the shoreline ecosystem (Sanchez
et al. 2011, Haeften et al. 2011), including public health
risks due to high bacteria levels along the beaches, which
are currently controlled by efuent chlorination (Comino
et al. 2011). Studies on outfall systems for Mar del Plata
(Gyssels et al. 2011, Scagliola et al. 2011) indicated that
an optimal solution would be construction of a preliminary
treatment plant followed by an outfall 3.2 km long made
of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) with 2 m diameter
terminating in a diffuser 526 m long (Cardini 2011)
discharging in about 14 m water depth. The construction
of the outfall is currently in the nal phase, where pipe
sections are welded and stored in the harbor before laying
them in a dredged trench (see Figure 3).
The delays of wastewater and outfall projects seem to be
mainly related to political and administrative problems,
as well as poor understanding of those systems. There is
often a misconception that treatment results in a pure
and clean efuent which can be discharged directly on
the beaches. This leads often to underutilisation of outfall
technologies. On the other hand, this can lead to overly
expensive wastewater systems, as has been shown in
a second keynote on the ISOS (2011) given by Burton
H. Jones, Department of Biological Sciences, Univer-
sity of Southern California, USA, on Huntington Beach:
an in-depth study of sources of coastal contamina-
tion pathways and newer approaches to efuent plume
dispersion. He described intensive eld studies
showing that the political decision to upgrade the treat-
ment plant for the existing outfall did not solve the water
quality problems because the existing problems are not
related to the outfall (Jones 2011). Around 1 billion US
dollars was spent that could have been invested much
more productively.

Figure 3. Mar del Plata outfall pipes. Top left: Transport in lengths of 12m. Top right: welding in harbor. Bottom: Storing pipe
sections 500 m long in the harbour for transport to the nal outfall location.
Further technical papers (Bleninger et al. 2011, Baptistelli
& Marcelino 2011, Menendez et al. 2011) also illustrated
decient projects, but also presented solutions for
improved water quality regulations that will enhance the
efciency of controlling and managing such projects from
the regulatory side.
The open-forum sessions concluded that for coastal
wastewater systems there are no one size ts all solutions.
Instead coastal efuent management strategies should be
a blend of technologies to meet the environmental objec-
tives of the particular coastal region and water body uses,
and they should be tted to the particular characteristics
of the receiving waters. Thus, the focus should be on the
receiving waters, and not on treatment technology which
is mainly only needed to avoid discharges of acutely toxic
substances, oatables and settlable solids. It has been
shown in several cases that well planned outfall systems
are cost efcient solutions for coastal cities that have mini-
mal environmental impacts.
These conclusions allow formulation of the challenges fac-
ing Water Science, Research and Management in coastal
regions related to efuent discharges. Whereas coastal
water quality criteria (ambient standards) are nowadays
sometimes already set to regional characteristics and
IWA Specialist Groups
uses, it is more difcult to set standards for public health
protection (Kay et al. 2004). There are still numerous
outfall system projects where faecal indicator bacteria
concentrations are used as the only design criteria. And
often the commonly used WHO standard (World Health
Organization 2003) is used without regional validation.
Furthermore, beach and outfall monitoring worldwide
is based on counting bacterial growth of samples taken
in the target areas (with different statistical implications
related to sample frequencies and analysis). Results, and
the related consequences for public health protection are
thus delayed, and cannot be clearly related to pollution
sources nor characterised by their risk for public health.
Challenges are thus related to the improvement of genetic
(DNA) analyses of water samples to enable the detection
of viruses and pathogens directly and faster, allowing for
more efcient monitoring and risk management.
Another challenge is to improve public involvement and
the interactions between planners, designers, politicians,
administrators, and the public. Conventional planning,
bidding, and contracting schemes are quite decient in
that regard, and can result signicant (nancial) damages
to some projects. Public involvement from the beginning
needs to be improved to avoid the mentioned misconcep-
tions and to improve the understanding of outfall systems.
39
 IWA Specialist Groups
Advances in measuring environmental
systems
Coastal water quality management using outfall systems
requires detailed knowledge of the receiving water char-
acteristics. Various authors of ISOS 2011 unfortunately
reported that in Latin America there are several large-
scale projects where receiving water data is missing,
and not planned for in the project budgets. This puts
these projects in a critical position as designs cannot
be properly made nor project benets properly meas-
ured after commissioning. It is like building a hydro-
power plant without good knowledge of the hydrology.
They may not result in environment or public health risk,
because of often conservative design estimates. But they
may cause oversized and non-optimised systems, which
leads to much higher costs than detailed eld measure-
ments complemented with numerical studies would have
allowed. Thus, missing data can be barriers to outfall
system projects.
The missing data and the often missing complemen-
tary use of physical and numerical modeling methods is
in direct contrast to recent advances in obtaining data
for environmental uid systems. The second keynote on
the ISOS (2011) given by Burton H. Jones (Jones 2011)
and the third keynote presented by Peter Scanes, Ofce
of Environment and Heritage, Australia (Scanes 2011)
showed examples from the US and Australia on the devel-
opment and application of new measurement instruments,
combined with conventional eld campaigns and com-
prehensive mathematical modeling. Particular technical
advances are related to applications of surface current
radar, integrated observation schemes, submarine gliders
and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs, Rogowski
et al. 2011) for mapping submerged plumes and related
phenomena. The improvement and applications of tracer
studies using turbidity or salinity as alternatives (Pecly and
Roldo 2011a) to conventional uorescent tracers (Correa
& Yassuda 2011; Pecly and Roldo 2011b, c) are provid-
ing valuable data on ambient dispersion characteristics
and plume movement. The latter can be studied by using
GPS-equipped drifters set at different water depths, which
can be very helpful to validate mathematical hydrody-
namic models of coastal circulation and pollutant trans-
port (Roberts & Villegas 2011; Botelho et al. 2011; Miller
2011; Morelisson et al. 2011), particularly integrating
xed site current observations (Villegas & Roberts 2011).
In addition, technologies for laboratory experiments have
experienced signicant advances related to non-intrusive
optical measurement techniques, such as Particle-Image
Velocimetry (PIV), Particle-Tracking Velocimetry (PTV)
and Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) in 3D. These pro-
vide necessary validation data for mathematical models,
and can also be used to study complex ow phenomena
related to near eld mixing.
Challenges remain in applying the new laboratory
techniques at the eld level and to improve temporal
and spatial resolutions in the highly variable natural
environment. More eld studies are required, especially
related to improving the understanding of efuents other
than domestic sewage, for example, produced water,
desalination brine, LNG discharges (cold water), and inter-
mittent stormwater discharges.
40
Conclusions
Outfall systems are often perceived as polluters instead
of clean treatment systems, using the ocean as the nal
destination. However, considering the types of substances
discharged and the considerable assimilative capacities of
coastal waters, an outfall will always be part of a blend of
technologies for coastal water quality management. The
publics common misconceptions of disposal systems
and their associated public health risks, also related to
difculties in measuring them, are barriers for more ef-
cient coastal water quality control. Challenges are related
to improved understanding and communication of public
health and environmental risks and continuous monitoring
of associated parameters using advanced techniques in
the eld and the laboratory.
Challenges related to associated elds are related to con-
struction issues in coastal waters, where larger continu-
ously extruded HDPE pipes up to 2.5 m diameter, larger
spiral-wound pipes, and continuing development of tun-
neling and directional drilling techniques are now becom-
ing available. Better understanding of the receiving water
dynamics is also improving installation of outfalls (e.g. fore-
cast systems for installation periods, Clauzet et al. 2011),
submarine robot installations, and measurements during
installation (Cots et al 2011).
The challenge for the IAHR/IWA Joint Committee on
Marine Outfall Systems (www.outfalls.net.ms) are to
advance the science and technology of all aspects of dis-
charges from outfalls and their design, and to facilitate
communication between the diverse groups of practition-
ers, regulators, and nancing agencies in the eld. This
is especially important as the design and siting of sub-
marine outfalls is a complex task relying on many dis-
ciplines including oceanography, civil and environmental
engineering, marine biology, construction, economics,
and public relations.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the organisers and
sponsors of the recent International Symposium on Outfall
Systems, which allowed us to summarise its state of the art
information. In particular, we thank Ana Paula Comino and
Marcelo Scagliola for their continuous support, and Ente
Nacional de Obras Hdricas de Saneamiento, ENOHSA
(National Entity of Water and Sanitation Works, Argentina,
Eng. Edgardo Bortolozzi), Obras Sanitarias Mar del Plata
Sociedad de Estado, OSSE (Mar del Plata Public Works, Eng.
Mario dell`Olio), Municipalidad de General Pueyrredn, MGP
(Municipality of General Pueyrredn Party, Public Account-
ant Gustavo Pulti), AIDIS, the Inter-American Association of
Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, the World Bank in
cooperation with the Spanish Government, and the Inter-
American Development Bank for their sponsorship.
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Bleninger. T., Jirka, G.H., Roberts, P.J.W., Mixing Zone Regula-
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Cardini, J.C. The challenge of installing an outfall in the surf
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2011, Mar del Plata, Argentina (www.outfalls.info.ms).
Jones B. H. Huntington Beach: an in-depth study of sources
of coastal contamination pathways and newer approaches
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Kay, D., Bartram, J., Pruess, A., Ashbolt, N., Wyer, M. D.,
Fleisher, J. M., Fewtrell, L., Rogers, A. and Rees, G. (2004).
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Menndez A. N., Lopolito M. F., Badano N. D. and Re M. Inu-
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Miller B., Numerical modeling and eld trials for the Christchurch
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Pecly J. O. G. and Roldo J. S. F. (2011c). Dye tracers as a tool for
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outfalls: outfall design. Proc. Intl. Symposium on Outfall
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A. and Thomson, J. C. (2010). Marine Wastewater Outfalls
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Salas, H. Marine wastewater disposal in Latin America. Proc. Intl
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Vallarino & R. Elias, Massive polychaete reefs as indicator
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Mar del Plata, Argentina (www.outfalls.info.ms).
Scagliola M., Comino A.P., Haeften G., Gonzalez R., Integrated
coastal management strategy of Mar del Plata city and the
sewage outfall project. Proc. Intl. Symposium on Outfall
Systems, 1519 May 2011, Mar del Plata, Argentina (www.
outfalls.info.ms).
Scanes Peter, Monitoring environmental impact of ocean disposal
of sewage: experience from New South Wales, Australia,
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Mar del Plata, Argentina (www.outfalls.info.ms).
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Regional Seas, Need for Regional Wastewater Emissions
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41
 IWA Specialist Groups

Marketing and Communications

Written by Brita Forssberg on behalf of the Specialist Group

Communications: an important tool for Water from the tap is still an anonymous product that is
successful water management too much taken for granted. We who work in the water
sector have to do some serious work to change the images
of water and sanitation into the attractive resources they
The members of this Specialist Group are specialised gen-
really are. We have to enter the dynamic, public discus-
eralists and they work in different types of water organi-
sion using a language that everybody can understand and
sations. They have a university education in technical or
associate with.
other disciplines, often including communications or jour-
nalism. Their strength is to follow relevant occurrences
The Specialist Group sees the need to raise the prole,
and trends in society and use this information to inuence
status and esteem with which communications specialists
organisations, activities and services. They know how to
are viewed in the water industry, and to demonstrate their
inform and communicate proactively with different types
contribution to improving the management of water serv-
of interest groups (management, employees, custom-
ices in a wide perspective.
ers, suppliers, owners, nancers, society etc.) using their
capacity to adapt language and messages to the needs of
Many water managers are convinced that effective commu-
each group. They use a wide spectrum of activities related
nications create values and are decisive success factors.
to the present management visions and goals.
Many water managers engage in making their organisa-
tions more communicative. They develop their qualities as
The group will be a forum or network for the exchange and
communicators, leading and inspiring their employees to
sharing of experiences and best practice among commu-
communicate effectively in their different work situations.
nication specialists in water services organisations (both
It demands time and energy but in the longer run it is cost
water and sanitation) as there is a lot to learn from the
effective.
experience of others in order to understand what works
and what does not, e.g. in crisis management. It is worth
Sign board in Accra, Ghana:
considering that researchers state that 70% of crisis work
is communications! You say that education is expensive. But how about
ignorance?

Short definitions
Communication: the transfer of information between per-
sons.
Communications: the different media through which the
information is transmitted.
Information: the strategic messages that are the prerequi-
site for increased knowledge.
Communication: the message process that leads to
changes in attitudes or behaviour.
Relation: Mutual engagement that leads to action and
result.
Water management must change the
way people think
More and more water utilities realise that water manage-
ment is not rocket-technology; it is much more: you have
to change the way people think!
Modern technology and
communications
Professor Norihito Tambo said at the IWA Congress in
Montreal that people in general have understood the
energy agenda but not understood and not accepted the
water agenda.
The intent of the Marketing and Communications Group
is to put water higher on the public agenda by building
good relations and understanding between water utili-
ties and stakeholders - the wide range of customers and
water users who have many other (water) inuential roles
in society.
IWA members interested in marketing and communica-
tions increase in numbers. Many of them are involved in
Specialist Groups that focus on issues that are likely to
include or involve water users. It is important to realise,
though, that every water user is also a water polluter and
in reality part of the sanitation system or wastewater treat-
ment process. This puts extra weight on management and
communications.

42

New technology affects water. New technology attracts
interest from media and the public, especially if it affects
health and the environment. We as a Specialist Group are
interested in sharing our professional experiences from
communications with experts in other elds at relevant
workshops, seminars or discussions. We will also offer to
arrange special workshops on communications during IWA
conferences.
A member of the Marketing and Communications Special-
ist Group writes:
A personal diagnosis of the current situation could be
summarized by saying that marketing and communi-
cation development is not keeping up pace with the
technological modernization of the water sector. The
general trend such as general management strat-
egies, technological novelties, modernization invest-
ments required for better quality etc. representing
the primary interest themes in the major international
water sector related events, often took precedence
over themes related to better communication, aware-
ness and customer relations.
The general discussion trends within the water sec-
tor today are shaped by technical specialists, leading
to a perception that the main stakeholder in effectively
performing this vital public service the end user, the
customer, the community is left out. Although the
results of the efforts made by technical people in the
water sector often remain invisible/unseen to the gen-
eral public: most of the networks are below ground,
water and waste water treatment facilities are outside
cities etc. A simple motto for the PR activity could be
Make a very good job and then talk about it. that the challenges we face make it clear that we dont
Another Specialist Group member says we must use com-
munications to make technology really work.
Learn from the successful
Communications are necessary management components
to help reach business goals; create support for utility
operations; make technology really work; build environ-
mental awareness; build customer and consumer trust;
obtain and keep the condence of owners, politicians and
investors; build good media relations.
Journalists, blogs and Facebook form your customers opin-
ions. It is necessary to meet them on their own terms.
Our common goal is to make water visible, interesting and
accepted. As a monopoly we have to choose our own com-
petitors. We can learn from model enterprises that com-
municate well:
Tap water in New York has been handled,
treated and developed with the greatest care both
IWA Specialist Groups
technically, environmentally and communicatively
into the best drinking water in the world. NY is one of
ve large US cities that dont have to lter the drink-
ing water.
The Vienna Waterworks arrange smart campaigns
and have built such a good reputation that the drink-
ing water is considered one of the things a Viennese
would miss when being away from town. They arrange
excursions for you to enjoy water ... and like in NY they
tend their Facebook relations.
There are many open and communicative utilities that
engage in campaigns to inuence society.
The Specialist Group recognises outstanding work of
professionals in the water sector through its bi-annual
communications award which is now included in the
IWA Project Innovation Award (PIA) as its sixth category:
Marketing and Communications. The rst winners will be
presented in 2012.
Recruiting competent personnel
Times are changing, the world is changing, attitudes are
changing and we the water people must learn and adapt
to these changes. We have to face higher demands on per-
formance. Risks are greater now than only a few decades
ago. We must attract and recruit personnel with the right
competence.
A colleague writes: Is it so that the changes that the water
sector has started lead to a very heavy work load? Is it so
have the personnel resources needed? The amount of
work and the stress are increasing as we are facing great
challenges as for water catchment protection, security, big
investment needs. Do other businesses have the same
situation?
Successful recruitment is difcult unless the water utilities
and organisations are known and respected, considered
interesting and attractive. Effective communications are
necessary.
The student recruitment campaign Istudywater by the
Dutch consultancy rm DHV was the Overall Winner of the
IWA Marketing and Communications Award 2010.
Conclusions
The communication experts, the specialist generalists,
have a key role in complementing water managers and
water experts when building more communicative organi-
sations for a successful future in closer relationship with
water users/stakeholders on all levels in society.
43
 IWA Specialist Groups
Membrane Technology
Written by Roger Ben Aim, Corinne Cabassud, Val Frenkel, How Yong NG, Vigneswaren,
Masaru Kurihara, Jan Hofman, Ismail Koyuncu, Xia Huang, Mark Wiesner,
Chunghak Lee on behalf of the Specialist Group
Introduction
In recent years membrane technologies have started to play
a vital role in solving water scarcity on the planet, which
is in close association with global climate change. The
major reasons are that membranes allow not only effective
separation of various contaminants from water sources to
achieve the required quality, but also exploration of water
resources from non-traditional sources such as wastewater
and seawater for direct or indirect portable reuse.
The objective of the Membrane Technology Specialist Group
(MTSG) is to educate professionals and public around the
globe without barriers about membrane technologies and
to promote and exchange knowledge on membrane tech-
nology. Special attention is paid to the young professionals
who will increasingly encounter membrane technologies in
their professional life.
The group consists of a vast spectrum of active members
(scientists, researchers, engineers, membrane industry
professionals and end-users.) in academic, industrial and
public sectors. The group has grown to be one of the larg-
est Specialist Groups within IWA. As of July 2011, it has
1,652 members from 88 countries.
The MTSG holds the international and regional bi-annual
conferences and special workshops on specic topics
relevant to membrane technologies for water/wastewater
treatment, water reuse and desalination. The following
MTSG international and regional conferences have been
held and will be held with the sponsorship of IWA :
the International MTSG conference (1st) in Tokyo, Japan
(1999);
the International MTSG conference (2nd) in Tel Aviv,
Israel (2001);
the International MTSG conference (3rd) in Seoul, Korea
(2004);
the International MTSG conference (4th) in Harrogate,
UK (2007);
the Regional MTSG conference (1st) in Moscow, Russia
(2008);
the International MTSG conference (5th) in Beijing,
China (2009);
the Regional MTSG conference (2nd) in Istanbul, Turkey
(2010);
the International MTSG conference (6th) will be held in
Aachen, Germany (2011);
the International MTSG conference will be held (7th) in
Toronto, Canada (2013).
44
The MTSG is led by its management committee. The cur-
rent chair is Professor Chung-Hak Lee (Seoul National Uni-
versity, Korea), the vice-chairs are Professor Franz-Bernd
Frechen (University of Kassel, Germany) and Professor
Vigid S. Vigneswaran (University of Technology, Sydney,
Australia), the secretary is Dr Val Frenkel (Kennedy/Jenks
Consultants, USA), and the treasurer is Professor Xia
Huang (Tsinghua University, China).
Information about MTSG members and group activ-
ity can be found on the Groups website (http://www.
iwa-membrane.org) or the IWA website (http://www.
iwahq.org).
Existing MTSG knowledge
Membrane Market
Membrane technologies have inltrated every corner of
water and wastewater treatment such as municipal and
industrial water, advanced wastewater treatment and
reuse, sea and brackish water desalination (Frenkel 2010).
The major reasons are the unique features of membranes
in providing complete treatment and solving the water
shortage problems that are in close association with global
climate change. This has helped in accelerating the grow-
ing rate of membrane market.
Membrane Market: Current Situation
During the past 10 years, the annual growth rate of
reverse osmosis (RO) desalination, microltration (MF)/
ultraltration (UF) membranes for drinking water treat-
ment, and membrane bioreactors (MBRs) for wastewater
treatment and reuse has been 17, 20 and 15% respec-
tively. The reasons for this have been the similar capital,
operation and maintenance costs as that of conventional
treatment processes, a smaller footprint, fewer chemical
requirements and much better pollutant removals. The
energy requirement has been relatively high, although this
is reducing with the rapid advance in R&D activities in
this eld.
The membrane market was strong in 2010 while it was
quite different between market sectors and particular
places, regions and countries around the globe. In general
in 2010 the strongest membrane markets were sea water
desalination by reverse osmosis (SWRO) and MBR tech-
nologies. A similar trend can be expected in 20112016,
as shown in the Table 1.
 IWA Specialist Groups

Table 1. Forecast on membrane market (billions US$) for There is important growth in MBR plant sizes around the
20112016 (Kwok et al. 2010) world, as shown in Table 2 (Simon Judd). The nine larg-
est MBRs constructed or under construction have a peak
3
Market sectors using membranes 2011 2016 daily ow of more than 100,000 m /day.

Desalination pretreatment 0.05 0.13 Membrane Market: Current Barriers

Membrane bioreactors 0.53 0.90
Drinking water 0.17 0.33
Tertiary wastewater treatment 0.16 0.39
Industrial applications 0.16 0.30
Subtotal MF/UF membranes 1.07 2.05
RO/NF (nanoltration) 0.33 0.51
Industrial applications
RO/NF Desalination 0.42 0.67
Subtotal NF/RO membranes 0.75 1.18
Total MF/UF/NF/RO membranes 1.81 3.25
The membrane market in 2011 is forecasted to be US$1.8
billion, but it is estimated to increase to US$ 3.25 billion
over the next 5 years (about 80% growth), taking into
account only the MF/UF/NF/RO membranes. However, it
is worth noting that the estimation of membrane market
has great uctuation depending on the data sources. For
example, global world market of membranes for water and
wastewater treatment in 2011 is also evaluated at about 4
billion dollars (http://www.oecdrccseoul.org/article/global-
membrane-market-for-water-and-wastewater-treatment).
In addition, MBR world market in 2011 is also estimated
at about US$380 million (http://bccresearch.blogspot.
com/2011/07/global-membrane-bioreactors-mbr-market.
html).
The growth rate of the SWRO market has been driven by
the needs of the recent water supplies in places that are
in the reasonable proximity to the ocean. Recent SWRO
3
plants are large, with a capacity of 100,000 m /day or
more. For example, currently the largest operating mem-
brane desalination plant in the USA is the Tampa Bay
3
SWRO, with a capacity of 95,000 m /day (with provision
3
for up to 130,000 m /day expansion). The largest SWRO
plant in the world under construction currently is the
3
Magta plant in Algeria, with a capacity of 500,000 m /day
(Kurihara 2011).
The MBR market has been driven by needs for recycled
water, upgrading of ageing facilities with challenged acqui-
sition of the additional land and by the need for additional
water by the industrial sector. In Europe, GE Water Tech-
nologies-Zenon (hollow-bre) and Kubota (at-sheet) have
supplied most membrane equipment for the large MBR
plants. However, new companies with novel concepts
of membrane module design are slowly penetrating into
municipal and industrial MBR markets. Therefore erce
competition in the MBR membrane and equipment market
supply can be expected in the coming years and expo-
nential growth of the MBR market as a result (Lesjean
et al. 2011).
In general, much current R&D on membrane technolo-
gies is related to analysis and control of membrane fouling,
which is a chronic trouble for the operation of all mem-
brane types. The reason is that the reduction of the rela-
tively high energy demand to operate membrane plants
still remains one of the key considerations for membrane
processes over conventional treatment technologies, and
the higher energy consumption is in close association with
membrane fouling. In the coming years, many efforts will
be dedicated to managing membrane fouling and reducing
operational energy.
Disposal of membrane concentrate is another challenge
of membrane processes, especially if high pressure NF
and/or RO membrane systems are used for salty and high
concentrated industrial efuents. Recently, many studies
on membrane distillation/crystallization, forward osmosis
and pressure-retarded osmosis have started to address
the disposal of membrane concentrate.
Membrane Market: Current Drivers
There are also many factors inuencing membrane mar-
ket. These are decreasing investment and operational
costs, new and more stringent legislations on efuent
discharges, local water scarcity, increasing condence in
membrane technologies, compact footprint of membrane
plants compared with other technologies, and high ef-
ciency of salt removals, which will accelerate penetration
of membrane technology to several market areas in the
near future.
Membrane Standardization
The high pressure membranes such as RO and NF become
commodities items well standardized across the indus-
try and the most common high pressure element sized 8
inches 40 inches (200 mm 1,000 mm) can be found
in any RO/NF facility around the world. As RO/NF facili-
ties becoming larger in size the high diameter RO sized 16
inches (400 mm) diameter or 18 inches (450 mm) found
their place in the design of the new desalination plants.
Low-pressure membranes are still not standardized across
the industry and this situation complicates the develop-
ment of the MF/UF projects including MBR. More time
is required to develop and procure MF/UF projects than
is otherwise possible, resulting in more costly projects.
However, there are numerous signs of the standardization
of low-pressure membranes with MF/UF as membrane
manufacturers are following up the after-sale market offer-
ing membrane replacement to the operational MF/UF and
MBR facilities (Frenkel 2010).
As part of the Amedeus European research project, a
report about MBR standardization including recommen-
dations has been recently published (De Wilde et al. 2007,
www.mbr-network.eu)

45
 IWA Specialist Groups

Table 2. The 20 largest MBRs in the world? (Simon Judd, http://www.thembrsite.com/features.php) (ML/day)

Installation Supplier Date PDF ADF

Brightwater, WA, USA GE 2011 170 117

Qinghe, China OW/MRC 2011 150 150

North Las Vegas, NV, USA GE 2011 133 95

Yellow River, GA, USA GE 2011 111 69

Shiyan Shendinghe, China OW/MRC 2009 110 110

Aquaviva, Cannes, France GE 2012 106 59

Bus an City, Korea GE 2012 100 100

Guangzhou, China Memstar 2010 100

Wenyuhe, Beijing, China OW/Asahi Kasei 2007 100 100

Johns Creek, GA, USA GE 2009 94 42

Awaza, Turkmenistan GE 2011 87 69

Jordan Basin WRF, UT, USA GE 2012 79 53

Beixiaohe, China Siemens 2008 78

Al Ansab, Muscat, Oman Kubota 2010 77 55

Cleveland Bay, Australia GE 2009 75 29

Broad Run WRF, VA, USA GE 2008 71 38

Christies Beach, Australia GE 2011 68 27

Incheon, Korea Econity 2012 65

Lusail, Oatar GE 2011 61 61

Ecosama, Sao Paulo, Brazil Koch 2012 61 57

MRC, Mitsubishi Rayon Corporation; OW, Origin Water; PDF, peak daily ow; ADF, average daily ow.

General trends and challenges up to now in worldwide research should be re-examined,

Membrane Fouling
In general, much current R&D on membrane technolo-
gies is related to analysis and control of membrane fouling,
which is the chronic challenge for operation of all membrane
types. The reason is that the reduction of the relatively high
energy demand to operate membrane plants still remains
one of the drawbacks of membrane processes over con-
ventional treatment technologies, and higher energy con-
sumption is closely associated with membrane fouling.
Much research is underway to mitigate membrane foul-
ing, thereby to reduce energy demand to operate low (MF,
UF) and high pressure (NF, RO) membranes. Some newer
membrane technologies are knocking the door.
In 2010, two particularly instructive review articles address-
ing biofouling in MBR were published by Drews (2010)
and Xiong et al. (2010).
Drews pointed out that many contradictory conclusions
on membrane fouling in MBR that have been reported
because a large variety of non-standardized fouling char-
acterization methods were used.
Xiong reviewed and emphasized various biological meth-
ods that have great potential in controlling membrane
biofouling, because they have the advantages of high ef-
ciency, low toxicity, and less bacterial resistance develop-
ment over traditional physicochemical methods. As one
example of the biological method, the recent study by
Yeon et al. (2009) showed that the quorum sensing inhi-
bition method, for example the addition of an enzyme to
inactivate signal molecules, has advantages of non-toxicity
and high antibiofouling efciency. Further study is needed
to conrm such a quorum quenching effect on the control
of biofouling in full-scale MBR plants.
Enhancing membrane performance with
nanomaterials
Next-generation membranes are being developed that
incorporate nanomaterials, such as zeolites, carbon nano-
tubes, silver nanoparticles and others to improve membrane

46

properties and performance. These membranes have
higher uxes, resist breakage to a much greater extent,
and/or exhibit reduced biofouling. Membrane processes
based on even more advanced nanoscale control of mem-
brane architecture may ultimately allow for multi-functional
membranes that not only separate water from contami-
nants, but also actively clean themselves and check for
damage, detect contaminants, or combine detection, reac-
tion and separation.
Several nanomaterials are used for the formation of organ-
icinorganic porous composite membranes such as Al2O3,
TiO2, SiO2, nAg (silver nanoparticles), CNT (carbon nano-
tube), chitosan and others. These nanomaterials improve
membrane properties, such as (1) increased skin layer
thickness, (2) higher surface porosity of the skin, (3) sup-
pressed macrovoid formation, and (4) higher permeability
of the membrane (Taurozzi et al. 2008).
The very efcient transport of water through CNT mem-
branes seems promising for energy reduction in seawater
desalination. However, the road to useful industrial appli-
cations of CNT membranes may be yet a long and arduous
one owing to the selectivity and cost requirements (Verweij
2007). Maximous et al. (2009) prepared PES ultraltration
membrane with entrapping Al2O3 nanoparticles and used
this membrane at the activated sludge ltration. Al2O3
nanoparticles decreased the adhesion or the adsorption
of the EPS on the membrane surface and increased the
ltration performance of membrane.
In particular, incorporation of quorum quenching nanoma-
terials makes the membranes reactive instead of a simple
physical barrier. Kim et al. (2011) prepared an acylase-
immobilized nanoltration membrane with quorum
quenching activity. This membrane prohibited biofouling,
namely the formation of mature biolm on the membrane
surface owing to the reduced secretion of EPS.
Overall, these nanomaterials could contribute to the devel-
opment of specic membranes in many desired ways. One
challenge in the future will be to use these developments
to tailor membranes for processes that rely on driving
forces other than pressure, such as forward osmosis or
membrane distillation.
Forward Osmosis (FO) and Membrane
Distillation (MD)
In the context of climate change, the environmental and
energy issues become essential and must be taken into
account in the design of membrane systems and in their
mode of operation, so that membrane processes remain
or become competitive. The relatively high energy demand
to operate conventional pressure driven membrane proc-
esses (MF, UF, NF, RO) still remains a challenge to be man-
aged. As alternatives to reverse osmosis (RO), membrane
distillation (MD) and forward osmosis (FO) are being con-
sidered for low-energy seawater desalination and waste-
water reuse
Forward Osmosis (FO)
FO, a novel low-energy and natural process, has been sig-
nicantly developed in the past few years as an alterna-
tive membrane technology for desalination. Many studies
IWA Specialist Groups
on the use of FO for industrial and domestic applications
can be found in literature. During the past decade, FO has
been studied in wastewater treatment, seawater desalina-
tion, the food industry for stream concentration, as well as
for purifying water in emergency situations. New and high
performance FO membranes are being researched (Chou
et al. 2010; Wang et al. 2010).
In September 2008, Modern Water (Guildford, UK) built
the worlds rst FO desalination plant in Gibraltar on the
Mediterranean Sea. This local plant successfully com-
pleted testing procedures of the product water and, since
May 2009, water has been supplied to the local commu-
nity. A year later, in September 2009, a larger desalina-
tion plant was commissioned in the Sultanate of Oman at
Al Khaluf. This new plant shares pre-treatment facilities
with an existing RO desalination plant, providing a good
opportunity to compare both technologies. Results were
better than expectations, especially on resistance to foul-
ing and product water quality. Moreover, despite the very
bad quality of the source seawater, the FO membranes
have not been cleaned or replaced over the year of opera-
tion. In contrast, RO membranes from the other desalina-
tion plant had to be cleaned every two to four weeks and
had been replaced over the one year operation time. This
clearly demonstrates the low fouling propensity of the FO
process compared with the RO membrane process.
Other key advantages of the FO desalination process
are (1) the energy consumption is lower by more than
30% compared with conventional RO, (2) chlorine toler-
ance and compatibility with a variety of biocides with FO
membranes, (3) inherently low product boron levels, and
(4) higher availability than conventional RO plant owing to
low fouling and simple cleaning when required.
The success of the FO process at the industrial level
depends on how to prepare an efcient FO membrane
having minimal internal and external concentration polari-
zations as well as how to separate salt free water effectively
from the draw solution (Ng et al. 2006).
Membrane Distillation (MD)
MD uses hydrophobic porous membranes as supports for
a liquid/vapour interface and the vapour is transported in
the membrane pores by diffusion. Indeed MD is particu-
larly interesting because the principle itself of the trans-
fer and selectivity of these membranes does not depend
on the osmotic pressure of the solution as for the RO or
the FO.
Recent work has shown the use of the MD process for
the over-concentration of brines up to very high salt con-
centrations and thus for improving the recovery of RO
plants (Mricq et al. 2010), for the crystallization of salts
for their valorization (Ji 2010). Another interesting applica-
tion is when coupling the MD process with solar energies
(Mricq et al. 2011; Guilln-Burrieza et al. 2011) or the
recovery of heat, which can make MD become a sustain-
able process. The work in progress on this topic through-
out the world relates to the design and development of new
membrane modules (Winter et al. 2011) and integrated
systems, and on the characterization and long-term con-
trol of membrane fouling and its properties (Krivorot et al.
2011). Some platforms with long-term testing of the MD
system coupled with solar energy or waste heat recovery
47
 IWA Specialist Groups
are under operation in many countries such as the Neth-
erlands, Spain, Tunisia and Singapore.
Conclusions and outlook
Membrane fouling and energy consumption when oper-
ating membrane processes are still important challenges
that need to be optimized and improved using innovative
tools and technologies, as well as best operational prac-
tices. Nevertheless, for a wide range of applications in
several areas, membrane treatment is becoming a com-
petitive and economically viable option.
The main factors inuencing the rapid growth of mem-
brane technology are the following:
(1) multiple global challenges such as energy/resource
shortage, climate change and rapid population
growth;
(2) improvement in membrane materials and modules;
and
(3) operational stability such as better antifouling, integrity
testing of membrane processes.
The key drawbacks of membrane technologies are high
energy consumption and relatively high cost. In addition,
questions still remain about the durability and lifespan of
the membranes: the 20-year lifespan claimed by manufac-
turers in continuous MBRs has yet to be proved through
operational experience.
Owing to its aforementioned intrinsic properties, mem-
brane technology will be the centre of one of the core
technologies for us to face multiple challenges in the
future. Membrane technology will provide great help to
meet ve of the fteen Global Challenges (TMP 2011)
for Humanity, namely sustainable development and cli-
mate change, water scarcity and water quality, balance
population and resources, health issues and reduction of
diseases and immune microbes, renewable energy and
energy conversion.
References
Chou S., Shi L., Wang R., Tang C.Y, Qiu C. and Fane A.G.
(2010) Characteristics and potential applications of a novel
forward osmosis hollow ber membrane. Desalination
261(3), 365372.
Drews A. (2010), Membrane fouling in membrane bioreactors-
characterisation, contradictions, cause and cures. Journal
of Membrane Science 363, 128.
Frenkel, V. (2010) Membrane technologies for water and waste-
water treatment. International Water Association Conference
IWA-2010, June 24, 2010, Moscow, Russia.
Guilln-Burrieza E. et al. (2011) Experimental analysis of an air
gap membrane distillation solar desalination pilot system.
Journal of Membrane Science 379(12), 386396.
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Ji X., Curcio E., Obaidani S.A., Proo G.D., Fontananova E. and
Drioli E. (2010) Membrane distillation-crystallization of
seawater reverse osmosis brines. Separation and Purication
Technology 71(1), 7682.
Judd, S., the MBR site, http://www.thembrsite.com/features.
php.
Kim J.H., Choi D.C., Yeon K.M., Kim S.R. and Lee, C.H. (2011)
Enzyme-immobilized nanoltration membrane to mitigate
biofouling based on quorum quenching. Environmental
Science and Technology 45, 16011607.
.Krivorot M., Kushmaro A., Oren Y. and Gilron J. (2011) Factors
affecting biolm formation and biofouling in membrane
distillation of seawater. Journal of Membrane Science
376 (12), 15-24.
Kwok S.C., Lang H. and OCallaghan P. (2010) Water Technology
Markets 2010: key opportunities and emerging trends.
Global Water Intelligence.
Kurihara M. (2011) International Conference on Seawater Desali-
nation & Wastewater Reuse, Quingdao, China, June 21.
Lesjean B., Tazi-Pain A., Thaure D., Moeslang H. and Buisson H.,
(2011) Ten persistent myths and the realities of membrane
bioreactor technology for municipal applications. Water
Science and Technology 63(1), 3239.
Maximous, N., Nakhla, G., Wan, W. and Wong, K. (2009) Prepa-
ration, characterization and performance of Al2O3 /PES
membrane for wastewater ltration. Journal of Membrane
Science 341, 6775.
Mricq, J.P., Laborie, S. and Cabassud, C., (2010) Vacuum
membrane distillation of seawater reverse osmosis brines.
Water Research 44(18), 52605273.
Mricq JP., Laborie S. and Cabassud C., (2011) Evaluation of
systems coupling vacuum membrane distillation and solar
energy for seawater desalination. Chemical Engineering
Journal 166(2), 596606.
Ng, H.Y., Tang, W. and Wong, W.S. (2006) Performance of
forward (direct) osmosis process: membrane structure
and transport phenomenon. Environmental Science and
Technology 40, 24082413.
Taurozzi, J.S., Arul, H., Bosak, V. Z., Burban, A.F., Voice, T.C.,
Bruening, M.L. and Tarabara, V.V. (2008) Effect of ller
incorporation route on the properties of polysulfonesilver
nanocomposite membranes of different porosities. Journal
of Membrane Science 325, 5868.
TMP (The Millennium Project) (2001) Global challenges for
humanity, Available at <http://www.millennium-project.org/
millennium/challenges.html> (assessed July, 2011).
Verweij, H., Schillo M. and Li J. (2007) Fast mass transport
through carbon nanotube membranes. Small 3, 1996
2004.
Wang, R., Shi, L., Tang, C.Y., Chou, S., Qiu, C. and Fane, A.G.
(2010) Characterization of novel forward osmosis hollow
ber membranes. Journal of Membrane Science 355(12),
158167.
Winter, D., Koschikowski, J. and Wieghaus, M., (2011) Desalination
using membrane desalination; experimental studies on full
scale spiral wound modules. Journal of Membrane Science
375(12), 104112.
Xiong, Y. and Liu, Y. (2010) Biological control of micro-
bial attachment: a promising alternative for mitigating
membrane biofouling. Applied Microbiology and Biotech-
nology 86, 825837.
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 IWA Specialist Groups

Metals and related substances

in drinking water
Written by Colin R. Hayes on behalf of the Specialist Group

Introduction (EU) and US standards that apply, their main signicance

Contamination of drinking water by metals and metalloids
can occur throughout the supply chain from source to tap
due to industrial efuents, natural sources, water treat-
ment chemicals, water mains and domestic pipe-work
systems.
The metals and metalloids most commonly associated with
drinking water are listed in Table 1 together with the World
Health Organization (WHO) guidelines, European Union
and the principal control options.
All water supply systems in the world, particularly piped
supplies, are susceptible to problems arising from one
or more metals or metalloids, many of which are health
related. The impact in economic terms is likely measurable
in trillions of US dollars/ EU euros and yet, all too often,
problems with metals and metalloids are not fully appreci-
ated, if at all, due to monitoring deciencies. Three major
issues are described in the sections that follow.

Table 1. Metals and metalloids in drinking water

WHO EU US
Metal or Guideline standard standard
metalloid (g/l) (g/l) (g/l) H A MB Control

Aluminium 100 200 200 50 200 Source treatment and process control
Antimony 20 5 6 Source treatment (rare)
Arsenic 10 10 10 Source treatment (common)
Barium 700 2000 Source treatment (rare)
Boron 2400 1000 Source treatment (rare)
Cadmium 3 5 5 Source protection (industry)
Calcium Source and point-of-use treatment
Chromium 50 50 100 Source protection (industry)
Copper 2000 2000 1300 Restrict use and corrosion control
Iron 200 300 Source treatment and pipe rehabilitation
Lead 10 25 (10) 15 Pipe removal and corrosion control
Magnesium Source and point-of-use treatment
Manganese 50 50 Source treatment
Mercury 6 1 2 Source protection (industry)
Molybdenum Source treatment (rare)
Nickel 70 20 Restrict use and corrosion control
Selenium 40 10 Source treatment (rare)
Sodium 200,000 Source treatment or blending
Uranium 30 30 Source treatment (rare)
Zinc Restrict use and corrosion control

H, health; A, aesthetic; MB, mineral balance.

49
 IWA Specialist Groups
Arsenic
Arsenic is present in the Earths crust and sediments, par-
ticularly in volcanic regions and sediments in the deltaic
regions. Groundwater in contact with arsenic bearing rock
strata or sediments can become contaminated to levels
many times those considered safe for human ingestion.
Potential health effects include skin damage, problems
with circulatory systems, and increased risks of getting
bladder cancer or diabetes.
In Bangladesh, around half the population are suffering
from chronic arsenic poisoning as a consequence of inges-
(1)
tion from drinking water . In Europe, numerous ground-
water abstractions are affected in countries such as Italy,
Hungary and Serbia. Corrective treatment technologies
are well developed, such as ltration through activated iron
oxide, but relatively costly. The development of absorption
methods using bone char, chitin or coconut husks offer
more affordable solutions in developing nations. Some
European countries are seeking temporary derogations
from the legal standard, to give more time for the imple-
mentation of major improvement programmes.
Problems with arsenic in drinking water are probably not
fully appreciated. Even with the larger municipal scale sys-
tems, the extent of monitoring varies. Small and very small
water supply systems, many of which are privately owned,
are a cause for concern because monitoring is often not
undertaken at all and expertise is lacking to do meaning-
ful risk assessments. Over 10% of the European popula-
tion and about 15% of the US population get their drinking
water from small and very small supply systems. Other
regions of the World will have a similar or worse position.
Lead
Since the early 1970s, standards for lead in drinking water
have tightened considerably as health effects became
clearer, particularly reductions in the IQ of children. The
(2)
World Health Organization , in its booklet in 2010 on
Childhood Lead Poisoning has drawn attention to the
following:
recent research that indicates that lead is associated
with neurobehavioural damage at blood levels of 5 g/dl
and even lower, and that there appears to be no thresh-
old level below which lead causes no injury to the devel-
oping human brain;
an increase in blood lead level from less than 1 to 10
g/dl has been associated with an IQ loss of 6 points
and further IQ losses of between 2.5 and 5 have been
associated with an increase in blood level over the range
10 to 20 g/dl.
The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives
re-evaluated lead in June 2010 and withdrew the provi-
sional tolerable weekly intake guideline value for lead on
the grounds that it was inadequate to protect against IQ
loss (2). This guideline value had been used as part of the
basis for determining WHOs guideline value for lead in
drinking water of 10 g/l, that was published in the third
edition of Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality in 2004
(3)
and 2008 . To put this into perspective, epidemiological
(4)
studies suggest, as a general relationship, that 20 g/l
50
lead in drinking water (as an average) can be associated
with a blood lead level of between 10 and 15 g/dl. WHO
has just published its 4th Edition of Guidelines for Drinking
(5)
Water Quality and retained the guideline value for lead
of 10 g/l, but as a provisional guideline on the basis of
treatment performance and analytical achievability. The
current WHO guideline value therefore offers little or no
safety margin for children and a further tightening might
be justied in the future.
The full extent of problems with lead in drinking water is
(6)
unclear due to a range of monitoring deciencies . In
Europe, the EU Member States failed to agree a harmo-
nised monitoring method for lead, copper and nickel at
consumers taps. In consequence some countries are not
monitoring at all for regulatory purposes, some take sam-
ples from the distribution network (where there is normally
no lead present) and others take samples from consum-
ers taps but only after ushing the pipe-work (any lead is
(6)
ushed away before sampling). However, case studies
based on random daytime sampling of water supply sys-
tems in several EU countries have found non-compliance
with the WHO guideline value ranging from less than 10%
to over 50%, with around half having non-compliance
between 20 and 30%. There is an obvious need for many
European countries to clarify the extent of compliance of
their water supply systems with the WHO guideline value
of 10 g/l. In the US, the stagnation sampling protocol
used by the Lead Copper Rule is susceptible to a range of
variables, particularly distortion from water stood in non-
lead pipe-work, and problems may also have been under-
estimated although this has yet to be quantied.
Most lead in drinking water comes from the lead pipes
that were used to connect a home to the water main in the
street and are still in service. In Europe, it seems possible
that up to 25% of homes still have lead pipes, putting 1
in 4 children at risk. In the US and Canada it is estimated
that about 3% of homes have lead pipes. In some circum-
stances, lead leaching from brass and galvanic corrosion
of leaded solder can also cause problems. One obvious
solution is to take out all the lead pipes but there are
problems, including: (1) high cost; (2) disruption; (3) split
owner-ship; and (4) the refusal of consumers to cooper-
ate. Just taking out the lead pipes owned by the water
company does not solve the problem and can even make
matters worse in the short term with increased lead con-
centrations caused by physical disturbance of the pipe-
work. Recognising the possible extent of problems, there
is a need for water companies to operate corrosion control
in their supply systems. Optimal plumbosolvency control
will likely entail pH elevation (to between 8 and 9) and/or
the dosing of a corrosion inhibitor, the most effective being
orthophosphate at typical doses of 1 to 1.5 mg/l (as P).
In the UK, 95% of water supplies are dosed with ortho-
phosphate, at an optimum concentration, and over 99%
of random daytime samples now comply with the WHO
guideline value of 10 g/l.
General corrosion control
The corrosive potential of drinking water has long been
under-estimated. Corrosion of cast iron water mains has
resulted in poor pressure, increased bursts, higher levels
of leakage and signicant discolouration problems. The

cost of replacing corroded iron mains, or their refurbish-
ment, is very high and at the national level can total many
billions of US dollars/EU euros. Silicate and polyphosphate
based corrosion inhibitors can partly ameliorate problems
with old iron mains, but are no substitute for mains reha-
bilitation. Systems with slightly acidic water supplies and
very low alkalinity, as commonly derived in mountainous
areas, are particularly corrosive, made worse by the pres-
ence of fulvic and humic acids (organic acids that leach
from bog-land).
Corrosion problems can also be signicant when drink-
ing water passes through domestic pipe-work and, addi-
tional to problems with lead (see above), include: (1)
failure of copper pipe-work as a consequence of pitting
corrosion; (2) failure of brass ttings due to dezincica-
tion; (3) leaching of nickel from nickel-chrome plated
components; (4) leaching of cadmium from galvanised
iron pipe-work; and (5) failure of galvanised iron pipes
once the protective zinc layer has dissipated. In various
ways, the quality of the drinking water strongly inuences
these corrosion problems, examples being pH (both high
and low), chloride and natural organic matter. This implies
a close link with source water quality and the extent and
reliability of its treatment. In this context, the nal water
quality after desalination requires careful consideration.
Looking to the future
At the prompting of the World Health Organization (3, 5),
the global water supply sector is increasingly implement-
ing a risk managed approach to operations, through
Drinking Water Safety Plans, on a source to tap basis.
It is important that corrosion control needs are prop-
erly identied through adequate awareness, appropriate
monitoring and any other investigations that might be
necessary, such as water corrosivity testing. A major and
immediate priority must be to optimise corrosion control
to reduce lead in drinking water. Concurrently, it will be
important for the deciencies in the regulation of metals
in drinking water quality to be rectied, and for regulatory
and testing systems that control the use of metal materi-
als to be effective.
The prospect of a future possible tightening of WHOs
guideline value for lead in drinking water is very daunt-
ing as it seems likely that even optimised corrosion control
will not be capable of securing compliance. As a matter of
priority, policy makers should be developing strategies for
total lead pipe replacement, which could include legisla-
tion to force owners to certify their homes as lead pipe
free at the time of sale or letting. There is also a need to
understand better, through further research, the extent of
IWA Specialist Groups
potentially remaining problems from legacy leaded brass
and solder, and the ability of corrosion control to contain
such problems.
Ultimately the key to all the problems associated with met-
als and metalloids in drinking water is knowledge. The
Specialist Group is therefore committed to initiating and
promoting knowledge exchange through a series of Best
Practice Guides, review publications and associated train-
ing. Updates on these initiatives are available from IWAs
Water Wiki.
Conclusions
Metals and related substances in drinking water have an
immense signicance, not always appreciated, spanning
human health, the management and refurbishment of
water supply infrastructure and the use of metal compo-
nents in domestic pipe-work systems.
There is scope for the improvement of regulatory systems,
particularly in over-coming sampling problems, so that
monitoring data can reliably identify the situations requir-
ing corrective attention. Effective regulation is also required
to ensure that the metal components used in water supply
systems are safe and do not cause problems for drinking
water consumers. There is also scope to extend the use of
risk assessment in water supply management, including the
problems associated with domestic pipe-work systems.
Multi-disciplinary research must be encouraged in the
eld of metals and related substances in drinking water,
especially in relation to potential health impacts.
References
1. Mukherjee, A.B. and Bhattacharya, P. (2001) Arsenic in
groundwater in the Bengal Delta Plain: slow poisoning in
Bangladesh. Environmental Reviews 9(3): 189220.
2. World Health Organization (2010) Booklet on Childhood Lead
Poisoning.
3. World Health Organization (2008) Guidelines for Drinking-
water Quality: Third Edition incorporating 1st and 2nd
addenda, Vol. 1, Recommendations, WHO, Geneva.
4. Quinn, M.J. and Sherlock, J.C. (1990) The correspondence
between U.K. action levels for lead in blood and in water.
Food Additives and Contaminates 7, 387-424.
5. World Health Organization (2011) Guidelines for Drinking-
water Quality: Fourth Edition. WHO, Geneva.
6. International Water Association (2010) Best Practice Guide
on the Control of Lead in Drinking Water. IWA Publishing,
London.
51
 IWA Specialist Groups
Microbial Ecology and
Water Engineering
Written by Per Halkjr Nielsen, Katherine McMahon, Adrian Oehmen and Mark van Loosdrecht
on behalf of the Specialist Group
Introduction
The overall aim of the Microbial Ecology and Water Engi-
neering Specialist Group is to establish effective science-
based approaches for identifying and solving practical
problems and develop innovative processes in biological
wastewater treatment and resource recovery. The Spe-
cialist Group deals with many biological systems, aerobic
as well as anaerobic, such as activated sludge, biolms,
granules, and membrane bioreactors. The scientic focus
encompasses identity, physiology, ecology, and popula-
tion dynamics of relevant microbial populations (includ-
ing viruses, bacteria, archaea and higher organisms) and
many of the tools, concepts, theories and challenges of
our work are common to all engineered biological water
treatment processes.
Microbes and thus microbial ecology is an inherent part
also of the water cycle in many other systems in water
engineering. Examples are drinking water production
and distribution systems, biofouling and biocorrosion of
pipelines or reverse osmosis systems for conversion of
seawater to drinking water. Some of these topics are also
health-related and are as such treated in other SGs, but
the methodologies and the fundamental understanding
of microbial ecosystems are in common. Studying funda-
mental aspects of microbial biology, e.g. cell-to-cell com-
munication in biolms, may reveal knowledge that can
directly be applied in any of the microbial ecosystems in
the engineered water systems.
Microbial ecology recently got a big boost due to the fan-
tastic development in novel molecular technologies, par-
ticularly related to DNA/RNA sequencing technologies and
proteomics, developed by microbial ecologists and biotech-
nologists during the past 510 years. Most engineers have
not been exposed to this exciting development and even
fewer can foresee how this can be used in water engineer-
ing. We have selected a few hot topics where these tech-
nologies are already signicantly changing our capabilities
to design, control and apply microbial communities in water
engineering, and we hope this can inspire many research-
ers, developers, consultants and other persons involved in
water engineering to join us in this exciting new era.
Existing Specialist Group knowledge
The Activated Sludge Population Dynamics (ASPD) Special-
ist Group changed its name to Microbial Ecology and Water
Engineering in 2009 so most of the present knowledge in
the Specialist Group was developed in ASPD over the past
52
15 years. ASPD had primarily focussed on the activated
sludge process (and more recently also other systems). The
severe operational problems with bulking and foaming were
major drivers in these activities and as a SG, we have been
successful in revealing the identity and function of many
of these lamentous organisms and giving recommenda-
tions to control their growth. Also, the microbiology behind
biological nutrient removal (N and P) has been intensively
studied and resulted in improved understanding and bet-
ter operation of full-scale plants, the development of recov-
ery processes, and the production of high-value products
such as bioplastics from wastewater. The microbiology of
the activated sludge process is described in several IWA
publications (see, for example, Tandoi et al., 2005; Nielsen
et al., 2009a; Seviour and Nielsen, 2010). The Specialist
Group has been an important forum for exchange of the
many new methods and approaches in microbial ecology,
modelling and treatment plant design and operation that
have developed during the past 15 years.
General trends and challenges
A. Wastewater as (part of) a biorefinery
concept
There is a growing need to regard wastewater treatment
plants (WWTPs) as resource recovery systems, rather than
purely for preventing pollutant releases to the environment.
Recovering valuable products and energy from wastewater
maximises the full potential of the WWTP from an economic
and environmental standpoint. Optimising pollutant removal
can therefore become economically benecial, since it
simultaneously leads to greater product recovery. Wastewa-
ter can thus be viewed as a viable feedstock that can be
integrated with other biomass feedstocks into the bioren-
ery concept, producing value-added chemicals, fuels and
energy from renewable resources (see Fig. 1). In addition
to increasing resource recovery, it is also highly desirable
to minimise the addition of chemical and energy inputs to
WWTPs, in order to improve the environmental and cost-
effectiveness of the system as well as its sustainability.
One important such example is the removal and recovery of
phosphorus (P), since global P reserves are being depleted
rapidly. The production of fertiliser such as magnesium
ammonium phosphate (struvite) can generate revenue
and simultaneously minimises struvite scaling problems in
sludge handling units. The enhanced biological phosphorus
removal (EBPR) process is most commonly combined with
P and nitrogen (N) recovery while e.g. struvite or calcium
phosphates can be recovered after the pre-concentration

Figure 1. Organic carbon sources in wastewater can be viewed as a viable feedstock that can be integrated with other bio-
mass feedstocks into the biorenery concept, producing value-added chemicals, fuels and energy from renewable resources
and also used for recovery of resources, e.g. phosphorus.
of P and N in EBPR biomass. Optimising N and P removal
efciency in WWTPs simultaneously reduces the need for
supplemental addition of carbon sources and chemical
precipitants and reduces oxygen demand, thereby lowering
operational costs. Microbial ecology has an important role
in this context since increasing our knowledge on the iden-
tity and metabolism of the microbial communities respon-
sible for biological nutrient removal aid the development of
novel processes, optimise existing processes and improve
mathematical models. Some examples therein include the
anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox) process (Strous
et al., 1999), minimising greenhouse gas emissions (e.g.
N2O) (Kampschreur et al., 2009; Yu et al., 2010), methane-
driven denitrication (Raghoebarsing et al., 2006) and
maximising the growth of polyphosphate accumulating
organisms (PAOs) over their competitors, the glycogen
accumulating organisms (GAOs) (Oehmen et al., 2010a,b).
Technologies for organic matter conversion into bioenergy
sources such as methane through anaerobic digestion and
recovery of the biogas are widely implemented at WWTPs,
substantially lowering the energy budget required to operate
the plant. Methods of further increasing the energetic pro-
ductivity are being actively researched, particularly through
bioelectrochemical systems (e.g. microbial fuel cells) and
biohydrogen production (Logan et al., 2006; Kleerebezem
and van Loosdrecht, 2007). These technologies can also
be combined to generate hydrogen via microbial electroly-
sis cells (Rozendal et al., 2008). The microbial ecology of
these systems is not well understood at present, and can be
quite complex considering the wide variety of organic sub-
strates present in wastewater. Further research could yield
ways of optimising bioenergy production through minimis-
ing energetic losses via competing metabolic pathways.
IWA Specialist Groups
Another attractive alternative for organic matter recovery
from wastewater is the generation of carbon-based bio-
products. Biodegradable plastics such as polyhydroxyal-
kanoates (PHA) are increasing in demand compared with
petroleum-based plastics, since they can be produced
from renewable resources, including wastewater (Fig. 2).
PHA production through mixed microbial cultures has
been recently shown to be competitive with traditional pure
culture approaches, and has the potential to become more
widely applied (Dias et al., 2008; Johnson et al., 2008).
Other value-added chemicals that can be produced from
wastewater include alcohols, organic acids and lipids,
which are used as fuels or for the synthesis of bioplastics/
biopolymers (Kleerebezem and van Loosdrecht, 2007).
Most of these compounds are produced through anaerobic
fermentation, which is also critical for achieving PHA pro-
duction and EBPR, since volatile fatty acids produced via
fermentation are the key compounds taken up during each
process. The microbial communities responsible for fer-
mentation processes have been rarely studied (e.g. Kong
et al., 2008), and improved knowledge is needed here in
order to better manage the often-limiting carbon sources
and optimise the processes that consume them; namely,
denitrication, EBPR and bioenergy/bioproduct formation.
B. Understanding stability of microbial
populations
The applicability of any microbiological treatment system
strongly depends on the stability of the microbial ecosys-
tem, e.g. in relation to N-removal, settling properties of
activated or granular sludge, or methane production. Poor
functional stability may result in process break down and
53
 IWA Specialist Groups
Figure 2. Bacteria with large amounts of intracellular bioplastic, poly-hydroxy-alkanoates (PHA) as they use as storage
polymers.
poor reliability and performance of the system. Such insta-
bility of wastewater treatment operation has often been
reported but it is not always known whether it is due to vari-
ation in the microbial populations or their function. Thus, to
ensure efciency and stability in future treatment systems
we need better knowledge about the identity of the key
microbes, their functions, interactions, and factors regulat-
ing their presence. Furthermore, more general principles
governing the stability of such microbial ecosystems should
be developed and founded on proper theories in microbial
ecology, thus providing a more generic and comprehensive
approach to establish and control communities.
Interestingly, new research has shown that microbial
ecosystems in very similar treatment processes seem to
have a common core community of species or ecotypes
shared among different plants. The most recent example
is microbial communities in 25 Danish treatment plants
performing EBPR, where most of the bacterial types were
present in all plants despite signicant differences in plant
design, operation and wastewater type (Nielsen et al.,
2010). Digesters treating surplus sludge from treatment
plants (Rivie`re et al., 2009) and even the human gut (Qui
et al., 2010) also seem to have such core communities,
54
suggesting this is a general feature of similar ecosystems.
This is extremely interesting and indicates we only need to
deal with a limited number of core microbes for a certain
type of treatment process, almost independently of the
variations in plant design and operation. It is possible to
study these core organisms by advanced single cell tech-
niques alone or in combination with the -omics approach
(see below) to reveal details in their metabolism and nd
selective principles for control of certain populations and
management of the community. Good examples are con-
trol of lamentous microorganisms involved in foaming and
bulking (Nielsen et al., 2009b, Fig. 3). Little is known about
the stability of the populations in such treatment systems.
Some studies show a relatively high community stability
whereas others show only minimal stability although the
functional stability may be higher. More detailed studies
with modern molecular methods are strongly needed to
enlighten this important issue.
The rst steps have been taken to form general concepts
and theories for management of microbial communities, e.g.
by Microbial resource management (Curtis et al., 2003;
McMahon et al., 2007; Verstraete et al., 2007). However,
we need more comprehensive studies of selected highly
 IWA Specialist Groups

Figure 3. Filamentous microorganisms in activated sludge system. If present in large numbers, they cause foaming or poor
settling properties and a deteriorated solid-liquid separation (bulking). Control of these organisms is now possible in most
cases due to an increased knowledge about their identity and ecology.

relevant communities in water engineering for studies by
the novel comprehensive approaches in microbial ecology.
Furthermore, the new knowledge should be transferred to
a better understanding and practical recommendations for
full-scale plants in the entire water cycle. This Specialist
Group will take on this important future task.
C. The use of the new-omics technologies
in water engineering (what is it and what
can it do?)
There is no doubt that molecular tools have provided an
unprecedented window into the structure and dynamics of
microbial communities in water engineering systems. How-
ever, recent advances in the application of systems-level
molecular biology to microbial ecosystems have opened
doors about which we previously could only dream (Raes
and Bork, 2008). Metagenomics, metatranscriptomics,
and metaproteomics are three techniques that apply tools
developed to study sub-cellular systems (DNA, RNA, and
protein, respectively) of single organisms to multi-species
assemblages (Wilmes et al., 2009). Together they describe
the genetic blueprint of a microbial community (metagen-
omics), the genes within the community that have been
recently transcribed into messenger RNA (metatranscrip-
tomics), and those genes that have been translated into
protein (metaproteomics). A meta-omics-driven approach
treats the community as a system, within which are
embedded the sub-cellular systems normally studied by
microbiologists. The three techniques have the potential
to be extremely powerful when employed on the same
samples, providing a data-rich snapshot of both genetic
potential and gene expression at two different levels (i.e.
mRNA and protein).
Metagenomics is already being used extensively to
assess the metabolic potential of microbial communi-
ties in diverse habitats ranging from the oceans to soil to
the human gut (Vieites et al., 2009; Wooley et al., 2010;

55
 IWA Specialist Groups
Gilbert and Dupont, 2011). Conceptually the technology is
simple: sequence all of the DNA present in a sample. New
so-called next-generation sequencing chemistries such
as those employed by 454 pyrosequencing and Illumina/
Solexa platforms have enabled massive parallelisation that
produces thousands to millions of individual sequences
per reaction. DNA extracted from water, sludge, or biolms
can be sequenced directly, often without any amplication
or cloning, reducing biases that complicated the interpre-
tation of results and confounded early metagenomics stud-
ies. Similarly, the metatranscriptome can be sequenced
following removal of ribosomal RNAs and subsequent
reverse transcription to convert mRNA into DNA (Poretsky
et al., 2009). Metaproteomics requires separation of pro-
teins in gels or by liquid chromatography, fragmentation
into peptides, and analysis by tandem mass-spectrometry
(Wilmes et al., 2008). Importantly, successful identica-
tion of parent proteins from peptide mass spectra requires
the sequence of reference genomes (or a metagenome)
sharing extremely high identity (>90%) with the target
organism(s). Generally, this requires that metagenomes be
determined from the same sample (or subsample) used to
interrogate the metaproteome.
The promise of meta-omics approaches for studying the
microbial ecology of water engineering systems has the
potential to revolutionise our understanding of microbial
behavior and interactions. Molecular tools based on 16S
rRNA and other single genetic loci have taught us much
about drivers of microbial community change in systems
such as activated sludge, anaerobic digesters, and drink-
ing water biolms. However, most of these studies have
fallen short of directly linking community structure to
process performance. A full assessment of community
function is needed to make this link. For example, Can-
didatus Accumulibacter phosphatis is one well studied
polyphosphate accumulating organism in activated sludge
operated to achieve EBPR (He and McMahon, 2011). The
abundance of Accumulibacter cells and the species-level
diversity within the genus have been documented across
activated sludge systems and over time within systems,
but neither has taught us much about the metabolic
mechanisms that control phosphorus removal. It was not
until the metagenome of Accumulibacter-enriched sludge
became available (Martin et al., 2006) that we could begin
to reconstruct most biochemical pathways involved in the
carbon and phosphorus cycling so characteristic of EBPR,
and to track expression of genes expected to be key to the
process. The expression of genes detected at either the
mRNA or protein level provides an extremely convincing
piece of evidence for operation of corresponding biochem-
ical pathways, nally conrming proposed metabolic mod-
els based on bulk metabolite measurements. Observed
dynamics in mRNA and protein levels in for instance the
nitrication and denitrication pathways are currently
helping to rapidly understand the mechanism for net N2O
production in wastewater treatment plants. This will help
to develop process adaptations that further minimise the
environmental impact of wastewater treatment processes
(Kampschreur et al., 2009; Yu et al., 2010).
Although simple in concept, in practice meta-omics
approaches face signicant technical challenges. These
include nucleic acid or protein extraction limitations, errors
introduced by next-generation sequencing technologies,
and interpretation of enormous complex datasets. How-
ever, many of these challenges are being tackled by the
56
microbial ecology research community at large, and the
eld is advancing rapidly. This is particularly true for com-
putational methods for analysing meta-omics datasets
(Metzger et al., 2011). Some of the most exciting advances
relate to building predictive models of metabolite ux
through communities based on comparative time series
analysis (Stolyar et al., 2007; Zhuang et al., 2010). Still,
most such efforts are limited to relatively simple systems
with only a few community members. Much work remains
to be done before we can scale-up and apply these tech-
niques to the signicantly more complex and dynamic real-
world systems relevant to water engineering. The potential
for linking omics-based intra-cellular-scale metabolite ux
models to system-scale process-based models is exciting
and certainly justies the required effort.
Conclusions
Microbial ecology is an integrated part of water engineer-
ing, and the fascinating development in technologies to
study microbial communities that has taken place the past
510 years will make a revolution in the way we can ana-
lyse, understand and manipulate microbial communities in
all aspects of water engineering systems. Most engineers
have not been exposed to this exciting development and
even fewer can foresee how this can be used in water engi-
neering. We demonstrate with a few hot topics these new
capabilities and perspectives and hope this can inspire
many researchers, developers, consultants and other per-
sons involved in water engineering to take actively part in
this exciting new era.
References
Curtis, T.P., Head, I.M. and Graham, D.W. (2003) Theoretical
ecology for engineering biology. Environmental Science and
Technology 37: 64a70a.
Desvignes, D.V. et al. (2009) Towards the denition of a core of
microorganisms involved in anaerobic digestion of sludge.
ISME Journal 3: 700714.
Dias, J., Oehmen, A., Seram, L.S., Lemos, P.C., Reis, M.A.M.
and Oliveira, R. (2008) Metabolic modelling of polyhydroxy-
alkanoate copolymers production by mixed microbial cul-
tures. BMC Systems Biology 2: 59.
Gilbert, J.A. and Dupont, C.L. (2011) Microbial metagenomics:
beyond the genome. Annual Review of Marine Science 3:
347371.
He, S. and McMahon, K. (2011) Candidatus Accumulibacter
gene expression in response to dynamic EBPR conditions.
ISME Journal 5: 329340.
Johnson, K., Jiang, Y., Kleerebezem, R., Muyzer, G. and van
Loosdrecht, M.C.M. (2008) Enrichment of a mixed bacterial
culture with a high polyhydroxyalkanoate storage capacity.
Biomacromolecules 10: 670676.
Kampschreur, M.J., Temmink, H., Kleerebezem, R., Jetten,
M. S. M. and van Loosdrecht, M.C.M. (2009) Nitrous oxide
emission during wastewater treatment. Water Research 43:
40934103.
Kleerebezem, R. and van Loosdrecht, M.C.M. (2007) Mixed
culture biotechnology for bioenergy production. Current
Opinion in Biotechnology 18: 207212.
Kong, Y., Xia, Y. and Nielsen, P.H. (2008) Activity and identity of
fermenting microorganisms in full-scale biological nutrient
removing wastewater treatment plants. Environmental Micro-
biology 10: 20082019.
Logan, B.E. et al. (2006) Microbial fuel cells: methodology and
technology. Environmental Science and Technology 40:
51815192.

Martn, HG, et al. (2006) Metagenomic analysis of two enhanced
biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) sludge communities.
Nature Biotechnology 24: 12631269.
McMahon, K.D., Martin, H.G. and Hugenholtz, P. (2007)
Integrating ecology into biotechnology. Current Opinion in
Biotechnology 18: 287292.
Metzger, K.J., Klaper, R. and Thomas, M.A. (2011). Implications
of informatics approaches in ecological research. Ecological
Informatics 6: 412.
Nielsen, P.H., Kragelund, C., Seviour, R.J, and Nielsen, J.L.
(2009a) Identity and ecophysiology of lamentous bacteria
in activated sludge. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 33:
969998.
Nielsen, P.H., Lemmer, H. and Daims, H. (2009b) FISH Handbook
of Wastewater Treatment. IWA Publishing, London, UK.
Nielsen, P.H. et al. (2010) A conceptual ecosystem model of
microbial communities in enhanced biological phosphorus
removal plants. Water Research 44: 50705088.
Oehmen, A., Lopez-Vazquez, C.M., Carvalho, G., Reis, M.A.M. and
van Loosdrecht, M.C.M. (2010a) Modelling the population
dynamics and metabolic diversity of organisms relevant in
anaerobic /anoxic/aerobic enhanced biological phosphorus
removal processes. Water Research 44: 44734486.
Oehmen, G., Carvalho, G., Lopez-Vazquez, C.M., van Loosdrecht,
M.C.M. and Reis, M.A.M. (2010b) Incorporating micro-
bial ecology into the metabolic modelling of polyphos-
phate accumulating organisms and glycogen accumulating
organisms. Water Research 44: 49925004.
Poretsky, R.S., Hewson, I., Sun, S.L., Allen, A.E., Zehr, J.P. and
Moran, M.A. (2009). Comparative day/night metatran-
scriptomic analysis of microbial communities in the North
Pacic subtropical gyre. Environmental Microbiology 11:
13581375.
Qin, J. et al. (2010) A human gut microbial gene catalogue estab-
lished by metagenomic sequencing. Nature 464: 5965.
Raes, J. and Bork, P. (2008) Systems microbiology timeline
molecular eco-systems biology: towards an understanding
of community function. Nature Reviews Microbiology 6:
693699.
Raghoebarsing, A.A. et al. (2006) A microbial consortium couples
anaerobic methane oxidation to denitrication. Nature 440:
918921.
IWA Specialist Groups
Rozendal, R.A., Hamelers, H.V.M., Rabaey, K., Keller, J. and
Buisman, C.J.N. (2008) Towards practical implementation
of bioelectrochemical wastewater treatment. Trends in
Biotechnology 26: 450459.
Seviour, R. and Nielsen, P.H. (2010) Microbial Ecology of
Activated Sludge. IWA Publishing, London.
Stolyar, S. et al. (2007) Metabolic modeling of a mutualistic
microbial community. Molecular Systems Biology 3: 92.
Strous, M., Kuenen, J.G. and Jetten, M.S.M. (1999) Key
physiology of anaerobic ammonium oxidation. Applied and
Environmental Microbiology 65: 32483250.
Tandoi, V., Jenkins, D. and Wanner, J. (2005) Activated Sludge
Separation Problems: Theory, Control Measures, Practical
Experiences. IWA Publishing, London.
Vandenkoornhuyse, P. et al. (2010) Integration of molecular
functions at the ecosystemic level: breakthroughs and
future goals of environmental genomics and post-genomics.
Ecology Letters 13: 776791.
Verstraete, W. et al. (2007) Microbial resource management: the
road to go for environmental biotechnology. Engineering in
Life Sciences 7: 117126.
Vieites, J.M., Guazzaroni, M.E., Beloqui, A., Golyshin, P.N. and
Ferrer, M. (2009) Metagenomics approaches in systems
microbiology. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 33: 236255.
Wilmes, P. et al. (2008) Community proteogenomics highlights
microbial strain-variant protein expression within activated
sludge performing enhanced biological phosphorus removal.
ISME Journal 2: 853864.
Wilmes, P., Simmons, S.L., Denef, V.J. and Baneld, J.F. (2009)
The dynamic genetic repertoire of microbial communities.
FEMS Microbiology Reviews 33: 109132.
Wooley, JC, A Godzik, and I Friedberg. (2010) A primer on
metagenomics. PLoS Computational Biology 6: e1000667.
Yu, R., Kampschreur, M.J., van Loosdrecht, M.C.M. and
Chandran, K. (2010) Mechanisms and specic direc-
tionality of autotrophic nitrous oxide and nitric oxide gen-
eration during transient anoxia. Environmental Science and
Technology 44: 13131319.
Zhuang, K. et al. (2011) Genome-scale dynamic modeling of the
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subsurface environments. ISME Journal 5: 305316.
57
 IWA Specialist Groups
Off Flavours in the Aquatic
Environment: a Global Issue
Written by Tsair-Fuh Lin, Sue Watson, Ricard Devesa Garriga, Auguste Bruchet, Gary Burlingame,
Andrea Dietrich, and Mel Suffet on behalf of the Specialist group
Introduction
Off avours in the aquatic environment have remained
important over the last few years. Unpalatable taste and
odour (T&O) in water may not be directly linked to health
risks; nevertheless it has major, negative impacts on drink-
ing water, recreational waters, and aquaculture. People
instinctively link unpleasant T&O with toxins, disease and
decay. Consumers may question the fundamental safety
of municipal drinking water supplies which deliver bad
taste to the tap, resulting in use of less regulated, alterna-
tive sources, such as bottled, vended, and tanker-trucked
water. Ironically, bottled water consumption is highest - and
increasing - in developed countries where there is the great-
est collective access to treated water. Unpleasant odours
in recreational water or along beaches and shorelines may
deter public use and impact tourist and hospitality indus-
tries. Aquaculture industries experience signicant costs in
mitigation and lost revenue as a result of tainted sh and
shellsh. Unlike many other drinking water attributes, there
are no standards or quantitative guidelines for T&O. Many
of the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that cause T&O
are detectable to humans at trace levels, and their chemical
identication requires sophisticated analytical techniques
not available to smaller utilities. But even with the primary
focus on removal, proactive utility managers also recognize
the importance of T&O as a diagnostic tool. Odours can
indicate immediate problems with treatment or distribu-
tion systems or anthropogenic pollutants in source water.
Importantly, T&O can also signal far reaching and long-
term changes in the health and integrity of source waters.
Raw water is literally a chemical soup. Its odour is
caused the more potent, not necessarily the most abun-
dant, compounds, which differ considerably in odour
threshold concentrations (OTCs), stability and response
to treatment. T&O outbreaks are inherently unpredictable,
and their origins often remain untraced (Bruchet 1999).
They can be caused by VOCs originating from one or
more biological and/or anthropogenic sources (e.g. min-
eral, industrial, agricultural/urban runoff, accidental spills,
or even water treatment itself). Biological activity in the
watershed, source water and treatment plant/distribution
systems produce a vast array of highly potent olfactants
(Watson 2003) including the earthy-musty terpenoids,
trans-1,10-dimethyl-trans-9-decalol (geosmin) and
2-methylisoborneol (2-MIB), which are detectable at the
ng/L concentration level and account for the majority of
reported events (see below). In addition, VOCs generated
from chemical and biological reactions in distribution sys-
tems and storage tanks, industrial discharges, and pipeline
release from are also problematic. The latter are generally
58
less well characterised and continue to be a major drink-
ing water issue in many countries. In the last 10 years,
methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), a gasoline additive that
contaminates groundwater from leaking underground
storage tanks has a sweet solvent odour. In this case, the
odor of MTBE is causing T & O problems below its toxicity
level, in the microgram/litre level. For emerging countries,
water utilities consider odour problems to be one of their
top issues, primarily due to growing economy, increasing
water demand, and inappropriate environment (nutrient)
management. It is predicted that as more countries estab-
lish safe supplies of drinking water (drinking water that
meets World Health Organization standards), the issue of
off avours will become more important.
This report summarizes the current state of knowledge and
advances of off avour issues and focuses on monitoring,
biological sources and control. Three major challenges and
future directions for the off avours in the aquatic environ-
ments are identied; notably impact of climate change,
emergency management and response, and emerging
methods of analysis and treatment.
Advances in Off Flavours in the
Aquatic Environment
Analytical and Monitoring Methods for
Off-flavours
Taste and odour episodes are classically monitored using
a combination of sensory and chemical analytical tech-
niques. Flavour Prole Analysis (FPA) remains the gold
standard for sensory analysis as it provides an accurate
determination of the avour descriptors, which in turn
helps select the most appropriate analytical techniques.
FPA is the reference method to investigate T&O events.
The odours, tastes and feeling factors are described in the
well-known taste-and-odour wheel, which has been incor-
porating new descriptors and compounds as they have
been identied in real events (Suffet et al. 1999). FPA
also describes how to establish intensity scales and how to
train taste and odour panelists.
Unfortunately, the drinking water industry holds on to out-
dated methods, such as the Threshold Odour Number
method. Today, a toolbox of methods exist by which to
screen waters for off avours as well as describe those
avours in detail and conduct treatment studies. One area
that needs more work is the establishment of methods for
determining taste and odour threshold concentrations of

the chemicals of concern, taking into consideration the
background effects of different waters, differing cultural
preferences, and differing past experiences.
Classical sensory analysis techniques, mainly coming
from the food industry, have been used to character-
ize the background taste of water as a result of mineral
content. It has been particularly useful for studies which
investigate on the blending of conventional resources and
demineralised water obtained by membrane technologies.
Some recent interesting papers have recently addressed
the metallic sensation such as from iron species, and its
orthonasal and retronasal perception: it has a signicant
odour component and therefore should be considered as
a avour (Dietrich 2009).
A wide array of techniques are available to detect trace
organic chemicals responsible for the most common types
of odours including geosmin, 2-MIB, haloanisoles (earthy-
musty), halophenols and iodoforms (medicinal) and MTBE
(sweet solvent). Headspace solid phase micro-extraction
(HSPME) and spinning bar solvent extraction (SBSE) com-
bined with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry
(GC/MS) are among the most efcient methods for terpe-
noids, unsaturated and aromatic hydrocarbons, biogenic
sulphides and sweet solvent odours, but closed loop strip-
ping (CLSA) GC/MS in combination with large volume
injection or selected ion monitoring is still quite useful to
scan environmental samples for a variety of analytes, or
detect haloanisoles at their extremely low odour thresholds
(about 30 picograms per litre).
Biological Sources and Molecular
Methods
Biologically derived VOCs produced by algae, cyanobacteria,
heterotrophic bacteria (notably some actinomycetes) and
Figure 1. Global reported occurrence of geosmin and 2-MIB in water environment (Prepared by De-Wei Chang)1
1
Prepared based on 107 articles relevant to the occurrence of geosmin and 2-MIB published between 1983 and 2011
IWA Specialist Groups
moulds are among the most frequently reported causes of
T&O in source and treated waters (Watson 2010). VOCs
fall in two broad biosynthetic groups, those produced at
cell disintegration, which tend to occur in more episodic
events (e.g. pigment and lipid derivatives), and those syn-
thesized throughout growth which tend to generate pro-
tracted odour dynamics (e.g. terpenoids and thiols). No
single VOC is exclusive to one species (i.e. a chemical
ngerprint), while most organisms produce a number of
these compounds. Nevertheless among algae and cyano-
bacteria there are broad differences in the most important
VOCs produced by individual taxonomic groups and there-
fore, in the timing and nature of their impacts on source
water odour. The most common sources of T&O are cyano-
bacteria, renowned for potent terpenoids (Geosmin and
MIB), biogenic sulphides (isopropyl thiols) and carotene
derivatives (-carotene and -ionone) and golden brown
algae (diatoms, Chrysophyceae and Synurophyceae)
which produce rancid/shy/cucumber smelling oxylipins
(polyunsaturated fatty acid derivatives). Less commonly
reported sources are green algae (Chlorophyta; noted
for thiols and fatty acid derivatives), dinoagellates and
cryptophytes (also produce oxylipins and carbonyl com-
pounds). Actinomycetes were traditionally also considered
a major source of T&O (notably geosmin and/or MIB); more
recently their importance relative to other biota has been
questioned (Zaitlin and Watson 2006; Jttner and Watson
2007). In addition, it should be noted that all organisms
indirectly contribute to T&O during the decomposition of
their cells by heterotrophic bacteria; this is a major source
of malodours along shorelines and beaches. The follow-
ing sections enlarge on two of the most common types of
biological T&O.
To date, 2-MIB and geosmin are the two most widely
reported and studied T&O compounds in water environ-
ment (Figure 1). Numerous studies have focused on the
occurrence, sources, analysis, and control of these two
59
 IWA Specialist Groups
chemicals in drinking water and aquaculture industries.
These VOCs have an extremely important inuence on
human behaviour. On the one hand, they undermine
consumer condence in supplies, but in some cases,
they may be indirectly benecial. They are not known to
be toxic to humans at levels encountered in even hyper-
eutrophic systems. However, they are produced by some
of the cyanobacteria that also produce toxins, and the
low incidence of human poisonings by cyanotoxins may
be partly attributable to the avoidance of water with
signicant odour (Jardine and Hrudey 1999) (although it
should be noted that there is no consistent relationship
and these VOCs should not be used to diagnose cyano-
bacterial toxins). In addition, geosmin is an important food
avourant (e.g. Camembert cheese, beetroot, coffee and
Shiitake mushrooms).
Traditionally, identication of biological odour sources has
used a combination of chemical analysis together with
microscope and/or culture methods. This is problematic;
not all species are culturable, they may change lose the
capacity for production under certain culture conditions
and morphologically identical strains recognised using
a microscope may differ in VOC production. Recently,
molecular methods such as denaturing gradient gel elec-
trophoresis (DGGE), polymerase chain reaction (PCR),
and quantitative PCR (qPCR), have been employed to
identify the presence of potential odorant producing genes
in environmental samples. Initially, 16S ribosomal RNA
(16S rRNA) combined with DGGE, PCR, or qPCR has been
used to identify and/or quantify geosmin-producing cyano-
bacteria, such as Anabaena. Similar methods have also
been employed to construct the bacterial communities in
water treatment processes involving biodegradation, such
as sand lters, and to identify the bacteria responsible for
the destruction of odorants. Recently, signicant advances
have been made in the understanding of the biosynthesis
of geosmin and 2-MIB by both cyanobacteria and actino-
mycetes, and providing the basis for the development of
molecular methods to quantify the genes responsible for
their biosynthesis (Giglio et al. 2011). The method has
been tested in Myponga Reservoir, South Australia, which
has frequent blooms of a geosmin producing cyanobacteria
Anabaena circinalis. Comparison of results from qPCR, cell
counts and geosmin measures showed that the approach
might provide reasonably good estimates of geosmin-
producing cyanobacteria in source waters. However, the
method still requires more validation on eld samples, and
extrapolation to other cyanobacteria before this approach
can be fully incorporated into monitoring programs.
Lipid degradation products (oxylipins; notably 2,4-
heptadienal, 2,6-nonadienal, 2,4-decadienal and 2,4,7-
decatrienal) are common causes of odour in surface
waters (and many oily foods), responsible, for example,
for shy smells associated with spring plankton blooms,
rock biolms and nets. Oxylipins are produced by algae
with high cell content of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty
acids such as linolenic, linoleic and eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA), particularly golden brown algae (chrysophytes, syn-
urophytes, diatoms), dinoagellates and other agellates.
Because production is triggered by enzymes released at
cell disruption, these VOCs are generated at the end of
an algal population cycle, or during disruptive processes
such as grazing or treatment. However, some release also
occurs during growth: there is now strong evidence that
some unsaturated PUFA derivatives serve active roles
60
as sexual pheromones, or in chemical defence against
micrograzersanalogous to the wound-induced response
in higher plants (Watson 2003).
The complicated nature of odorants and producers also
requires more study to further elucidate the biochemical
pathways for different odorants in different organisms. In
addition, more research is needed in the area of mitiga-
tion and treatment, and the biota and pathways involved in
the biodegradation of odorants in natural and engineered
environments. Progress has been slow, for a number of
reasons. (1) At any given time, there is a diversity of VOCs
in a water body, one or more of which may cause T&O. (2)
Most biological communities are also highly diverse, and
it is often difcult to link specic VOCs and species. (3)
The major odour source may not necessarily be the most
abundant species: VOC production per unit cell varies over
orders of magnitude (e.g. Jttner and Watson 2007). (4)
Benthic and epiphytic algal populations can be signicant
invisible sources of T&O in source water. (5) VOC produc-
tion and detection sites can be spatially distinct due to VOC
diffusion or transport with water masses, or active/passive
movement of the biota. (6) VOC production may be intra-
or extracellular, and vary over population cycles with envi-
ronmental conditions. (7) Most water quality studies have
focused on processes within aquatic systems, although it
is clear that the watershed can make a signicant contri-
bution to surface water odour.
Treatment Methods
The primary objective of the water treatment is its disin-
fection and to obtain a product with a suitable chemical
purity for human consumption. However, it is important to
also consider the important of the organoleptic properties
of nished water. The effects of treatment on the T&O of
water can be driven by three mechanisms: rst, the typical
residual disinfectant avour, which is the main character-
istic of tap water for consumers, as opposed to bottled
water; secondly, the disinfection by-products, which are
produced by chemical reaction between the disinfectant
and the organic matter present in water; and third, the
change in the saline content, which is relevant when mem-
brane techniques are used.
The typical disinfectant avour has been studied espe-
cially for chlorine and chloramines. Signicant knowledge
has been achieved about several aspects of its perception,
such as detection thresholds and masking or synergetic
effects with compounds present in water. It is also well
known that perception is dependent on persons and also
between populations with different consumption habits.
Concerning the disinfection by-products, notable ndings
have been obtained about their identication and effects,
such as the fruity avours in ozonated waters due to alde-
hydes formation (Anselme et al. 1988). And third, the
membrane technology improves the avour of waters by
reducing the concentration of organic compounds. But,
on the other hand, these processes notably reduce the
saline content of the water and alter the proportions of
the ions. These changes in the mineralization modify the
taste of the water and can inuence the perception of the
consumer.
Some processes (e.g. chlorination, ozonation) exacerbate
T&O by releasing cell-bound VOCs, and/or producing

odorous disinfection by-products, as is seen, for example,
with odorous polyunsaturated aldehydes. Conventional
processes which trap particle-bound material (e.g. sedi-
mentation, sand ltration) are ineffective at removing
many dissolved VOCs. This can be achieved by activated
carbon and membrane lters, but these are costly and
their capacity reduced by raw water natural organic matter
(NOM) - which can increase signicantly during high
T&O risk periods (spring runoff, summer blooms). Bank
ltration, widely established in Europe, is an effective pre-
treatment for many VOCs (and other contaminants).
The Challenges and Future
Research Directions
Impact of Climate Change
Climate change may affect freshwater quality and T&O pro-
duction in a number of ways. Average and maximal water
temperatures may rise slightly (~12 C) in many waterbod-
ies, increasing biological activity (including VOC produc-
tion, and O2-requiring heterotrophic processes). This may
also favour warm-water adapted species, including some
2
(but not all ) cyanobacteria. Changes in the length and tim-
ing of the growing season, UV irradiance/light spectrum,
the mixing regime, ushing and water levels of lakes and
owing waters, reservoir drawdown, severe storm events,
ice-cover and scouring are all also likely to have a major
effect on the distribution and success of noxious biota and
associated VOC production. The impact is especially sig-
nicant to important odorant producers, such as cyano-
bacteria, potentially increasing odour episodes in drinking
water resources (e.g. Paerl and Huisman 2008).
In addition to the impact on the growth of cyanobacteria,
the generation, fate, and transport of odorants in water
may also be affected. Increase of water temperature may
change both the production and loss rates of odorants.
For example, the rate of biodegradation by bacteria and
that of volatilization from water surface are expected to
increase as temperature increases. Changing temperature
may also affect the adsorption/partition of odour com-
pounds among water, air, and sediments/suspended sol-
ids, shifting the fate of the odorants in different phases. In
addition, increasing temperature may change water usage
pattern for communities, and thus change the residence
time and storage volume of reservoirs and distribution sys-
tems. These may also affect the budget of odorants in the
reservoirs.
Droughts and forest res have been shown to affect the
avour quality of the water resource. Droughts often result
in algal blooms as well as a greater portion of the water
resource comprising of wastewater discharge. Forest
res load different minerals and organic chemicals into a
watershed during and after the res. These changes have
impacted drinking water and have required changes in
drinking water treatment. To date, the impact of climate
change on off-avours relevant water quality has not been
systematically analyzed, and more research relevant to this
topic is needed.
2
It should be noted, however, that some species of cyanobacteria (and algae) can bloom under a climate regimes ranging from arctic
to tropical.
IWA Specialist Groups
Analytical Methods
New methods need to be developed for a better under-
standing of specic types of odours such as chlorinous
odours that are not due to the disinfectant residual and
are possibly caused by chloro-aldimines or other types of
organic chloramines. Plastic and related odours caused by
the use of synthetic organic materials in distribution sys-
tems are still poorly understood and also deserve inves-
tigation. Concerning sulphidy odours, a single simplied
method capable of simultaneously measuring hydrogen
sulphide, merthyl mercaptan, dimethylsulphide, dimethyl-
disulphide and dimethyltrisulphide would be quite useful.
Analytical methods need to be able to separate increas-
ingly complex matrices that result from algal blooms
(caused by climate change) and anthropogenic pressures
on source waters. Two-dimensional gas chromatographic
methods which have already demonstrated their ability to
separate a few thousand compounds from a single waste-
water extract remain to be applied for the identication
of odorants in such complex matrices. Finally, the mini-
aturization of GC/MS instruments coupled with specic
interfaces such as a submersible purge and trap probe
will in the near future offer the possibility of carrying out
on-line analysis of specic odorants in diverse types of
waters. Identication of new odorants has been practically
restricted to non polar and semi-polar compounds ame-
nable to gas chromatography. In the near future, new high
resolution liquid chromatography with mass spectrom-
etry (LC/MS) instruments will likely allow identication of
unknowns, including more polar compounds contributing
to off avours.
Emergency Management and Response
to Off flavour Events
Although geosmin and 2-MIB continue to be important
problems in many parts of the world, off avour episodes
other than earthy-musty have been reported. Anthropo-
genic pollution in source water becomes an important
concern, especially in developing countries. Discharge of
waste and wastewater intentionally and un-intentionally
into water sources are occasionally encountered. Methods
to rapidly identify and monitor the chemicals and avours
responsible for the episodes are increasingly demanded.
While FPA remains to be one of the analytical tools to
identify the avours in polluted water sources, the risk
associated with exposure to unknown pollutants requires
more attention when applying the method. In addition to
the chemical methods mentioned in section 3.2, on-line
instrumentation, such as LC/MS and GC/MS, can pro-
vide reliable information on micro-pollutants in near to
real time (Storey et al. 2011), and may have the potential
to be applied to monitor the odorants. This is needed for
early warning as well as for the management of emergency
events.
Biological monitors, such as bacterial bioluminescence,
Daphnia, algal cell and sh monitoring, although not
designed for T&O episodes, may be able to provide some
useful information to capture changes in water quality as
well as incidental discharge of waste into source waters.
61
 IWA Specialist Groups
Emerging biological sensors, including adenosine triphos-
phate (ATP), immunoassay and molecular techniques, and
uorescence-based methods may also provide information
about bacteria/algae/cyanobacteria in water, potentially
allowing for rapid interpretation of off avours in water.
However, studies are required to test and validate these
on-line sensors during off avour episodes.
Methods to characterize the odorants for algal blooms are
urgently required, as the issues are increasingly observed.
The chemicals may be different from conventional geo-
smin and 2-MIB. For example, an important group of the
compounds include sulphur-related compounds, which
has been reported in Wuxi, China in 2008, where water
supply for the city was interrupted due to sulphide relevant
compounds (Yang et al. 2008).
Finally, as the eld of risk communication grows, the com-
munication to the public about the taste and odour quality
of water needs more attention. The public has become
more knowledgeable, or more accessible to information on
water quality. The Internet is loaded with good and bad
information that the public uses to make judgements about
the safety of water. Water suppliers need to be primary
sources of information about their water, especially when
off avours occur. This requires training of water suppliers
in risk communication and in the tools the public uses to
obtain information, such as social networking. Fortunately,
we can take advantage of the advances being made in
other elds, such as crisis management, to guide develop-
ments for better public communication and education on
taste and odour.
Compound/Odour Specific Treatment
Methods
Drinking water supplies have traditionally focussed their
efforts on providing a product with health guarantees.
However, the consumer does not evaluate the water by
taking into account the regulations but rather in terms of
its aesthetic properties. For this reason, the water suppli-
ers are making a noteworthy effort to improve the odour
and taste of water by developing better treatment tech-
nologies.
Traditionally, taste and odour issues have become relevant
when the supplier faces a T&O event. Although sometimes
the causative agent has been anthropogenic, the most
common episodes have been produced by natural agents
like geosmin and 2-MIB, which are produced by certain
cyanobacterial blooms. For the compounds other than
geosmin and 2-MIB, selection of treatment depends on
the nature of the chemicals. The control of different com-
binations of odorants and treatment processes requires
further investigation.
Granular and powdered activated carbon have been
shown to be very effective at reducing the concentrations
of undesired compounds, but they are not able to remove
certain compounds, such as some sulphur-related com-
pounds from anaerobic reactions. Other choices should
be made, including oxidation and advanced oxidation
processes in this case. It is necessary to investigate alter-
natives such as ozonation combined with UV irradiation or
hydrogen peroxide.
62
Membranes have been a revolution in the water treatment
sector. In the future, more efcient materials will be avail-
able, and it will be possible to achieve better removal of
undesired compounds.
Conclusions
Although off avours in the aquatic environment continue
to be a major drinking water issue in many countries, the
different nature of the issues found in particular regions
substantiates the importance of the problems. Monitoring
and analytical methods for off avour chemicals require
further studies, in particular for on-line and/or near real
time analytical capacities, and also an enrichment of the
taste-and-odour wheel from the FPA method with new
descriptors and compounds. Sensory analysis is a useful
complementary tool to chemical analysis for understanding
taste-and-odour events. It is being used to understand per-
ception of the water consumers, for example about disin-
fectants or blending of conventional and membrane treated
waters. Further study of odour threshold concentrations
and how to set aesthetic-based drinking water standards
for water supply is an area of future research as well.
The genes responsible for the biosynthesis of geosmin and
2-MIB have been decoded and more studies are needed
to verify the approach for quantication of odorant produc-
ing genes as well as to nd their correlation with odorant
concentrations. Extrapolating the approach to other spe-
cies and genera of cyanobacteria and odorant degrading
bacteria will certainly establish a foundation for better
monitoring techniques. Climate change obviously may
have the potential to signicantly inuence water quality.
Its impact on the growth of cyanobacteria, the generation,
fate, and transport of odorants in water deserves a system-
atic analysis and more research.
As anthropogenic pollution in source water becomes an
important concern, methods to rapidly identify and moni-
tor the chemicals and avours responsible for episodes
are increasingly demanded. On-line instrumentations and
biological monitors may have the potential to be applied
directly and indirectly to monitor for odorants, although
method development and validation are required. Treat-
ment of the most common episodes caused by geosmin
and 2-MIB has been standardized. However, for other
emerging chemicals, selection of treatment trains depends
on the nature of the chemicals. The effectiveness for the
control of different combinations of odorants and treat-
ment processes requires further investigation.
References
Anselme, C., Duguet, J.P. , Mallevialle, J. and Suffet, I.H. (1988)
Removal of taste and odors by ozonation. Journal American
Water Works Association 80(10), 4551.
Bruchet, A. (1999) Solved and unsolved cases of taste and odor
episodes in the les of Inspector Cluzeau. Water Science
and Technology 40(6), 1521
Dietrich, A. (2009) The sense of smell: contribution of orthonasal
and retronasal perception applied to metallic avour of
drinking water. J. Water Supply: AQUA 58(8), 562570.
Giglio, S., Chou, W.K.W., Ikeda, H., Cane, D.E. and Monis, P.T.
(2011) Biosynthesis of 2-Methylisoborneol in Cyanobacteria.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 992998

Jardine, C.G, Gibson, N. and Hrudey S.E. (1999) Detection of
odour and health risk perception of drinking water. Water
Science and Technology 40(6), 9198.
Jttner, F. and Watson S.B. (2007). Biochemical and ecological
control of geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol in source waters.
Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73(14), 43954406.
Paerl, H.W. and Huisman J. (2008) Blooms like it hot. Science
320, 57.
Storey, M.V., van der Gaag, B. and Burns, B.P. (2011) Advances
in on-line drinking water quality monitoring and early
warning systems, Water Research 5, 741747.
Suffet, I.E., Khiari, D. and Bruchet, G. (1999) The drinking water
taste and odor wheel for the millennium: beyond geosmin
and 2-methylisoborneol, Water Science and Technology
40(6), 114.
IWA Specialist Groups
Watson, S.B. (2003). Chemical communication or chemical
waste? A review of the chemical ecology of algal odour.
Phycologia 42: 333350.
Watson, S.B. (2010) Algal taste and odour. Chapter 9 in Algae:
Source to Treatment. AWWA Manual of Water Supply
Practice, M57, ISBN 978-1-58321-787-0.
Yang, M., Yu, J.W., Li, Z.L., Guo, Z.L., Burch, M. and Lin, T.F.
(2008) Taihu Lake Not to Blame for Wuxis Woes. Science
319, 158.
Zaitlin B. and Watson, S.B. (2006). Actinomycetes in relation to
taste and odour in drinking water: myths, tenets and truths.
Water Research 40:17411753.
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 IWA Specialist Groups

Resources-oriented sanitation
Written by Ebba af Petersens, Marika Palmr Rivera, Tove Larsen, Grietje Zeeman, Gnter Langergraber
and Elisabeth Kvarnstrm on behalf of the Specialist Group

Context Existing knowledge, experience and

Although the services of urban water management are
practice
vital for urban societies, experience shows that waste-
In order to give an idea of the global development of
water management does not have a high priority when
resources-oriented sanitation systems, examples from
resources are scarce. In a world with increasing scarcity
several different countries are given below.
not only of economic, but also of physical and environmen-
tal resources, resource efciency of wastewater manage-
ment becomes more urgent than ever. A holistic view of Burkina Faso
resource efciency will encompass at the same time the
management of resources in wastewater (e.g. water and Pilot projects of urine-diverting toilets to provide urine and
nutrients), the physical resources spent on treatment and composted faeces for agricultural use have met with great
transport (most importantly energy), the natural resources success in Burkina Faso. Local eld studies calculated
to protect (e.g. the receiving waters, but also increasingly that each person excretes approximately 2.8 kg of nitro-
the atmosphere), and the anthropogenic resources (e.g. gen, 0.45 kg of phosphorus and 1.3 kg of potassium per
capital). Today, many up-coming problems are solved year, which is the equivalent of about 10 kg of commercial
incrementally without considering the problems associ- fertiliser. This is enough fertiliser to support growth of crops
2
ated with the solution of the immediate problem. The on 300400 m of land. These numbers have convinced
most prominent examples are the solutions for water scar- many farmers to use these new fertilisers. Policy regard-
city, where for instance desalination leads to high energy ing reuse has lagged behind, but the success of the tech-
consumption. nique has led to the inclusion of urine-diverting toilets and
subsequent use of their products as accepted technologies
In view of the immense problems arising from global popu- in the national sanitation policy. The cities of Ouagadougou
lation growth, urban development and climate change on a and Banfora have also signed ofcial decrees allowing for
global scale, a paradigm change of urban water manage- reuse. In Ouagadougou, municipalities have agreed to
ment is necessary. Source diversion is a promising concept partly nance the collection system (household contribu-
for more resource efciency in wastewater management, tion is too low to run the whole system), and monitoring the
and will facilitate also for the application of resources- whole system. The Ministry of Agriculture has also agreed
oriented sanitation. to monitor extension workers and train farmers. Further-
more, the Ministry of Health has agreed to use its health
workers for quality control and will monitor and assess any
health risks associated with the system.
The IWA Specialist Group (SG) on
Resources-Oriented Sanitation
The IWA Specialist Group (SG) on Resources-Oriented
Sanitation focuses on resource efciency in wastewater
management as well as beyond the wastewater system.
For resources-oriented sanitation systems to be sustain-
able from more perspectives than resource-efciency they
should comply to the protecting and promoting of human
health by i) providing a clean environment and breaking
the cycle of disease, ii) be economically viable, socially
acceptable, and iv) technically as well as institutionally
appropriate. For sustainable implementation of sanitation
systems it is of utmost importance to take into account the
whole system and not only single technologies.

This chapter outline some of the trends and challenges for

resources-oriented sanitation, as observed by members of Figure 1. Urine collection tanks in Ouagadougou, Burkina
the Specialist Group. Faso (picture provided by Gnter Langergraber).

64

Philippines
In the Philippines, a bottom-up process facilitated the
incorporation of reuse into national legislation. The
Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 aims to protect the
countrys water bodies from pollution from land-based
sources. Several studies show that domestic wastewater
is the principal cause of organic pollution of water bodies
in the Philippines. The Act was silent on nutrient recycling,
but when public consultations on the Acts Implement-
ing Rules and Regulations (IRR) were held, the Philippine
Ecosan Network advocated for the incorporation of the
ecosan concept into the IRR. Thus, reuse is now legally
supported in the Philippines.
Niger
The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
supported a productive sanitation project in Niger during
2009 which was implemented by CREPA (Le Centre
Rgional pour lEau Potable et lAssainissement faible
cot) and PPILDA (Project for the Promotion of Local Ini-
tiative for Development in Agui). A policy study from that
project recommended to work on three levels: (i) stake-
holder level, (ii) framing of productive sanitation in existing
strategies and programs, (iii) to promote resources-oriented
sanitation , for widespread of productive sanitation in Niger.
On the issue of stakeholders it was recommended to work
with farmer-to-farmer visits, inter-village groups, women
organisations and locally active NGOs. Stakeholders impor-
tant on regional level in Niger are the de-concentrated state
technical services, other on-going projects and the coor-
dinating body of water and sanitation actors on regional
level: CREPA. The regional level actors are important in
Niger, where the decentralisation process is not yet fully
functional. Thus, the technical capacity available with the
de-concentrated state technical services is very important.
The interaction with other projects could be to try and intro-
duce the concept of urinals in CLTS (Community-Led Total
Sanitation) projects. This would be a simple way to build
upon the CLTS method and allowing for simple reuse with-
out compromising the CLTS goal of zero open defecation.
Sweden
Since the beginning of the 1990s, there has been an
on-going debate in Sweden about the sustainability of the
current wastewater systems in terms of nutrient recovery.
This debate led to the development of sanitation systems
with urine-diversion and by now, there are approximately
ten thousand porcelain urine-diverting toilets installed in
Sweden and at least 1015 larger systems for reuse of
human urine, of which most are managed by municipali-
ties. Although these systems have proven to have great
potential, the technology needs to be further developed
(especially urine-diversion toilets) in order to be more con-
venient and user-friendly.
Due to initial problems with urine-diversion in pilot projects,
there was a backlash against source-separating sanita-
tion systems in the early 2000s. However, lately there has
been an increased interest in resources-oriented sanita-
tion, mainly for on-site sanitation solutions in rural areas.
New guidelines for on-site sanitation from 2006 set very
IWA Specialist Groups
high demands on reduction of phosphorous, but also state
that recycling of nutrients ought to be achieved. The prime
driving force for resources-oriented solutions for on-site
systems is not necessarily always nutrient recycling, but
pathogen removals (through collection of blackwater) and
of phosphorus and nitrogen from the immediate environ-
ment. There is a long tradition of source-diversion systems
and approximately 150 thousand summer houses have dry
toilets, with or without urine diversion. There is also about
75 thousand houses with separate collection of black-
water in closed tanks. To reduce transports of collected
blackwater and to facilitate the use of sanitised blackwater
as fertiliser on arable land, vacuum toilets are installed in
increasing numbers and there is even one municipality
that requires all home owners with on-site sanitation to
install vacuum toilets and closed tanks for collection of
blackwater.
Sweden has national environmental objectives where one
of the targets is that by 2015 at least 60% of the phospho-
rus in wastewater should be reused on productive land;
half of which arable land. Since most of the wastewater is
treated in conventional wastewater treatment plants, the
focus for this target has been the reuse of sludge from
wastewater treatment plants as fertiliser. There is however
and on-going debate about the pollutants in sludge. The
national organisation for co-operation between water and
wastewater utilities has launched a system for control of
sludge quality for reuse in agriculture, and the Swedish
national farmers association is positive regarding the
use of quality controlled sludge as fertiliser. However, the
farmers association has stated that they prefer source-
separated urine and blackwater, and that Sweden should
adopt a long term strategy for the conversion of conven-
tional wastewater systems to source-separating systems.
Figure 2. Toilet seat with urine-diversion (Sweden, picture
provided by Ebba af Petersens).
65
 IWA Specialist Groups

The Netherlands sanitation concepts (in German also referred to as Neuar-

tige Sanitrsysteme or NASS). NASS concepts are dened
Since early 2000s several new sanitation projects as those that go beyond traditional water-borne sanitation
have been demonstrated in The Netherlands. Projects with the main aim to recover and reuse resources. The
comprise both urine diversion and separation of black working group has the goal to systematically summarise
water and grey water. Projects are in general community technologies and experiences with different NASS con-
(building)-on-site. An overview of different projects is pre- cepts. As part of the work a guideline on planning and
sented at http://themas.stowa.nl/Themas/New_sanitation. implementation of NASS concepts was prepared and will
aspx?rID=1002 and http://www.desah.nl/. be published soon as DWA Arbeitsblatt. It is expected
that the new guideline will allow easier implementation
Demonstration and research go hand in hand from the of resources-oriented sanitation concepts especially in
beginning and Wageningen University and other univer- German speaking countries.
sities, the Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water
Technology (WETSUS), various companies, municipali-
ties, water boards and the Dutch umbrella organisation
for the Water Boards (STOWA), are strongly involved in
research, demonstration and implementation. The coop-
eration between organisations with different expertise and
the successful demonstration at a relevant scale resulted
in an increasing interest in new sanitation from the vari-
ous stakeholders.

Nowadays new housing developments adopt one of two

approaches to sanitation. These approaches include
either communityon-site collection, transport, treatment/
recovery and reuse of black water and grey water based
on vacuum technology for black water (also referred to as Figure 3. Design for the technical building of the 250
DeSaR= Decentralised Sanitation and Reuse) or commu- houses under construction in Sneek, The Netherlands,
nity-onsite collection of urine, combined with centralised picture provided by Grietje Zeeman).
treatment of the remaining wastewater stream and (semi)-
centralised recovery of nutrients and removal of pharma-
ceuticals from urine. The DeSaR concept is demonstrated General trends and challenges
at a scale of 32 houses since June 2006 and now applied
in Wageningen in a new ofce building of the Institute
It is difcult to give a general global view on the trends
for Ecology (NIOO) and is under construction in a hous-
and challenges for resources-oriented sanitation, since
ing estate of 250 houses in Sneek. The same concept is
drivers and technologies differ throughout the world. In
also applied in a school in the Ukraine. Within the DeSaR
parts of the world where articial fertilisers are excessively
concept, biogas is produced from black water. The liquid
expensive, nutrient recovery from sanitation systems is an
anaerobic efuent contains the major part of the nutri-
important driver for the development of resources-oriented
ents. Phosphate is recovered as struvite and nitrogen is
sanitation systems and also a driver for investment in
removed with anammox processes. In the NIOO building,
improved sanitation (as shown by examples above). How-
nitrogen and phosphorus will be recovered with the growth
ever, there is a great need to spread the knowledge about
of algae.
resources-oriented sanitation solutions, which will create
a demand among users for these systems. It is generally
In the beginning of 2011, the rst full scale Saniphos unit
agreed that resources-oriented sanitation benets food
for recovery of nitrogen (ammonium sulphate) and phos-
security and that there is a monetary value of reuse. This
phorus (struvite) from urine was opened. In addition, urine
economic argument could then be used to lobby decision-
from large festivals is collected and treated for resource
makers. It is often forgotten that with a safe handling sys-
recovery.
tem including sanitation for all recycled products, then far
less pathogens will be spread in the environment than with
Several aspects can be indicated as driving force for new
the present system.
sanitation in The Netherlands: (i) Water boards agreed
on an energy reduction for wastewater treatment of 30%
In Europe, where articial fertilisers are still cheap and
in the period 2005-2020. (ii) Phosphate is increasingly
readily available, the economic incentives for reuse of
recognised as a limiting nutrient. Recently the Nutrient
nutrients from wastewater are low and the development
Platform was established with a focus on increasing the
of resources-oriented sanitation solutions is driven by
attention for the Phosphate problems. (iii) Sewers have to
a consciousness that conventional wastewater systems
be renewed in the coming future; and (iv) Pharmaceutical,
may not be sustainable in the long term. Regulations
hormones and personal care products in domestic waste-
on wastewater management and fertiliser use in many
water are increasingly recognised as a potential problem
countries, as well as on a European Union level, are not
for the environment and human health.
adapted to resources-oriented sanitation and thus make
it difcult to implement these systems. If EU-regulations
Germany on fertilisers for organic farming would allow sanitised
urine and black water, there would be a great interest
In 2002, the German Water Association (DWA, for- among organic farmers for these fractions. In Sweden
merly ATV-DVWK) established a working group on new a new regulation on handling of wastewater fractions,

66

including urine and blackwater, is under way, which sets
requirements regarding hygenisation, heavy metal con-
tent, etc., and facilitates the use of these fractions on
arable land.
A lot of knowledge on how to install and manage urine
diversion and blackwater separation systems has been
gained in research and pilot projects, but this knowledge
needs to be transferred to implementers, technicians,
municipalities, etc. Toilet design needs improvement, but
the market today is far too small for the manufactures to
invest in product development, and without a better toilet
design it is difcult to attract a bigger market. There is also
a lack of economic incentives for home owners, farmers
and other stakeholders.
If existing infrastructure for conventional water-borne sani-
tation exists an abrupt change to resources-oriented sani-
tation is not realistic. Therefore a strategy for a gradual (50
years) transition from conventional to resources-oriented
sanitation should be developed. New settlements and
those parts of the old system that have to be renewed can
be converted to resources-oriented concepts more eas-
ily. Additionally, the development of guidelines on plan-
ning and implementation of resources-oriented sanitation
concepts from an organisation well-accepted among engi-
neers (such as the DWA in Germany) shall contribute to
more widespread implementation of resources-oriented
systems.
Conclusions (and outlook)
In view of the immense problems arising from global pop-
ulation growth, urban development and climate change
on a global scale, a paradigm change of sanitation and
excreta management is necessary. Source diversion is
a promising concept for achieving resource efciency in
wastewater management, but it will take a large effort of
research and technical development in order to develop
competitive technologies. For rural areas, a large number
of technologies are available, but compact, attractive tech-
nologies for urban areas are missing. One main challenge
of source diverting technologies is the requirement for
decentralised, complete solutions. With more wastewater
fractions, the transport issue becomes critical and at the
same time, several technologies must be implemented. At
IWA Specialist Groups
the moment, most practical research takes place in rural
areas of developing countries, because there is a huge
demand on implementation of sanitation systems. Besides
technological challenges, e.g. lack of attractive source
diverting toilets for urban areas, the importance of includ-
ing soft factors (e.g. operation and maintenance) already
in the planning process for a sustainable implementation
has to be stressed.
Another important factor for achieving a paradigm shift,
for designing the new wastewater systems for the 21st
century and beyond including resource-efciency, is
an urgent need for the wastewater sector to think about
problem-solving and product-adapting in both ends of the
wastewater chain. There is a consumer also at the end,
the farmer, and her/his demands on the nutrients from the
society, its quality and availability should lead the devel-
opment of new, innovative resources-oriented sanitation
systems. An increased understanding of the farmer as
a client rather than an alternative to a landll for todays
sludge would create a new platform where it is more likely
that resources from the society can be reused safely in
agriculture with a high acceptance. It makes all the sense
in the world for the wastewater sector to look at the waste
sector where source diverting and composting of organic
household waste is quite commonplace these days, where
large-scale trials to create a compost from mixed house-
hold waste seem out-dated. If the toilet fraction of the
wastewater, the blackwater or urine and faeces separately,
would be kept separately it is logical that the equivalent
development of an accepted reuse of the high nutrient-
containing wastewater fractions could be achieved.
The technical part of the system needs to be functioning
awlessly in order for complete acceptance in the long run
and there is a need for client thinking also in the end of
the chain. However, a fully functional technical system is
not the only key to full acceptance of resources-oriented
sanitation. Nothing will happen on a larger scale without
political buy-in and active steering in the sector. The waste-
water sector, being heavy on infrastructure, is conservative
and to achieve a paradigm shift in such a sector some
rm, high-level political decision-making is necessary.
Thus what is ultimately needed for achieving the paradigm
shift is political boldness to lead and push for the shift, as
well as technological, innovative and managerial boldness
within the wastewater sector.
67
 IWA Specialist Groups
Decentralised wastewater
management: an overview
Prepared by the Specialist Group on Sanitation and Water Management in Developing Countries
of the International Water Association
Introduction
Wastewater management (WWM) is important for minimi-
sation of health and environmental risks. However, there
is lack of adequate WWM services and inadequacies in
institutions, particularly in developing countries, which
often exposes populations to water related diseases and
environmental pollution. As WWM requires substantial
nancial resources it is important to nd cost-effective
solutions, and decentralised WWM may thereby be such a
cost-effective solution.
This document discusses the basic concept and rational
of decentralised WWM, the different technical options for
it and gives suggestions on how to identify and assess
whether a decentralised system is favorable over a
centralised one.
Definition
In contrast to centralised wastewater treatment, charac-
terised by the use of one centralised wastewater treatment
plant (WWTP) for the largest possible conned catchment
area in a region, decentralised wastewater management
usually refers to dividing the largest possible catchment
area into smaller regions having separate wastewater
treatment plants. The terms centralised and decen-
tralised do not therefore necessarily correspond to the
terms large and small, but to larger and smaller, nutrients, energy or reuse of treated wastewater).
as illustrated in Figure 1. The smallest possible decentral-
ised system would be on-site systems serving individual
households.
Figure 1. Centralised and decentralised WWM (WWTP: Wastewater Treatment Plant)
68
Rational for decentralised WWM
The choice between centralised or decentralised WWM
is usually determined by site-specic conditions concern-
ing whether there are any restrictions for the centralised
solution or whether constructing several smaller WWTP
has any advantages over constructing the largest possible
(centralised) WWTP.
Possible restrictions for centralised WWM
Higher costs in areas of low population density and /or
scattered settlement and/or under certain topographic
conditions.
Public opposition or resistance.
Financial limitations.
Institutional limitations.
Possible advantages for
decentralised WWM
Economic advantages for areas with low population den-
sity and/or scattered settlement and/or under certain
topographic conditions.
Better public participation and acceptance.
More appropriate to the local context and needs.
Less restrictions for piloting innovative technologies.
Better utilisation of value-products of wastewater (e.g.
Potential for lower energy use/carbon footprint due to
reduced need for pumping.
Better adaptation to rapid urban growth.

Technological options for
decentralised wastewater
management
Concepts
A decentralised wastewater management system consists
of either a collection and a storage/disposal system, or a
collection and a wastewater treatment system. The former
is usually applied at on-site (household) level, and the lat-
ter is usually applied at the off-site (communal) level. At
the communal level two cases can be distinguished: either
a public toilet system with a (on-site) wastewater treatment
plant, or a sewerage system which collects the wastewa-
ter from several households and conveys the wastewater
to a wastewater treatment plant. There are several house-
hold and communal sanitation options available and a
basic classication based upon on-site, off-site and water
demand is shown in Table 1 below.
Sewerage system
Four types of sewerage systems can be identied as
options for a decentralised wastewater collection system:
Conventional sewerage system.
Simplied sewerage system.
Pressure sewerage system.
Vacuum sewerage system.
For developing countries the simplied sewerage system is
likely to be most appropriate.
Wastewater treatment system
For those concepts that require a waste water treatment
system several options are available. A wastewater treat-
ment system usually comprises primary, secondary and
tertiary treatment steps, depending on the required efu-
ent quality. Individual treatment systems may be classied
as follows:
Table 1. Overview of household and communal sanitation options
Low
Pit latrines
Composting toilets
Toilet
On-site Dry urine separation toilets +
storage units
Greywater
Off-site Most above options but with public toilets (off-site with respect to the households)
IWA Specialist Groups
Natural Treatment Systems: This covers treatment
systems that are based on natural systems such as
constructed wetlands or wastewater treatment ponds.
Built Treatment Systems: These systems can basically
be divided into aerobic and anaerobic systems. Aerobic
systems include conventional activated sludge systems,
trickling lters, oxidation ditch, rotating bed reactors
and membrane bioreactors. Anaerobic systems include
anaerobic lters, biogas-plants, anaerobic bafed
reactors (ABRs) and upow anaerobic sludge blanket
reactors (UASBs).
Physical/Chemical treatment systems: These systems
include primary sedimentation, chemical coagulation/
precipitation and ltration.
Combined Treatment Systems: Usually a combination of
different treatment systems has to be applied to achieve
the required efuent quality.
The selection of appropriate treatment systems depends
on the one hand on the type of wastewater to be treated
(eg blackwater, greywater, or both) and on the other on the
required efuent treatment quality. Further, several other
aspects, in particular land requirements, energy demand
and operation and maintenance requirements need to be
considered when selecting a treatment system.
Assessment
Decentralised wastewater management options are favour-
able if topographic conditions determine that no central-
ised system is feasible, or if a decentralised system shows
any of the following advantages that outweigh any advan-
tages of a centralised system as indicated earlier.
Hence, if it is not obvious that a decentralised option
is clearly preferable, then a feasibility study should (a)
compare both centralised and decentralised options and
(b) identify the optimal level of decentralisation (i.e. if
the largest or the smallest possible decentralised options
should be selected or any options in between) and the
type of most suitable decentralised wastewater manage-
ment system.
Water demand
Medium High
Pour ush toilets + pit latrines Flush toilets + septic tanks
Pour ush toilets + septic tanks Aqua privy
Wet urine separation toilets +
treatment system
Soak pit and inltration
Septic tank
Flush toilets/Greywater +
sewerage system +
treatment system
69
 IWA Specialist Groups
Content of a good feasibility study
A good feasibility study for comparing centralised with
decentralised wastewater management options should
investigate the following aspects:
Technical feasibility.
Costs.
Environmental aspects.
Social, socio-economic and nancial aspects.
Institutional aspects.
Technical feasibility
Topographical and other local factors will need to be sur-
veyed in order to clarify which concepts and technologies
are technically feasible and can be maintained sustainably
at the local level.
Costs
A cost estimation should encompass the investment and
the O&M costs for at least 1015 years. Capital invest-
ment, re-investment, annual recurring costs (O&M), and
benets should be quantied to select economically viable
technologies. The O& M cost may include the personnel
and material cost for regular operation, repair and main-
tenance work, costs for energy and other consumables.
The economic benets associated with the technology
such as biogas, fertilisers or water for reuse should also
be calculated. At the feasibility stage, the various options
for sanitation technology can be compared with the total
net present value (NPV). A NPV calculates future invest-
ment and operation costs for a certain time span using a
discount rate, which trades off present capital and future
running costs and benets (a shorter time span and
higher discount rate give less weight to future costs and
benets).
Environmental aspects
What is the required efuent quality of the treated waste-
water? Where can efuents be discharged? Are there any
hygienic concerns? Benets of side products such as
biogas, fertiliser or reused water shall be considered under
the cost calculation. Note, however, that those aspects
may also be considered under environmental aspects if
required (e.g. if saving of water is an environmental goal).
Social, socio-economic and financial
aspects
Involvement of the future users and stakeholders is a key for
successful planning. Further the affordability and options
70
for nancing of the system should be investigated and a
nancing plan prepared. Thereby, the full range of public
and private nancing sources should be considered.
Institutional aspects
Arrangements for O&M as well as any arrangement for
public-private partnerships (PPPs) should be investi-
gated in the light of the required capacity for operating
and nancing the system. Issues of monitoring and control
should be considered.
Conclusions
Decentralised wastewater management can be a viable and
cost-effective solution and should be considered when-
ever possible. It covers a large variety of options and also
includes mixed approaches such as partly decentralisation
or decentralisation of some elements and at the same time
centralisation of others. As an example, whereas certain
wastewater fractions may be collected locally they may be
treated centrally (e.g. centralised sludge treatment).
Various options should be considered and a compre-
hensive feasibility study should identify which is the best
level or mix of decentralised and centralised wastewater
management.
Acknowledgements
The following members of the Specialist Group have con-
tributed to and/or reviewed this document:
Dr. David Baguma, United Nations University
Dr. Walter Betancourt, Instituto Venezolano de Investiga-
ciones Cienticas
Mr. Jaime L. Garcia-Heras, CEIT, Spain
Ms. Ayesha I. Davis, The Luis Berger Group, Panama
Dr. Vikram M. Pattarkine, PEACE USA, USA
Mr. Bill Peacock, Halcrow, India
Dr. Michael D. Smith, WEDC, Loughborough University,
UK
Mr. S. Vishwanath, independent consultant, India
Dr. Juliet Willets, University of Technology Sydney,
Australia
Prof. Zukii Yosop, University Technology Malaysia,
Malaysia
+ Markus, Hamanth, Jonathan

Sludges, residuals and biosolids:
global trends and challenges
Written by S. Dentel on behalf of the Specialist Group
Introduction
Sludges are the result of water and wastewater treatment,
including industrial wastewater. The accumulated sludges
can essentially be considered as the materials removed
from the water in a more concentrated form, with the excep-
tion of biomass grown in biological processes intended to
biodegrade pollutants. Quantities and associated costs
can be considerable. For example, wastewater plants in
the USA treat about 120 million cubic meters of waste-
water per day, at a cost exceeding $13 billion per year.
The cost of managing the resulting sludges is 3050%
of this amount. US wastewater treatment also requires
an estimated 21 billion kilowatt hours of energy per year,
and again the sludge processing requires 3050% of this
amount. Thus sludge represents both an economic and
environmental concern of considerable importance. Prop-
erly managed, it may also be a signicant resource.
Existing Knowledge
The above estimate of sludge amounts in the USA comes
from a survey conducted by the North East Biosolids and
Residuals Association (NEBRA 2007). It is believed to be
more accurate than previous estimates, which were pri-
marily based on calculations from wastewater ows rather
than actual solids amounts. These numbers are thus
reported here as the most accurate available, and from the
Figure 1. Breakdown of biosolids use in the USA according to 2007 NEBRA study. Illustration from Dentel (2011).
IWA Specialist Groups
country generating the largest amount of sludge. However,
estimates have recently provided for many other countries
as well (LeBlanc et al. 2008; Spinosa 2011).
The NEBRA survey estimated that about 55% of US bio-
solids are put to benecial use, meaning any intentional
use in order to improve soil characteristics, such as nutri-
ent, organic, or structural properties (Figure 2.1). This
includes agricultural use on farmlands; distribution to the
public as biosolids qualifying for landscaping; horticulture
and agriculture; and other uses, such as land restoration
in surface-mined areas) or in silviculture (woodlands). In
the non-benecial (disposal) categories were disposal in
municipal solid waste landlls or as landll cover, dedicated
surface disposal sites, and incineration. These amounts are
mainly reective of practices at larger treatment facilities
3
(>0.044 m /s), which comprise under 20% of all installa-
tions but over 92% of treated ow. Minor facilities are more
likely to store biosolids in lagoons for long periods before
land application, or use less elaborate or expensive methods,
such as landlling. They may also transport their untreated
solids to larger treatment facilities for management.
Land application of biosolids is also widely practised in
Australia, Brazil, some provinces of Canada, and some of
the less densely populated countries of Europe. The sub-
stantial masses of biosolids being applied to land globally
lead to ongoing questions about health and ecological
risks associated with this practice, as described later.
71
 IWA Specialist Groups
In more populated regions of the developed world, various
types of thermal oxidation are more commonly practised
(Spinosa 2011). In this case, the energy value from the
sludge can be recovered, but this is only signicant if the
sludge has been well dewatered. Thermal oxidation may
offer the opportunity to recover phosphorus for use as a
fertiliser, although the technology is unproven to date. It
would also preclude co-incineration with less P-rich mate-
rials such as solids waste.
Quantied surveys on stabilisation and dewatering prac-
tices are not available for most countries. In the USA,
data are available from the 2007 NEBRA survey, shown in
Figures 2 and 3. Percentages based on numbers of instal-
lations differ from those according to biosolids amount,
because smaller facilities are more likely to use less com-
plex processes such as aerobic digestion and belt lter
press dewatering. Larger treatment plants are more likely
to utilise anaerobic digestion, centrifugation and com-
posting. Thus, even though many facilities employ aero-
bic digestion, larger facilities use anaerobic digestion and
composting. Likewise, only 11% of the facilities dewater by
centrifugation, but this method is applied to roughly half
of all biosolids that are dewatered. By number or by mass,
over 90% of all dewatering is by centrifugation, belt lter
press or drying beds. Dewatering is a key step in economic
sludge processing if drying, incineration or signicant
transportation are to be practised.
Outside the USA, mesophilic anaerobic digestion appears
to be the main type of biological stabilisation for large
Figure 2. Dewatering operations by type (NEBRA 2007). Number of operations based on responses from 50% of states,
sludge masses based on 25% of all states.
Figure 3. Stabilisation operations by type (NEBRA 2007). Number of operations based on responses from 50% of states,
sludge masses based on 25% of all states.
72
treatment facilities. The exception is China, which has
not included digestion in its programme for development
of large treatment facilities (Xu 2011). For dewatering, it
appears that lter presses and belt lters are more fre-
quently utilised than are centrifuges (e.g. Cisneros 2011;
Snyman 2011). Drying beds are more common in the
developing world. Composting and landlling are also
favoured in countries where more complex processes are
impractical.
Future trends in sludge processing are tied to economic
development. The most rapid growth in sludge quantities
and management is expected in China (Xu 2011), with
growth also in South Korea as ocean disposal is elimi-
nated, and in Turkey as it works toward EEC environmental
standards.
General trends and Challenges
Concerns with land application
In regions using land application, there is widespread con-
cern (e.g. NRC 2002) about emerging contaminants in
sewage sludge. Improved risk assessment methodologies
are sought to better establish standards for these constitu-
ents. Studies (Viau et al. 2011) also suggest that risks from
emerging pathogens, such as norovirus, may be much
greater than estimated based on the commonly monitored
bacterial indicators such as faecal coliform. This will lead

to inclusion of new or emerging contaminants or patho-
gens, or different indicator organisms for monitoring path-
ogen levels.
The controversy regarding contaminants in land-applied
biosolids is unlikely to end regardless of specic limitations
on contaminant levels. The presence of contaminants at
any detectable levels has been used to support the term
toxic sludge (e.g. SourceWatch.org 2010). Detection of
synthetic organic contaminants in sludge-derived compost
at ppb and low ppm levels (PRWatch.org 2010) was also
used to support the toxic sludge label (e.g. PBDEs at
731 ng/g; triclosan 1312 ng/g; nonylphenol 7065 ng/g).
Numerous web sites can be located devoted solely, and
vociferously, to the prohibition of land application of biosol-
ids, declaring that sewage sludge is poison.
Careful and comprehensive characterisations of organ-
ics in sludge have been completed recently. The US EPA
conducted a Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey
(2009) of 84 different samples, measuring for metals,
polyaromatic hydrocarbons and other semi-volatile organ-
ics, inorganic anions, polybrominated diphenyl ethers,
and 97 pharmaceuticals, steroids, and hormones. Bis
(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate was found in all samples, in con-
centrations up to hundreds of mg/kg. Some PBDE con-
geners were in the mg/kg range. Twenty seven metals
were found in virtually every sample. Three pharmaceu-
ticals (cyprooxacin, diphenhydramine and triclocarban)
were found in all 84 samples, and nine were found in
at least 80 of the samples. Three steroids (campesterol,
cholestanol and coprostanol) were found in all sam-
ples, and six steroids were found in at least 80 of the
84 samples. However, these results reect not only the
number of chemical constituents in sludges, but also the
acute sensitivity of contemporary analytical methods and
equipment.
Another study (McClellan and Halden 2010) used 110
archived EPA biosolids samples, combined to create ve
mega-composites from which to obtain an averaged
value of 72 sludge constituents. Triclocarban and triclosan
were found at the highest concentrations, 368 and
12.63.8 mg/kg, respectively. The study concluded that
biosolids recycling is a signicant mechanism for the
environmental release of pharmaceuticals and personal
care products.
In the USA, incineration of sewage solids will fall under
more stringent Clean Air Act standards if the EPAs pro-
posed classication as a solid waste is approved (USEPA
2010). This will not eliminate thermal oxidation as an
option, but will increase costs where outdated furnaces
may be in use. The same trend may ensue elsewhere.
Process trends and challenges
Technology development worldwide has focused mainly on
reducing sludge masses and/or producing biosolids with
Class A or equivalent properties. Traditional composting is
waning as a stabilisation option for larger US cities, in part
due to operating costs, and also to odours. Aerobic ther-
mophilic digestion processes have been of interest, but
poor dewaterability and an unfavourable energy balance
may limit further implementation. Thermophilic digestion
processes are gaining attention because they can also
IWA Specialist Groups
produce well stabilised biosolids. The mechanisms of
pathogen destruction in these processes are undergoing
increasing scrutiny in order to assure reliability and prevent
regrowth.
Drying and pelletising technologies are of increasing inter-
est in providing a usable product without the operating
complexities of composting. Drying can be based on either
direct or indirect heating methods, and the processes are
often of a proprietary nature (e.g. microwave heating). Pel-
letising offers the aesthetic qualities of composted sludge
with a more controlled production process. The process
reliability and exibility are combined with a lower process
footprint. Potential drawbacks are the varying sise, nutri-
ent quality, odour and other properties of different pellet
types. The costs of drying and pellet production are, of
course, linked more closely to energy expenses than in the
case of composting.
Technology trends and challenges
Many emerging technologies for sludge management were
reviewed by the EPA (USEPA 2006). The technologies
were classied as established, innovative (new, but with
some pilot or full scale experience), or embryonic (in the
development or lab stage in the USA). Table 9.1 lists the
innovative technologies and the potential benets. The
greatest number of these is in the categories of stabilisa-
tion and dewatering.
Of these processes, one of signicant interest is the
TM
Cambi thermal hydrolysis process, because the Blue
Plains wastewater treatment plant in Washington, D.C. is
currently constructing four of these process trains with a
410 dry tonne per day total average capacity. The system
will be augmented by burning digester gas in turbines to
provide both power and heat, the latter being used for the
Cambi process. Completion is scheduled for 2014.
One process, called SlurryCarb, was indicated in the
EPA study to be embryonic, but would now be classied
as innovative. This process, developed by Atlanta-based
Enertech Environmental, pressurises sludge above its
saturated steam pressure and raises the temperature to
effect oxidation of organic material. Most water is main-
tained in the liquid state to avoid energy expenditures
of evaporation (Dickinson et al. 2006). The processed
sludge is amenable for use as a fuel, and it is claimed that
overall process produces about twice as much energy as
it consumes (Enertech 2008). Supported by Mitsubishi, a
demonstration plant was successfully operated in Japan,
and a full scale plant commissioned in Rialto, California
in 2009.
Another management option being explored in the USA
is deep well injection of sludge, currently being studied
in Los Angeles, injecting 400 wet tons per day to a depth
of 1700 m (Sanin et al. 2011). The sludge generates
methane through thermophilic anaerobic digestion, which
is then to be recovered as a fuel. The gas composition,
according to lab tests, should be over 90% methane due
to solubilisation of the carbon dioxide at the high pres-
sure (150 atm), yielding over 90% methane in the col-
lected gas. Because the nondegradable carbon and the
CO2 remain underground, the practice is also viewed as
carbon sequestration.
73
 IWA Specialist Groups

Potential Benet
Bene t Relative to Established Technologies

Produces Class A

((non Agriculture)
LLow Capital Cost

Reduces Solids

Reduces Odour

Benecial Use
Innovative Technology and Advancement

oor Thickens
LLow Annual

Biosolids
Costs
C

P
B

B
Conditioning
MicrosludgeTM (chemical destruction of cells)
Ultrasonic
Thickening
Flotation thickening anoxic gas
Membrane thickening
Recuperative thickening
Stabilisation
Aerobic/anoxic
Anaerobic bafed reactor (ABR)
Columbia biosolids ow-through thermophilic ttmnt
High rate plug ow (BioTerminator 24/85)
Temperature phased anaerobic digestion (TPAND)
Thermal hydrolysis (CAMBITM Process)
Thermophilic fermentation (ThermoTechTM)
Three-phase anaerobic digestion
Two-phase-acid/gas anaerobic digestion
Vermicomposting
Dewatering
Quick dry lter beds
Electrodewatering
Metal screen ltration - inclined screw press
Bucher hydraulic press
DABTM system
Geotube container
Thermal Conversion
Reheat and oxidise (RHOX)
Supercritical water oxidation
Minergy - vitrication
Drying
Belt drying
Direct microwave drying
Flash drying
Fluidised bed drying
Other
CannibalTM process
Lystek
Injection into cement kiln

74

Research trends and challenges
As indicated above, concerns with sludge/biosolids constit-
uents are ongoing in the USA. Controversies have included
the possible risks from dioxins, furans, and co-planar
PCBs, which the EPA decided not to regulate after a reas-
sessment completed in 2003. Antimicrobials, ibuprofen,
caffeine, plasticisers, ame retardant chemicals, endo-
crine disruptors and antibiotics are nearly ubiquitous in
biosolids. The decision to include many additional sludge
constituents in the Targeted National Sewage Sludge
Survey (USEPA 2009) provides additional knowledge of
concentrations, but not of exposure or risk levels.
Pathogen reactivation and regrowth are questions of grow-
ing concern, although this has been based on indicator
organism (faecal coliform) measurements to date. The
reactivation can occur when sludge is processed through
thermophilic digesters and dewatered by high-speed cen-
trifuge. Research also indicates that centrifugal dewatering
can exacerbate faecal coliform regrowth following stabili-
sation, e.g. during storage or transportation, which means
that the densities determined after stabilisation do not
reect levels when the material is released of plant custody
(Qi et al. 2004). For the many plants using PSRP (process
to signicantly reduce pathogens), faecal coliform meas-
urement is not required but the discrepancy still underlies
the use of PSRP. The regrowth/reactivation phenomenon
is being studied so that its implications can be addressed
in future regulations and practices. Additional indicator
organisms are clearly needed to reect the diverse levels of
pathogen resistance to treatment processes (Viau 2011).
Studies of odour sources and mechanisms are also
ongoing. Standardised methods of quantifying odours will
be needed if any limits are to be added to biosolids regula-
tions. However, odours have yet to be clearly correlated
with health or ecological harms (Viau 2011).
Selected hot topics
Near-term challenges in sludge management will centre
around topics such as the following:
Dewatering of wastewater sludges: Approximately 50% of
the energy content in wastewater is still contained in the
sludges that have been generated in purifying the water.
In addition, the sludge contains much less water relative
to the combustible or biodegradable matter. However, for
thermal treatment to extract this energy, even more water
must be removed so that its heat of vaporisation does
not negate the heat of combustion of the organic matter.
Efcient dewatering is thus cost effective, and this is the
case for other treatment options, e.g. when transportation
of the sludge solids (and water) are necessary. However,
current dewatering processes cannot easily exceed 35%
solids except with prohibitive process times or energy
input. Research into improved dewatering processes, or
into pretreatment processes that signicantly improve
dewaterability, is economically attractive. A gamut of phys-
ical, chemical, and biological processes are being trialled
globally; many of these are listed in Table 8.1.
Energy extraction from liquid sludges: An alternative to
high-level dewatering is the development of methods for
energy extraction from the liquid sludge before thicken-
IWA Specialist Groups
ing or dewatering. Methods for signicantly enhancing
anaerobic digestion efcacy are being sought worldwide to
increase the yield of methane as an energy-rich product.
A recently developed technology known as the microbial
fuel cell is another means, which could produce signicant
amounts of electricity directly from sludge (Dentel et al.
2004). Research is currently focused on using this proc-
ess for wastewater treatment, but its use on sludge would
avoid meeting of efuent standards while still having sig-
nicant energy potential.
Sustainability and sludge treatment: Some municipalities
are initiating greenhouse gas inventories (e.g. Willis 2010)
which help establish a triple bottom line basis for design
and operational decisions in wastewater treatment facilities,
including sludge and biosolids management. Operationally,
this means that the nutrient value, energy value, and green-
house gas contributions of sludges must all be balanced,
or counterbalanced, in determining the most environmen-
tally conscionable management scheme. Important future
decisions on sludges will be made on this basis, but the
methodologies for doing so are yet to be established and
commonly accepted. In principle, even the environmental
risks from emerging pathogens and contaminants must be
incorporated in any such methodology.
Concluding remarks
Two trends in sludge management are countervailing:
greater concern about its potentially harmful constituents,
but greater awareness of its nutrient and energy values.
How these are reconciled will depend on public and gov-
ernmental prioritisations, but also on whether suitable
technologies are developed and accepted to meet these
issues with acceptable solutions.
References
Cisneros, B.J. (2011) Mexico. In Wastewater sludge: a global
overview of the current and future prospects. 2nd ed. IWA
Publishing, London.
Dentel, S.K. (2011) United States. In Wastewater sludge: a global
overview of the current and future prospects. 2nd ed. IWA
Publishing, London.
Dentel, S.K., Strogen, B., and Chiu, P.C. (2004) Direct generation
of electricity from sludges and other liquid wastes. Water
Sci. Technol. 50(9), 161168.
Dickinson N.L., Bolin K.M., Overstreet E. and Dooley B. (2006).
Slurry dewatering and conversion of biosolids to a renewable
fuel, U.S. Patent application 20060096163.
EnerTech Environmental (2008). The Slurry-Carb Process,
Renewable Energy from Biosolids, http://www.enertech.
com/downloads/SlurryCarbOverview.pdf.
LeBlanc, R., Matthews, P. and Richard, R.P. (2008) Global Atlas
of Excreta, Wastewater Sludge, and Biosolids Management:
Moving Forward the Sustainable and Welcome Uses of a
Global Resource. UN Human Settlements Programme (UN-
HABITAT).
McClellan, K. and Halden, R.U. (2010). Pharmaceuticals and
personal care products in archived US biosolids from the
2001 EPA national sewage sludge survey. Water Research
44(2), 658668.
National Research Council (2002). Biosolids Applied to Land.
Advancing Standards and Practices. National Academies
Press: Washington, D.C.
NEBRA - North East Biosolids and Residuals Association (2007).
A National Biosolids Regulation, Quality, End Use & Disposal
75
 IWA Specialist Groups
Survey. NEBRA, Tamworth NH, USA. www.nebiosolids.org/
uploads/pdf/NtlBiosolidsReport-20July07.pdf.
NEBRA - North East Biosolids and Residuals Association (2010).
Information Update: US EPA Denes Sewage Sludge as
Solid Waste. www.nebiosolids.org/uploads/pdf/Info-EPA-
DenesSludge-May10.pdf.
PRWatch.org (2010). San Franciscos Free Organic Biosolids
Compost is Toxic Sludge, and Not Good For You!. www.
prwatch.org/taxonomy/term/106.
Qi Y.N., Gillow S., Herson D.S. and Dentel S.K. (2004) Reactiva-
tion and/or growth of fecal coliform bacteria during centrifu-
gal dewatering of anaerobically digested biosolids. Wat. Sci.
Tech. 50(9), 115120.
Sanin, F.D., Clarkson, W.W., and Vesilind, P.A. (2011) Sludge
Engineering. DEStech Publications, Lancaster PA-USA.
SourceWatch.org (2010), Breaking News on Toxic Sludge. www.
sourcewatch.org/ index.php?title=Portal:Toxic_Sludge.
Snyman, H.G. (2011) Africa. In Wastewater sludge: a global
overview of the current and future prospects. 2nd ed. IWA
Publishing, London.
Spinosa, L., ed. Wastewater sludge: a global overview of the current
and future prospects. 2nd ed. IWA Publishing, London.
76
USEPA (2006). Emerging Technologies for Biosolids Manage-
ment, Washington, D.C., EPA-832-R-06005.
USEPA (2009). Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey,
Washington, D.C., EPA-822-R-08014.
USEPA (2010). Identication of Non-Hazardous Materials That
Are Solid Waste: Proposed Rule, www.epa.gov/epawaste/
nonhaz/dene/index.htm#proposed.
Viau, E., Bibby, K., Paez-Rubio, T. and Peccia, J. (2011) Toward a
consensus view on the infectious risks associated with land
application of sewage sludge. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45(13),
54595469.
Willis J. (2010). Example Using the Local Governments
Operations Protocol at DCWASA, MABA Workshop on
Greenhouse Gas Accounting for Wastewater Treatment &
Biosolids Management, Eatontown, N.J., www.mabiosolids.
org/uploads/pdf/conferenceproceedings.
Xu, G. (2011) China. In Wastewater sludge: a global overview of
the current and future prospects. 2nd ed. IWA Publishing,
London.

Statistics and Economics
Water pricing policies in situation of water scarcity and in maintaining
access to water - improving and enlarging statistical information
Written by Ed Smeets on behalf of the Specialist Group
Introduction
One of the dimensions of the water crisis is the rarefaction
of available resources in comparison with needs. In this
context, well-designed pricing policies are major regula-
tory tools to induce water savings behaviour and to pre-
serve nite freshwater resources.
A complementary aspect of this issue refers to
wastewater recycling and seawater desalination. In a
context of growing scarcity, alternative resources have
an enormous potential: on a global scale, it is forecasted
that within the next decade, installed capacity for reuse
will triple and installed capacity for desalination will
double.
Human beings have been freely exploiting natural resources
for many centuries. However, the era of abundance is over.
Could pricing policies reduce or prevent exposure to future
water shortages?
For the international community, 2015 will be a critical
year. It is the year prescribed by the United Nations for
achieving the Millennium Development Goals for Water
and Sanitation and, in so doing, reducing poverty in the
world.
However, once poor people are connected to the pub-
lic networks, what happens? Are low-income people
capable to pay their bills regularly? Will they keep on
beneting from the water services? It depends of many
factors such as their revenues, the price of water and
the tariffs structure, which are all essential elements for
making the service affordable. But also the accompa-
nying measures implemented by operators and public
authorities when people are connected are important
and also the cost of connection to the network and if
this cost is charged separately or recuperated by overall
service revenues.
Discussion on topics like water scarcity, access to
water and on many other topics in the water sector
often has to be supported by statistical data in form of
tables, graphs, etc. Therefore, it is very important that
these data are gathered, checked and transformed into
understandable gures so that policy makers, political
leaders, managers, etc. are supported in making their
decisions.
IWA Specialist Groups
Existing knowledge
In the past several workshops and conferences were
organised by our Specialist Group around the topic of water
pricing in general or more in detail dealing with specic
aspects of water pricing. In addition, many presentations
by members of our Specialist group took place on several
World Water Congresses and articles were published in
Water Utility Management International.
Some of the present, active members of our Specialist
Group have extended knowledge of water pricing and thus
have the capacity to make important contributions to the
discussion of this topic. Besides that it is worthwhile to
mention that some of them are working in countries facing
water scarcity, like Spain and Cyprus. This will facilitate
case study elaboration on this topic. For instance, for sea-
sonal tariffs, it should be easier to know, at least in these
countries, to what extent they are being used and they have
proved to be effective. Since the early 1990s the Specialist
Group in particular the Working Group on Statistics has
carried out International Surveys to collect data on water
production, water use and water charges and on water
regulation. The information is published as a leaet at the
biennial IWA World Water Congress. This means that the
Specialist Group has a lot of knowledge about these kinds
of data and is able to produce tables, graphs, time series
about different countries and different cities.
However, like always, manpower, time and resources are
subject to restrictions. Hopefully, it is possible to mobilise
enough efforts to realise our objectives as written below.
Planned activities
To answer questions on water pricing in situations of water
scarcity, we would like to explore in the next few years
the following issues (keeping in mind, that in all countries,
pricing policies and the price of water are decided by pub-
lic authorities and/or the regulatory body, not by utilities).
How generalised water under pricing and unaccepted
pricing policies (e.g. when municipal consumption is
not charged or not paid) contributed to move, in some
regions, from water abundance to water scarcity;
The way ahead towards a coherent water resource strat-
egy, with efcient tariff and non-tariff solutions (such
77
 IWA Specialist Groups
as two part tariffs, promotion of change in consumer
behavior to foster water use efciency, etc.);
The measures to be taken in term of regulation, respon-
sibilities breakdown or evolution of economic models of
utilities, in order to prevent conict of interest among
water utilities (which are paid according to the number
of cubic meters sold and should, at the same time,
encourage water savings among consumers)
The growing resort to non conventional resources and
the way to design adapted tariffs for using alternative
water resources.
From a concrete perspective we plan the following
activities.
To organise a workshop on these topics during the 2012
IWA Congress;
To make a presentation on these topics in 2013, either
during the Stockholm Water Week which is organised
each year in August or during the Singapore Water Week
which importance is increasing. The latter occasion
would also help in networking with Asian institutions.
Many institutions are already dealing with the Millen-
nium Development Goals. As a Specialist Group we dont
have the means to organise worldwide and comprehen-
sive surveys to check if these goals are achieved like
United Nations Agencies are doing. However, the issue
of how people are maintaining access to water services
once they got their connections is less observed and
analysed.
Therefore we would like to point out two specic topics.
In developing countries. What pricing policies and social
policies have to be implemented to help people recently
connected to public networks to pay their bills and then
to keep on beneting from the water services? There are
many possible and complementary solutions: extension
of nancial solidarity, education programme to prevent
overconsumption among new subscribers, twinning
electricity and water services in Africa (for the rst one
to subsidised the second one)
In developed countries. It is sure that the Millennium
Development Goals concern above all the developing
countries. However, poverty also extends into the
developed countries, and is forcing them to nd solutions
to maintain access to water for poor people already con-
nected. For them, the challenge is not to create new service
lines as in the developing countries. Thus we will present
78
experiences, mainly from European countries, to illustrate
how combining affordable water pricing, tariff structures,
cross-subsidisation mechanisms (between water service
subscribers and taxpayers, between domestic and no
domestic users) and social policies, in order to maintain
access to water and sanitation services.
From a concrete perspective, and to extend linkage with
other water institutions, we plan to organise, in 2014, one
workshop on this topic during one major Conference (such
as the 2014 IWA Congress, the Singapore Water Week, the
Stockholm Water Week). Being organised one year before
the deadline to achieve the Millennium Development
Goals, the results of this workshop could be used in 2015
by other organisations when they assess the situation.
To support topics like the above we are planning to extend
our activities on the international surveys and statistical
data we produce every two years.
We would like to enlarge the gathering and analysis of data,
so that we can turn data into knowledge. Examples of new
approaches could be cross relation analysis, more use of
time series, etc.
Data on customer behaviour are more or less lacking in the
information that we collect. So we are planning to gather
more information on topics like bad payments, willingness
to pay for intelligent metering, consumption levels and to
compare and analyse for instance the results of different
countries and different cities.
Furthermore, we would like to enlarge the database more
with data of continents and countries which are missing for
the most part, like Africa, South America and Asia.
Conclusion
Within the IWA community, the Statistics and Economics
Specialist Group is the central group for elaborating eco-
nomic topics like water pricing policies.
Although in the past many activities in this respect were
developed by the Group, there is still a lot to discuss. That
is why we will be dealing more in detail with this topic in
the coming years, mainly focusing on water pricing policies
in situations of water scarcity, on maintaining access to
water services once people are connected, and improving
and enlarging our statistical information.

Sustainability in the Water Sector
Written by M. B. Beck, C. Davis, S. J. Kenway, J. Porro, S. Matsui, G. Crawford, H. Hilger and H. Zhang
on behalf of the Specialist Group
Introduction
The challenge in the notion of sustainability lies in this
complex compound of issues:
The desire to associate the word sustainability with
whatever one is doing is nigh on universal. It is liberally
evident in the mission and goals of the Association. It is
somehow intuitively grasped by all.
However, holding steady in ones mind this massively
multi-disciplinary notion, and long enough and suf-
ciently completely to dene it operationally as is the
wont of engineers seems as elusive as ever.
At bottom, the role of sustainability is akin to that of the
catalyst. It is working (and crucially so) when yet it is not
prominent either in the prior circumstances of what is to
be changed about the stewardship of water and other
resources or in any successful (posterior) engineered
outcomes. It is as the changes wrought by the systems
thinking suffused into the Yarra Valley Water company,
as recorded in Crittenden et al. (2010).
If one likens dening sustainability to the task of producing
a Manual of Practice for the Whole of Life, then that is a
measure of the challenge.
Mindful of this, the Group has been working:
To embrace and express in a comprehensive and
rounded sense what sustainability might amount to
when realised as Integrated Urban Water Management
(IUWM) nested within Integrated Water Resources Man-
agement (IWRM) hence the Sustainability Concepts
Paper, begun in 2002 and now published in 2011 (Beck
2011).
To raise the prole of sustainability within the Associa-
tion, through the installation of the IWA Sustainability
Prizes (rst awarded at the Vienna Congress, 2008) and
the hosting of Workshops on Triple Bottom Line account-
ing (Beijing Congress, 2006; Kenway et al. 2007).
To experiment in and with the learning microcosm of the
Sustainability Agora (Beijing Congress, 2006; Vienna
Congress, 2008), as a means of moving towards forms
of governance for enabling (as opposed to disabling) the
practice of sustainability in the water sector (Beck and
Jeffrey 2007).
To develop the Global Water Platform Bringing the
Worlds Water Information to Everyone to enhance
best practices in sustainable water management in
IWA Specialist Groups
those places around the world least easily reached by
the Associations meetings and customary publications.
The Platforms website (www.globalwaterplatform.org)
is designed to help people share the information they
have, get the information they need in a form they can
use, and collaborate to build new solutions.
To launch (in 2010) the cross-disciplinary Task Group
on Wastewater Utility Greenhouse Gas Footprints
(www.iwataskgroupghg.com), with its remit of minimis-
ing energy consumption, operational costs, and green-
house gas emissions, while yet maximising performance
in maintaining aquatic environmental quality.
Existing knowledge: Concepts Paper
The Sustainability Concepts Paper (Beck 2011) is the inte-
gral of essentially all that this Group has participated in
over the period of 2002 through 2011, in pondering and
promoting sustainability within IWA. It began as a back-
ground discussion paper for the First Leading Edge Sus-
tainability (LES) Conference (Venice, 2002); was advanced
through the Second LES Conference (Sydney, 2004); is
organised around the accountancy of the Triple Bottom
Line (TBL); embraces the best of the IWA Sustainability
Prizes (Ashley et al. 2008; Sharma et al. 2009; Starkl et al.
2009; Crittenden et al. 2010; Willis et al. 2010); and is
fundamentally dened by the plurality of perspectives on
the Man-Environment relationship itself the cornerstone
of the designs for the Sustainability Agora.
Intuitively grasped by all may sustainability be, but not
in any agreed manner, when more than mere intuition is
needed. There is no one right way about sustainability,
except always to acknowledge this plurality of opposed
outlooks on how to steward the Man-Environment relation-
ship, and to seek to harness constructive contestation and
disagreement amongst them (Thompson 2002). For IWAs
water professionals, moreover, the discomforting stance of
the Sustainability Concepts Paper is that there is also no
one right school of engineering thought on sustainability
for IUWM nested with IWRM (Gyawali 2001; Dixit 2002).
In sum, the very essence of sustainability is this:
Always Learning; Never Getting it Right
For all the many pages of the Sustainability Concepts Paper,
or the changes catalysed in the practices of Yarra Valley
Water (Crittenden et al. 2010), continuing transformation
is dening for sustainability at the institutional and per-
sonal levels: in the form of learning organisations (Senge
et al. 2008); and in availing ourselves (as individuals)
79
 IWA Specialist Groups
of what psychologists Kegan and Lahey (2009) call the
higher mental complexity of leading to learn.
Organised according to the Triple Bottom Line, the Sus-
tainability Concepts Paper describes the state-of-the-art
as follows:
On environmental benignity: Things are in transition,
from a sole focus on eco-efciency from being
less bad in lowering the water metabolism of cities
to an absolute minimum towards including the com-
plementary focus on eco-effectiveness (Dyllick and
Hockerts 2002; McDonough and Braungart 2002), i.e.,
pursuit of the environmental good of cities and their
water infrastructures as net contributors to ecosystem
services in their surrounding watersheds (Beck et al.
2010). The work of The Natural Step (www.naturalstep.
org) and DHV (www.dhv.nl) in re-engineering the Soer-
endonk wastewater treatment plant in The Netherlands
is exemplary. It stands (with others) at the frontiers of
practice.
On economic feasibility: Grand economic theory about
our environmental bequests of natural capital to future
generations (Solow 1993; Sumaila and Walters 2005;
Farley and Daly 2006) has for the moment markedly
outstripped contemporary practice in counting the cost
of what it might take, for example, to stimulate the recov-
ery of nutrients as resources from wastewater (becom-
ing more good) instead of seeking to be utterly rid of
them as pollutants (becoming less bad).
On social legitimacy: Water scientists and engineers
are leaders, amongst other policy and social scientists
(Gatzweiler 2006; Boulanger 2008; Thompson 2008;
Ney 2009; Romer 2010), in bringing the equally lofty
notion of a refurbished pluralist democracy to work on
the ground (Beck et al. 2011): in demonstrating practi-
cal paths towards more desirable governance (and away
from failing governance); and in resolving some of the
most intractable and widespread challenges of sustain-
able environmental stewardship (Gyawali 2004). These
are challenges, for instance, of rapidly urbanising water-
sheds, with burgeoning populations, who have spiritual
associations with water (Davis 2008), yet who are not
served by classical systems of water and wastewater
infrastructure (Gyawali 2004). At the frontiers of practice
can be found the work of the Nepal Water Conservation
Foundation on the Kathmandu-Bagmati city-watershed
couple (NWCF 2009).
We are urged to Think Globally, Act Locally. In the Sus-
tainability Concepts Paper we advocate its complement,
as in:
Engineers Acting Most Locally to engender a com-
munity eager to engage in Thinking Globally
Trends and challenges
Global water platform: seeing sustainability
in practice
The over-arching challenge for the Group remains that of
getting the message out with regard to sustainability. As
IWA turns its strategic intentions towards Lower and Mid-
dle Income Countries (LAMICs), the Specialist Group on
80
Sustainability sees Information Technologies (IT) and the
web as central in supporting this Association-wide mission.
Populations in many LAMICs are young; young water pro-
fessionals in these countries have ready access to cell
phones, computers, and the internet; these are, above all,
their technologies and their means of communication.
Yet language, income, and geography often bar the access
of these young water professionals to IWA meetings and
publications. What form of Global Water Platform what
further development of www.globalwaterplatform.org; what
genuinely relevant and effective innovations in internet
technologies will place the assets of IWA knowledge at
the disposal of these LAMIC water professionals? How will
they in their turn change and enhance IWAs knowledge
assets? How, at bottom, is the IWA Sustainability Specialist
Group to serve under-served audiences in promoting best
practices in sustainability and to see their practices shape
the evolving concepts of sustainability?
There is more, however, to the current trends and chal-
lenges guiding the work of the Specialist Group than the
vital task of serving the needs of global communication
around the water sector. Since the Groups inception in
2006, its policy has deliberately been one of not hosting
research symposia every 23 years. It is now time for this
policy to be changed. There are issues much in need of
research and enquiry, such as the following.
Sustainability in the language of
business & economics: making
resource recovery happen
There has been time enough over the past two decades for
water professionals to think their way out of the mind-set
of holding up the classical water-based paradigm of urban
wastewater infrastructure as the single, most environmen-
tally benign form of IUWM within IWRM. Niemczynowicz
(1993) has disabused us of any wish we might have to
cling to this orthodoxy alone. There has been time enough
also for policy and social scientists to think about the
socially legitimate options for engineering our way out of
the attaching state of institutional and technological lock
in. We have become quite inventive about what might be
put in its place: separation at source of domestic, munici-
pal, and industrial material ows; decentralisation; systems
of dry sanitation; low-impact development; smart water;
ecological engineering; green chemistry; and so on.
Computational assessments suggest that extending the
(conventional) wastewater infrastructure of a city such
as Metro Atlanta, Georgia, USA, to eliminate a further 50
tonnes of polluting phosphorus beyond current perform-
ance levels, might easily cost around $2-4M (on an annu-
alised basis). Yet with source separation, enabled through
the installation of urine-separating toilets (USTs) (Larsen
et al. 2009), there could be as much as 1,700 tonnes of
resourceful phosphorus to be recovered each year in
the citys raw wastewater, along with 16,600 tonnes of
nitrogen, with a combined market value of $22M as fer-
tiliser. Indeed, these nutrients might alternatively be used
to produce biofuels from algae, or dispensed to rivers in
a carefully controlled manner as nutrient supplements
for restoring and enhancing watershed ecosystem services
(Beck et al. 2010).

The crucial question, however, is what having to do with
money, economics, and entrepreneurship might spark
the transition from such a current unsustainable cost
stream to a future sustainable benet stream? If we can
have a global carbon-trading market, to reduce carbon
emissions to the atmosphere, how can we yet re-orient its
counterpart: of watershed pollutant-discharge trading and,
conspicuously, nutrient pollutant trading? When might this
be overturned: from a focus on environmental bads to
environmental goods, such that we shall see trading in a
watershed recovered-resources market?
What could be the practical engineering outcomes from
working with the nancial calculus of natural capital
(Hawken et al. 1998) and ecosystem services (Aronson
et al. 2006), together with the capex and opex of engi-
neering economics (with which we are already well famil-
iar)? Can we conceive of the hard, unsentimental business
cases for sustaining the enterprises of watershed eco-
system service providers, without risking their service
failure through the loss of biodiversity (Kremen 2005;
Graham and Smith 2004)?
Tracking sustainability in the city not Just
the nation or the utility
Relative to nations and utilities little has been formally
observed and tracked of the citys metabolisms water,
nutrients, energy, and so on (Kennedy et al. 2007). Deter-
mining progress away from unsustainability and towards
water-sensitive cities is currently almost impossible to
evaluate. When Rees and Wackernagel (1996) famously
introduced their concept of the urban ecological foot-
print, they invited us to imagine the city as a large animal
grazing in its pasture. From this, one did not acquire a
favorable impression of the environmental conduct of the
large animal. How indeed do cities interact with their sur-
rounding watersheds, thereby altering water, nutrient, and
energy cycles in the wider picture (Kenway et al. 2011a,b)?
What do we need to measure to track and to benchmark
progress in city policies and to discriminate between lead-
ing sustainability policies and infrastructures, as opposed
to those that are lagging behind?
According to the biological metaphor:
how might we measure not only the appetite (footprint)
of the city, i.e., the environmental consequences of
importing its voluminous inputs and exporting its equally
voluminous outputs; but also
its metabolism, i.e., the environmental consequences of
how those urban inputs are transformed into the urban
outputs; and
its pulse-rate, i.e., the environmental consequences of
tuning the social and economic life of the city to just the
narrow and environmentally impoverished bandwidth
of merely the 24-7 frequencies alone in the spectrum
(Beck et al. 2010; Beck 2011)?
What arrangements of the technologies of urban water
infrastructure will bestow ecological resilience (sensu
Holling 1996) upon the behaviour of the city and how
would we track this?
IWA Specialist Groups
Conclusions
Seen from today, we conjecture:
That sustainability in the water sector will be driven
not only by the principles of eco-efciency lowering
the material-energy metabolisms of the city-watershed
couple but also by eco-effectiveness, whereby the
built environment should nourish (not deplete) the natu-
ral environment;
That the economic calculi of sustainability should enable
a decision about re-engineering an urban wastewater
infrastructure, for example, for the recovery of a perfect
fertiliser, to be based demonstrably on monetary trade-
offs amongst inter alia the benets to the agricultural
sector, the energy sector, and the ecosystem-services
sector;
That socially legitimate policy will emerge not merely
from seeking some measure of agreement (as in con-
sensus), but from harnessing the creativity of properly
orchestrated, robust disputation and disagreement
amongst the interested parties, each with its passionate
commitment to what it believes is the only right way to
go about sustainability.
We fully expect this assertion to be shown to be inade-
quate, in some way, in the event. It is entirely in the spirit
of sustainability for this to be welcomed, even sought out
by design.
References
Ashley, R., Blackwood, D., Butler, D., Jowitt, P., Davies, J., Smith,
H., Gilmour, D. and Oltean-Dumbrava, C. (2008) Making asset
investment decisions for wastewater systems that include
sustainability. J Environmental Engineering 134(3), 200
209, DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(2008)134:3(200).
Beck, M.B. (2011) Cities as Forces for Good in the Environment:
Sustainability in the Water Sector, Warnell School of Forestry
& Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens (ISBN:
978-1-61584-248-4) (also available from www.cfgnet.org).
Beck, M.B. and Jeffrey, P. (2007) Sustainable standpoints
embracing diversity of opinion. Water21 August, 1314.
Beck, M.B., Jiang, F., Shi, F., Villarroel Walker, R., Osidele, O.O.,
Lin, Z., Demir, I. and Hall, J.W. (2010) Re-engineering cities
as forces for good in the environment. Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers, Engineering Sustainability
163(ES1), 3146.
Beck, M.B., Thompson, M., Ney, S., Gyawali, D. and Jeffrey, P.
(2011) On governance for re-engineering city infrastructure.
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Engineering
Sustainability 164(ES2), 129142.
Boulanger, P.-M. (2008) Sustainable development indicators:
a scientic challenge, a democratic issue. Surv Perspect
Integr Environ Soc 1, 5973.
Crittenden, P., Benn, S. and Dunphy, D. (2010) Learning and
Change for Sustainability at Yarra Valley Water. Australia
Research Institute in Education for Sustainability, Macquarie
University, New South Wales (March).
Davis, C.K. (2008) Ethical dilemmas in water recycling, Chapter
15, in Water Reuse An International Survey (B. Jimenez
and T. Asano, eds), IWA Publishing, London, pp. 281298.
Dixit, A. (2002) Basic Water Science, Nepal Water Conservation
Foundation, Kathmandu.
Dyllick, T. and Hockerts, K. (2002) Beyond the business case for
corporate sustainability. Business Strategy and the Environ-
ment 11, 130141.
81
 IWA Specialist Groups
Farley, J. and Daly, H. (2006) Natural capital: the limiting
factor a reply to Aronson, Blignaut, Milton and Clewell.
Ecological Engineering 28, 610.
Gatzweiler, F.W. (2006), Organizing a public ecosystem service
economy for sustaining biodiversity. Ecological Economics
59, 296304.
Graham, D.W. and Smith, V.H. (2004) Designed ecosystem serv-
ices: application of ecological principles in wastewater treat-
ment engineering. Frontiers in Ecology and Environment,
2(4), 199206.
Gyawali, D. (2001) Rivers, Technology and Society. Himal Books,
Kathmandu, Nepal.
Gyawali, D. (2004) Water, sanitation and human settlements: cri-
sis, opportunity or management? Water Nepal 11(2), 720.
Hawken, P., Lovins, A. and Lovins, L.H. (1999) Natural Capital-
ism: The Next Industrial Revolution. Rocky Mountain Insti-
tute, Snowmass, Colorado.
Holling, C.S. (1996) Engineering Resilience Versus Ecological
Resilience, in Engineering Within Ecological Constraints
(P Schulze, ed.). National Academy Press, Washington DC,
pp 3144.
Kegan, R. and Lahey, L.L. (2009) Immunity to Change:
How to Overcome It and Unlock Potential in Yourself
and Your Organization. Harvard Business Press, Boston,
Massachusetts.
Kennedy, C., Cuddihy, J. and Engel-Yan, J. (2007) The changing
metabolism of cities. J Industrial Ecology 11(2), 4359.
Kenway, S.J., Howe, C. and Maheepala, S. (2007) Triple Bottom
Line Reporting of Sustainable Water Utility Performance.
AWWA Research Foundation, Denver, Colorado.
Kenway, S.J., Gregory, A. and McMahon, J. (2011) Urban
water mass balance analysis. J Industrial Ecology, 15(5),
693-706.
Kenway, S.J., Lant, P. and Priestley, A. (2011) Quantifying the
links between water and energy in cities. Journal of Water
and Climate Change 2(4), 247259.
Kremen, C. (2005) Managing ecosystem services: what do
we need to know about their ecology? Ecology Letters 8,
468479.
Larsen, T.A., Alder, A.C., Eggen, R.I.L., Maurer, M. and Lienert,
J. (2009) Source separation: will we see a paradigm shift in
wastewater handling? Environmental Science & Technology
43(16), 61216125.
McDonough, W. and Braungart, M. (2002) Cradle to Cradle:
Remaking the Way We Make Things. North Point Press,
New York.
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Ney, S. (2009) Resolving Messy Policy Problems: Handling Con-
ict in Environmental, Transport, Health and Ageing Policy.
Earthscan, London.
Niemczynowicz, J. (1993) New aspects of sewerage and water
technology. Ambio 22(7), 449455.
NWCF (2009) The Bagmati: Issues, Challenges and Prospects.
Technical Report, prepared by Nepal Water Conservation
Foundation (NWCF) for King Mahendra Trust for Nature
Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Romer, P. (2010) For richer, for poorer. Prospect, February,
3438.
Senge, P., Smith, B., Schley, S., Laur, J. and Kruschwitz, N.
(2008) The Necessary Revolution: How Individuals and
Organizations Are Working Together to Create a Sustainable
World. Doubleday, New York.
Sharma, A.K, Grant, A.L, Grant, T., Pamminger, F. and Opray, L.
(2009) Environmental and economic assessment of urban
water services for a greeneld development. Environmen-
tal Engineering Science 26(5), 921934 (doi:10.1089/
ees.2008.0063).
Solow, R.M. (1993) Sustainability: an economists perspective. In
Selected Readings in Environmental Economics (R. Dorfman
and N. Dorfman, eds), 3rd edition. Norton, New York.
Starkl, M., Brunner, N., Flgl, W. and Wimmer, J. (2009) Design
of an institutional decision-making process: the case of
urban water management. J Environmental Management
90(2), 10301042 (doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.03.012).
Sumaila, U.R. and Walters, C.J. (2005) Intergenerational
discounting: a new intuitive approach. Ecological Economics,
52, 135142.
Thompson, M. (2002) Man and nature as a single but complex
system. In Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change, vol.
5 (P Timmerman, ed.). Wiley, Chichester, pp. 384393.
Thompson, M. (2008) Organising and Disorganising: A Dynamic
and Non-linear Theory of Institutional Emergence and Its Im-
plications. Triarchy, Axminster.
Willis, R.M., Stewart, R.A., Panuwatwanich, K., Jones, S. and
Kyriakides, A. (2010) Alarming visual display monitors
affecting shower end use water and energy conservation in
Australian residential households. Resources, Conservation
and Recycling 54(12), 11171127 (doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.
2010.03.004).

Rainfall extremes and urban drainage
Written by P. Willems and T. Einfalt on behalf of the Urban Drainage Specialist Group
Introduction
Urban drainage is a system of man-made and natural ele-
ments serving to protect human population and the envi-
ronment against adverse effects of wet-weather ows and
wastewater efuents in urban areas. Although wastewater
efuents are hardly affected by rainfall, wet-weather ows
(i.e. stormwater runoff and combined sewer overows) are
directly driven by rainfall, and the capacity of urban drain-
age to provide effective service depends directly on the
characteristics of rainfall and their variation in time and
space. Extreme rain storm events cause sewer surcharg-
ing and surface ooding, or water ponding, and in areas
served by combined sewers they also cause extensive
discharges of polluted combined sewer overows (CSOs)
into receiving waters. Consequently, these events severely
impact the life of people and the quality of the aquatic
environment in urban areas, and the urban population
therefore pays attention to the quality and lead-time of
rainfall forecasts, the risk of ooding, ood damages, and
impacts of climate change on such phenomena. Critical
questions are raised with respect to the accuracy and reli-
ability of rainfall forecasts or simulations, the propagation
of uncertainty, and the range of consequences for daily
life. These great challenges are faced by environmental
scientists, municipal practitioners and managers, and
political decision makers alike.
In this context, the International Working Group on Urban
Rainfall (IGUR) of the IWA Urban Drainage Specialist
Group (www.jcud.org), operated jointly by IWA and IAHR
(the International Association for Hydro-Environment
and Research) closely follows and disseminates the lat-
est developments in knowledge, technology and existing
procedures concerning rainfall measurement, analysis and
modelling for urban stormwater management (see http://
www.kuleuven.be/hydr/gurweb/index.html). The IGUR
reported that strong advancements were recently made in
the measurement and analysis of the spatial variability of
urban rainfall. Another particular focus point of the Group
is climate change. Major worldwide attention is currently
given to the study of changes in rainfall extremes due to
global warming and the corresponding urban drainage
impacts. Concerning both issues, major advances are
expected in the next 510 years.
Advances in measurement and
analysis of local urban rainfall
Urban drainage experts face major challenges regarding
urban rainfall extremes. Owing to the relatively small spatial
IWA Specialist Groups
and temporal scales of the relevant hydrological processes
of sewer and urban drainage systems, rainfall data are
required also at these scales. The density of existing rain
gauge networks is, however, still very limited in most urban
areas. Owing to this and other reasons for limited avail-
ability of local and short-interval urban rainfall data, rainfall
estimates are still one of the main sources of uncertainty
in urban drainage studies, particularly in applications that
focus on rainfall extremes.
Recent advances in the measurement of precipita-
tion include various types of radars and spatial rainfall
processing techniques. Precipitation measurement by
radar is currently considered a reliable means of obtain-
ing precipitation data with a spatial scale of 1 km or less
and a temporal resolution of 5 minutes or less. Since the
use of radar measured precipitation data requires a dif-
ferent knowledge than the traditional use of rain gauges,
numerous efforts have been made to encourage the use
of more complex data in urban and small-scale hydrology
(e.g. Einfalt et al. 2004; Michelson et al. 2005). Radar
technologies that are currently extensively tested for meas-
uring rainfall with high spatial resolution are the Local Area
Weather Radars (LAWRs) or X-band polarimetric radars
(e.g. Thorndahl and Rasmussen 2011). These can be
seen as an alternative to C-band and S-band radar for
local urban areas. Another promising technology under
development is microwave technology in commercial wire-
less links (e.g. Leijnse et al. 2010). More details on these
advances can be found in the forthcoming Special Issue
of Atmospheric Research on precipitation in urban areas
(see section 2.4).
Climate change and urban rainfall
extremes
A particular focus point in the context of climate change
is on non-stationarities in rainfall time series, which may
have signicant consequences for estimation of extreme
rainfall statistics (Willems et al. 2011). There is strong
evidence that due to the global warming the frequency
of extreme rain storms, and as a consequence the prob-
abilities and risks of sewer surcharge and ooding, are
changing. In their Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2007)
indeed reported, for the late 20th century, a worldwide
increase in the frequency of extreme precipitation intensi-
ties as a result of global warming. Based on climate model
simulations with different future greenhouse gas emission
scenarios, IPCC (2007) furthermore concluded that it is
very likely that this trend will continue in the 21st century.
83
 IWA Specialist Groups
The consequences of these regionally varying changes
have to be assessed in a perspective of sustainable
development. Water managers have to anticipate these
changes, to limit the ood risks, to which the inhabitants
are exposed. In addition, the insurance industry, as well as
the different water users and policy makers, need quan-
tication of these risks to develop and adopt the appro-
priate policies. Consequently, the number of hydrological
impact studies of climate change has strongly increased
in recent years. These studies, however, most often
focus on river discharge extremes and low-ow risks. The
number of climate change studies dealing with urban
drainage impacts is still rather limited, partly because
they require a specic focus on small urban catchment
scales (usually few kilometres) and short-duration rainfall
extremes (at time scales as short as 5 minutes). Despite
the signicant increase in computational power in recent
years, climate models still remain relatively coarse in
space and time and are therefore unable to resolve sig-
nicant climate features relevant to the ne scales of
urban drainage systems. The models also have limita-
tions in the accuracy of describing precipitation extremes
(e.g. high intensity convective storms leading to sewer
surcharge and ooding). This is due to the poor descrip-
tion of the non-stationary phenomena during convective
storms resulting in the most extreme events at a local
scale. Climate models are derived from weather forecast
models, which currently are not able to describe small
scale convective activities with a good accuracy. As such,
the climate models are thus still not satisfactory for pro-
viding an adequate assessment of the impacts of future
climate change scenarios at the local scale of individual
cities. The models cannot provide data at the appropriate
spatial and temporal resolutions for these impact assess-
ment studies, which are usually done through simula-
tion with urban hydrological and sewer system models
(Willems et al. 2011).
Current research on climate change and urban drain-
age therefore mainly focuses on statistical downscaling
techniques. By means of these techniques, information
provided by large-scale global or regional climate models
is downscaled to information of very high spatial and tem-
poral resolutions that is appropriate for urban runoff stud-
ies. Consequently, the expected results from such impact
studies could be highly uncertain, depending strongly on
the feasibility and reliability of the downscaling process.
This problem becomes even more challenging when deal-
ing with the extreme rainfall events.
The IGUR is currently nalising a state-of-the-art review
report on Climate change and urban rainfall extremes
and drainage. The report will provide an overview of
existing methodologies and relevant results related
to the assessment of the climate change impacts on
urban rainfall extremes as well as on urban hydrology
and hydraulics. In particular, the overview focuses on
several difculties and limitations regarding the current
methods and will discuss various issues and challenges
facing the research community in dealing with the
climate change impact assessment and adaptation for
urban drainage infrastructure design and management.
For more information on this forthcoming review report,
please contact the IGUR Chair (Patrick.Willems@bwk.
kuleuven.be).
84
Forthcoming: Special Issue of
Atmospheric Research on precipitation
in urban areas
A Special Issue of Atmospheric Research on precipi-
tation in urban areas is about to appear. The Special
Issue presents peer-reviewed selected papers from the
8th International Workshop on Precipitation in Urban
Areas, which was held in St Moritz, Switzerland, 1013
December 2009 (http://www.ifu.ethz.ch/stmoritz) and was
co-organised by the IGUR. The workshop had four focus
themes: (a) the accuracy of rainfall measurements - radar,
microwave, rain gauges; (b) the propagation of uncertainty
from atmospheric data to models; (c) the use of simulation
and uncertainty concepts in urban hydrology; and (d) the
use of advanced statistical tools and methods for study-
ing climate change impacts on extreme rainfall. The forth-
coming issue will be the seventh Special Issue prepared in
collaboration with the IGUR, following the earlier special
issues of 1991 (Niemczynowicz and Sevruk 1991), 1996
(Sevruk and Niemczynowicz 1996), 1998 (Einfalt et al
1998), 2002 (Burlando 2002), 2005 (Einfalt et al 2005)
and 2009 (Burlando 2009).
References
Burlando, P. (Ed.) (2002). Rainfall in urban areas. Water Science
and Technology, 45(2), 1152 (Special Issue 5th Interna-
tional Workshop on Precipitation in Urban Areas, Pontresina,
Switzerland, 1013 December 2000).
Burlando, P. (Ed.) (2009). Atmospheric Research, 92(3),
281380 (Special Issue 7th International Workshop on
Precipitation in Urban Areas, St Moritz, Switzerland, 0710
December 2006).
Einfalt, T., Arnbjerg-Nielsen, K., Fankhauser, R., Rauch, W.,
Schilling, W., Nguyen, V., and Despotovic, J. (1998). Use of
historical rainfall series for hydrological modelling - workshop
summary. Water Science and Technology, 37(11), 16
(Special Issue 4th International Workshop on Precipitation
in Urban Areas, Pontresina, Switzerland, 0407 December
1997).
Einfalt, T., Molnar, P., Schmid, W. (Ed.) (2005). Atmospheric
Research, 77(14), 1422 (Special Issue 6th Internation-
al Workshop on Precipitation in Urban Areas, Pontresina,
Switzerland, 0407 December 2003).
Einfalt, T., Arnbjerg-Nielsen, K., Golz, C., Jensen, N.E., Quirmbach,
M., Vaes, G., Vieux, B. (2004). Towards a roadmap for
use of radar rainfall data use in urban drainage. Journal of
Hydrology 299, 186202.
IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis,
Summary for Policymakers, Contribution of Working Group
I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, IPCC Secretariat, Geneva,
Switzerland.
Leijnse, H., Uijlenhoet, R., Berne, A. (2010). Errors and uncer-
tainties in microwave link rainfall estimation explored using
drop size measurements and high-resolution radar data.
Journal of Hydrometeorology 11, 13301344.
Michelson, D., Einfalt, T., Holleman, I., Gjertsen, U., Friedrich, K.,
Haase, G., Lindskog, M., Jurczyk, A. (2005). Weather radar
data quality in Europe quality control and characterization.
Review. COST Action 717, Luxembourg.
Niemczynowicz, J., Sevruk, B. (Ed.) (1991). Atmospheric
Research 27(13), 1229 (Special Issue International
Workshop on Urban Rainfall and Meteorology, St. Moritz,
Switzerland, December 1990).
 IWA Specialist Groups

Sevruk, B., Niemczynowicz, J. (Ed.) (1996). Atmospheric Willems, P., Arnbjerg-Nielsen, K., Olsson, J., Nguyen, V.T.V.
Research 42(14), 1292 (Special Issue Closing the gap (2011) Climate change impact assessment on urban rainfall
between theory and practice in urban rainfall applica- extremes and urban drainage: methods and shortcomings.
tions, St. Moritz, Switzerland, 30 November 4 December Atmospheric Research, 10.1016/j.atmosres.2011.04.003.
1994).
Thorndahl, S., Rasmussen, M.R. (2011). Marine X-band weather
radar data calibration. Atmospheric Research, doi:10.1016/j.
atmosres.2011.04.023.

85
 IWA Specialist Groups
Wastewater Pond Technology
Written by Marcos von Sperling on behalf of the Specialist Group
Introduction
Waste stabilisation ponds are widely used natural proc-
esses for domestic and industrial wastewater treatment
around the world. The main variants of stabilisation ponds
are anaerobic and facultative ponds, which aim primarily
at organic matter removal, and maturation ponds, whose
main target is the removal of pathogenic organisms. Fac-
ultative and maturation ponds rely basically on the pro-
duction of oxygen by algae during photosynthesis, and the
utilisation of the surplus oxygen by the bacteria responsi-
ble for the major pollutant conversion processes. There
are also mechanised variants, such as aerated lagoons
and high-rate ponds, with different treatment objectives.
This chapter deals mainly with the non-mechanised ponds
(anaerobic, facultative and maturation).
Unmechanised ponds are notoriously known for being
simple wastewater treatment processes. They are simple
to design, build and operate. Their dimensioning usually
uses reasonably well-known recommended organic load-
ing rates, hydraulic retention times and rst-order kinetics.
Their detailed design has traditionally concentrated mainly
on the conguration of inlet and outlet structures and on
protection and sealing of embankments and pond bot-
tom. Their construction is simple, comprising mainly earth
movement. Routine operation is indeed trouble free, and
is more related to maintenance practices than to proper
operational control measures. Ponds do not involve elec-
tromechanical equipment and do not consume energy.
When comparing with the performance of other treatment
processes, facultative ponds produce efuents with inter-
mediate levels (but in many cases satisfactory) of organic
matter content, somewhat high suspended solids con-
centrations (owing to the presence of algae) and very low
or null counts of protozoan cysts and helminth eggs. If a
series of maturation ponds is included, a very high level
of pathogenic bacteria and viruses removal is achieved.
Owing to their high hydraulic retention times, ponds are
usually robust to withstand variations in inuent quantity
and quality, and even careless operation.
As a result of these points, there are thousands of ponds
applied on a worldwide basis. Although these attributes
make them a very important choice for wastewater treat-
ment at developing countries, ponds are also widely used
in developed regions, especially at small communities.
However, similarly to other treatment processes, there
are challenges that need to be faced to enhance ponds
86
applicability and performance. These challenges have
been separated into the following topics:
Practical challenges:
Reduce land requirements.
Reduce suspended solids (algae) in the efuent.
Reduce risks of malodours in anaerobic ponds.
Increase efuent use for irrigation.
Scientic challenges:
Understand the mechanisms of pathogen removal.
Understand the mechanisms of nutrient removal.
Develop reliable hydraulic and kinetic mathematical
models.
Challenges in expanding pond applicability
and sustainability:
Explore energy and carbon management opportunities.
Practical challenges
Reduction of land requirements
In warm-climate regions, facultative ponds usually require
2
between 2 and 4 m per inhabitant. In temperate climates,
approximately double the area is required and in cold cli-
mates (where surprisingly they are also used), larger land
requirements are observed. If a series of maturation ponds
are included in the treatment line, the total area may dou-
ble. This poses a practical limitation, because in many
cases there will not be a large area, somewhat at and
with reasonably good soil in the vicinity of the commu-
nity. Although there are no formal size limitations for ponds
(there are pond systems with 400 ha), in many cases land
restriction will conne ponds to small or medium-sized
communities.
To increase ponds applicability, a reduction of land require-
ments is obviously welcome. The inclusion of anaerobic
ponds ahead of the facultative ponds may reduce the area
to around 2/3 of that needed for facultative ponds only.
In some warm-climate countries, UASB (upow anaerobic
sludge blanket) reactors are replacing the anaerobic and
facultative ponds, and the overall system of UASB reac-
tors + maturation ponds becomes smaller (but still land
intensive).

Reduction of suspended solids in the
effluent
Well operating facultative and maturation ponds rely on a
good production of microalgae, which are responsible for
photosynthesis. However, a large amount of these algae
leave with the nal efuent, and are responsible for the
increase of suspended solids and particulate BOD in the
wastewater discharged to water bodies. If the efuent
from a pond needs to have its quality improved in terms of
organic matter and suspended solids, then algae removal
is a good choice.
Some of the possibilities are: (a) intermittent sand lters,
(b) rock lters, (c) microsieves, (d) ponds with oating
macrophytes, (e) land application, (f) wetlands, (g) coagu-
lation and clarication processes, (h) otation, (i) aerated
biolters and (j) trickling lters.
Sand ltration produces an efuent with excellent quality,
but tend to clog very quickly. Coarse rock ltration is not
so efcient, but gives a good contribution and is much
less prone to clogging (they can run for years without
cleaning). Recent experiments with aerated rock lters
have shown good removal of other constituents, such as
coliforms. Floating macrophytes, such as duckweed, are
used in several ponds in order to reduce sunlight penetra-
tion and thus decrease algal growth. These ponds give the
possibility of using the high-protein content duckweed for
sh ponds, but require a good strategy for their removal
from the pond surface.
The inclusion of any of these processes, especially the
mechanised ones, should naturally nd a justication from
the point of view of the needs of the receiving water body
(and not only as a safeguard in terms of compliance to
discharge standards), since they imply an elevation of the
treatment costs and operational complexity. Wastewater
treatment by ponds must remain simple, and the challenge
here is to improve their efuent quality without deviating
from the primary characteristic of conceptual simplicity.
Reduction of risks of malodours from
anaerobic ponds
Anaerobic ponds are open anaerobic reactors, and thus
may be subject to the release of malodorous gases, espe-
cially hydrogen sulphide. Substantial experience exists on
how to reduce these risks, based on the implementation of
ponds far away from houses, adoption of suitable organic
loading rates, a good knowledge of the inuent charac-
teristics (amount of sulphate in the wastewater) and the
utilisation of inlet pipes close to the pond bottom, to allow
good contact between organic matter and biomass. How-
ever, because a natural treatment process is being used,
there is always the risk that during a certain period some-
thing will not go on as planned, and obnoxious odours may
be emanated.
Some anaerobic ponds are being covered to capture the
gas and thus control their release into the atmosphere.
This also creates the opportunity of biogas utilisation and
carbon credits compensation. However, in many cases the
anaerobic ponds are very large, and the challenge is to reli-
ably cover a large surface area without allowing gases to
escape, and still keeping simplicity as a key element.
IWA Specialist Groups
Increase of the effluent use for agricultural
irrigation
Efuents from facultative ponds are usually suitable for
restricted irrigation (good helminth eggs removal), and
efuents from maturation ponds may be t for unrestricted
irrigation (irrigation of crops that are eaten uncooked or
unpeeled), since these ponds are able to remove coliforms
to low counts and comply with the World Health Organiza-
tion guidelines.
This widens up considerably the applicability of ponds,
because they become not only a good wastewater treat-
ment process, but also a technology that is able to lead to a
productive use of the nal efuent. Pond efuents contain
water, organic matter and nutrients, which are required by
soil and crops. Irrigation with pond efuents is success-
fully done in several countries around the world, especially
those located in arid or semi-arid regions. However, it is
felt that much more could be done on this respect in many
other countries. A suitable efuent is being generated,
but there is no managerial structure to link treated efu-
ent producers (sanitation companies) and farmers. The
challenge here is more institutional than technical, but is
certainly an issue that needs to be well looked in many
countries.
Scientific challenges
Understanding the mechanisms of pathogen
removal
Ponds are very important treatment systems for the
removal of pathogenic organisms. Protozoan cysts and
helminth eggs are removed by sedimentation, while bacte-
ria and viruses are mainly removed by inactivation mecha-
nisms, especially in maturation ponds. Molecular biology
detection methods are being more widely applied in ponds
research, allowing the qualitative or quantitative identi-
cation of the actual pathogen species, instead of relying
only on traditional indicators, such as coliforms. More and
more PCR (polymerase chain reaction), FISH (uores-
cence in situ hybridisation) and quantitative PCR methods
are being applied in ponds research, opening up a new
road of important discoveries.
A lot is already known about the removal of pathogens in
ponds, including sedimentation and inactivation. However,
the mechanisms involved in the inactivation of bacteria and
viruses are receiving more attention. From these mecha-
nisms, elucidation of steps involved with sunlight inactiva-
tion have been achieved, involving direct damage of DNA
structures by UVB and indirect damage by endogenous
and exogenous sensitizers. These mechanisms are inu-
enced by environmental conditions in the ponds, such as
dissolved oxygen, algae, humic substances and pH, and
affect in a different way bacteria and viruses. Inactivation
in the dark also deserves attention, and involves predation,
high pH, algal toxins and stress.
However, the prediction of pathogen removal efciency
involves not only the kinetic aspects of inactivation, but
also the hydraulic behaviour of the ponds, which are inu-
enced by the presence of bafes, the length-to-width ratio
87
 IWA Specialist Groups
and the placement of inlet and outlet structures. Advance-
ments in this eld have been achieved, as discussed fur-
ther below.
Understanding the mechanisms of nutrient
removal
Stabilisations ponds are not very efcient in the removal
of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus). However, specic
congurations, such as maturation ponds and high-rate
algal ponds are able to achieve high nitrogen removals.
In the literature, always cited classical mechanisms for N
removal are: assimilation of ammonia and nitrate by algal
biomass, conventional nitrication-denitrication, sedi-
mentation of dead biomass and accumulation on sludge
layer after partial hydrolysis and ammonia volatilisation.
Amongst those, ammonia volatilisation due to high pH
induced by photosynthesis has been frequently referred
to as the main mechanism. However, recent researches
are pointing out that this may not be the case. Tracer
15
experiments with N-stable isotopes and eld measure-
ments of actual ammonia lost by volatilisation have shown
that the fraction of N removed by this mechanism may
be small and have only a minor inuence on the overall
removal. Nitrication has been observed in some ponds
and not in others a possibility is that the presence of
ammonia in the form of free ammonia (NH3) due to high
pH values may inhibit the growth of nitrifying organisms.
Organisms responsible for anaerobic ammonia oxidation
(anammox) are also being investigated, using molecular
biology mechanisms, in order to see if they play an impor-
tant role in nitrogen removal. Anyway, nitrogen removal
in shallow ponds seems to be greater than in deeper
ponds.
Regarding phosphorus, a major removal mechanism
could be the precipitation of the phosphates in the form
of hydroxyapatite or struvite under high pH conditions. In
the case of phosphorus removal, the dependence of high
pH values is larger than with nitrogen: the pH should be at
least 9 so that there is a signicant phosphorus precipita-
tion. Such high pH values are not consistently maintained,
night and day, in most ponds, and this could be the reason
why phosphorus removal efciencies are not large in most
ponds. Recent research has identied the possibility that
algae can also develop a mechanism of luxury P uptake,
like phosphate accumulating bacteria do in activated
sludge. If this in indeed the case, and one is able to control
the environmental conditions that favour this mechanism,
an important possibility for phosphorus removal in ponds
may be obtained.
The road is still open for more fundamental research that
can widen the understanding of mechanisms, thus allowing
ponds to be more effective in nutrient removal, enhancing
their applicability in situations in which the efuent needs
to be discharged to sensitive water bodies.
Development of reliable hydraulic and
kinetic mathematical models
During many years, stabilisation ponds were only mod-
elled assuming ideal complete-mix and plug-ow reac-
tors. Although this still holds true owing to the simplicity
88
of both models, later on designers started to incorporate
the dispersed-ow model, which accommodates uid dis-
persion in the equations for prediction of efuent quality,
thus approximating more to the reality of actual reactors.
Experimental determination of the dispersion number
using tracers has been done at several sites, leading to
empirical equations for their simple estimation, based on
physical characteristics of the pond.
More recently, computational uid dynamics (CFD) mod-
els have been used, allowing the study of the best arrange-
ment for inlet and outlet structures and for the placement of
bafes, aiming at increasing pollutant removal efciencies.
This better representation of the specic hydraulic behav-
iour of each pond is of course associated with a higher
degree of complexity, but the increase in the availability
and use of CFD software may result in its more systematic
use by consulting companies in the design of ponds.
Traditional kinetic models for the prediction of efuent con-
centrations from stabilisation ponds have used rst-order
reactions, but recent approaches focus on the representa-
tion of biomass growth rates and the resulting uptake or
release of constituents. Structures similar to the IWA acti-
vated sludge model (ASM) are being developed for ponds,
with the added degree of difculty that not only bacterial
growth and decay need to be modelled, but also algal bio-
mass. At a higher level are recent models that jointly incor-
porate CFD and ASM models, being thus hopefully able to
provide a better representation of the hydrodynamics and
reaction kinetics at stabilisation ponds.
With the development of more advanced and reliable
mathematical models, designers will hopefully have better
tools to tailor each pond to the particular inuent and site
characteristics, as well as efuent quality requirements.
Challenges in expanding ponds
applicability and sustainability
As with other wastewater treatment processes, sustain-
ability issues are now a matter of considerable concern
and research focus. Ponds are inherently sustainable in
the sense that they are a natural process, simple, with-
out energy demand, robust and able to operate within the
expected removal efciency even under some unfavourable
operational conditions. However, sustainability nowadays
also incorporates other aspects, such as green-house
gas emissions and the possibility of producing energy.
Methane emission, which could be a concern in terms of
greenhouse effect, is important only in anaerobic ponds.
Besides the fact that not all pond systems use anaerobic
ponds, some of these ponds are now being covered, with
gas capture and burning or treatment and recovery. Credit
carbon analysis is currently being undertaken in several
pond systems.
The potential of generating green energy/biofuel through
algal biomass is nowadays a matter of considerable inter-
est. Successful pilot-scale studies have been made, and
the challenge now is how to produce and harvest algae
from such large reactors as ponds. Some full-scale appli-
cations are already in place, and this is a topic in which
much development is expected.

Concluding remarks
The inherent simplicity of a natural wastewater treatment
process is one of the rst concepts that come to mind
when one thinks on stabilisation ponds. For some practi-
tioners, there may be an impression that everything that
is needed is already known in this relatively old treatment
process.
However, as was seen in this text, this does not mean that
everything that relates to ponds is really simple: in the eld
of wastewater treatment, it is one of the most complex sys-
tems to understand, describe and model. From the biolog-
ical point of view, the simultaneous interaction of different
groups of bacteria with different algae species leads to a
very complex ecological system, with mutualistic relation-
ships between heterotrophs and autotrophs. The under-
standing, quantication and mathematical representation
of the several different resulting biochemical reactions and
the growth rates of the various organisms involved are a
challenge for ponds researchers. In addition, because
IWA Specialist Groups
ponds are large open reactors, their hydraulic behaviour
is very much inuenced by temperature, wind and place-
ment of inlet and outlet structures. The representation of
ponds hydrodynamics represents another challenge.
Fortunately, with the advancement of eld and laboratorial
detection techniques and mathematical modelling tools,
scientists are now coming somewhat closer in the under-
standing and representation of the mechanisms involved
in ponds behaviour. The expectation is that this will assist
in a better prediction of the removal efciency of key pol-
lutants under different environmental conditions, leading
to better designs, tailored to each situation.
This text presented many challenges that need to be
faced on a short or medium term. It is difcult to specify
which of those will prevail and be more embraced by the
technical community. What is denitely known is that
ponds research will continue in depth around the world,
and that the future is open for ponds researchers and
practitioners!
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 IWA Specialist Groups
Water and Wastewater in
Ancient Civilisations
Written by A. N. Angelakis, L. W. Mays, G. De Feo, M. Salgot, P. Laureano, and N. Paranychianakis
on behalf of the Specialist Group
Prolegomena
The rapid technological progress in the twentieth cen-
tury created a disdain for the past achievements. Past
water technologies, were regarded to be far behind the
present ones; signied major advances achieved in the
20th century. There was a great deal of unresolved prob-
lems related to the management principles, such as the
decentralisation of the processes, the durability of the
water projects, the cost effectiveness, and sustainability
issues such as protection from oods and droughts. In
the developing world, such problems were intensied to
an unprecedented degree. Moreover, new problems have
arisen such as the contamination of surface and ground-
water. Naturally, intensication of unresolved problems
led societies to revisit the past and to reinvestigate the
successful past achievements. To their surprise, those
who attempted this retrospect, based on archaeological,
historical, and technical evidence were impressed by two
things: the similarity of principles with present ones and
the advanced level of water engineering and management
practices in ancient times (Koutsoyuannis et al. 2008;
Mays 2008 and 2010).
Modern day water technological principles have a founda-
tion dating back three to four thousand years ago. These
achievements include technologies such as dams, wells,
cisterns, aqueducts, baths, recreational structures, and
even water reuse. These hydraulic works and features
reect also advanced scientic knowledge, which for
instance allowed the construction of tunnels from two
openings and the transportation of water both by open
channels and closed conduits under pressure. Certainly,
technological developments were driven by the necessi-
ties for efcient use of natural water resources in order to
make civilisations more resistant to destructive natural ele-
ments, and to improve the standards of life. With respect
to the latter, certain civilisations developed an advanced,
comfortable and hygienic lifestyle, as manifested from
public and private bathrooms and ushing toilets, which
can only be compared to our modern facilities which were
re-established in Europe and North America in the begin-
ning of the last century (Angelakis et al. 2005).
With the increasing worldwide awareness of the impor-
tance of water resources management in the ancient civi-
lisations, the IWA SG on WWAC was established in 2005
and so far two IWA International Symposia on Water and
Wastewater Technologies in Ancient Civilisations has been
organised in 2006 and 2009, in Iraklion, Greece and in
Bari, Italy, respectively. Also, a 3rd IWA Symposium will
be organised in Istanbul, Turkey, 2224 March 2012. With
90
the experience gained from these Symposia, it is to note
that the participants are from several disciplines, with a
dominant number from the water sciences, history and
archaeology; but also including engineering, life, environ-
mental, and health sciences, biology, geosciences, and
others. The geographical coverage of the exposed features
and facilities, is very wide, with the prominence in the
Mediterranean world. However, several other civilisations
from other parts of the world such as the southwestern
United States, South America and Asia are included. The
themes are from prehistoric to medieval and modern times
and are presented in a coherent and critical way.
The principles and practices in water management of
ancient civilisations are not well known as well as other
achievements of ancient civilisations, such as poetry,
philosophy, science, politics and visual arts. A lot is to
be learned from ancient technologies and practices so
the SG on WWAC is also focused on the development of
water technologies through centuries in various parts of
the world. Specic case studies are considered. To put
in perspective the ancient water management principles
and practices, it is important to examine their relevance to
modern times and to harvest some lessons. Furthermore,
the relevance of ancient works are examined in terms of
the evolution of technology, the technological advances,
homeland security, and management principles. Finally,
a comparative assessment of the various technologies
among civilisations should be considered.
Ancient water and wastewater
technology
Humans have spent most of their history as hunting and
food gathering beings. Only in the last 9,000 to 10,000
years they discovered how to grow agricultural crops and
tame animals. Such revolution probably rst took place in
the hills to the north of Mesopotamia. From there the agri-
cultural revolution spread to the Nile and Indus Valleys.
During this agricultural revolution, permanent villages,
anticipated from experiences of sedentary life without
agriculture, replaced a wandering existence. About 6,000
to 7,000 years ago, farming villages of the Near East
and Middle East became cities. During the Neolithic age
(ca. 5,7003,200 BC), the rst successful efforts to
control the water ow were driven (such as dams and
irrigation systems), owing to the food needs and were
implemented in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Urban water
supply and sanitation systems were dated at a later stage,
in the Bronze Age (ca. 3,2001,100 BC).

Hassan (1998) stated that the secret of Egyptian civilisa-
tion was that it never lost sight of the past; because of the
unpredictability of the Nile River oods and the production
of grains suggest order and stability. The ancient Egyptians
depended upon the Nile not only for their livelihoods, but
they also considered the Nile to be a deic force of the
universe, to be respected and honoured if they wanted it
to treat them favourably. The river annual rise and fall were
likened to the rise and fall of the sun, each cycle being
equally important to their lives, though both remaining a
mystery. Since the Nile sources were unknown up until the
19th century, the Ancient Egyptians believed the water-
course to be a part of the great celestial ocean, or the sea
that surrounds the whole world.
The rst actual recorded evidence of water management
was the mace head of King Scorpion (ca. 27252671 BC),
the last of the predynastic kings, which has been inter-
preted as the tool to initiate a ceremonial start to breaching
the rst dyke to allow water to inundate the elds or the
ceremonial opening of a new canal. Mohenjo-Daro was a
major urban centre of the Indus civilisation during the early
Bronze Age, located about 400 km north of present-day
Karachi, Pakistan. This planned city, built around 2450 BC
received water from at least 700 wells and had bathrooms
in houses and sewers in streets as well as thermal baths
(Jalter 1983). The Mesopotamians were not far behind.
The Sumerians, during the Bronze Age, and other ancients
that inhabited Ancient Mesopotamia provided an enor-
mous amount of information about themselves through
cuneiform tablets. Water provided by the Euphrates and
Tigris Rivers shaped their societies. Elaborate irrigation
systems were developed requiring continuous canal main-
tenance and construction of waterworks. Sedimentation in
many canals was such a critical problem, that it was easier
to abandon these canals and build new ones. One Sumer-
ian epic indicates that humans were created specically to
dig irrigation ditches. The Sumerian epics also referred to
the effect of uncontrolled human activity on the soil and
environment, being interpreted as Gods curses, what we
now understand as the environmental effects of intense
irrigation (Mays 2008 and 2010).
Meanwhile, on the periphery of these areas (e.g. in Arabia
and in the deserts of Iran, Pakistan and India), food pro-
duction through farming and nomadic pastoralism, hunt-
ing and shing, intensied as the various capacities of
the desert environment came to be used more efciently.
Its the creation of the oases: humankinds most impor-
tant realisation to survive in arid areas of the planet. An
oasis is never a natural or casual creation. It is formed by
small-scale local communities possessing environmental
understanding specic to sites made habitable by applying
techniques whose invention and preservation require con-
siderable effort. The oases associate different skills and
elements that already exist by using them in a new way. It
is the fruit of the union of the environmental know-how of
nomadic hunter-gatherers and herdsmen, with the water
techniques of farmers (Laureano 2000).
The creation of the oases depends on the possession of
hydraulic qualied expertise and the combined use of ani-
mals and plants suitable for the purpose, conditions that
were rst met in the early age of metals, around the third
millennium BC. In this period nomadic populations that had
remained on the margins of the ages great city-building
IWA Specialist Groups
processes chose an agro-pastoral lifestyle and, driven by
motives and pressures related to that choice, interacted,
allied, established symbiosis with or assimilated other
groups, opening to all the package of specic concepts
that will lead to a leap in complexity and establish the oasis
as a complete system for the support of lives and liveli-
hoods. Through oases, these groups ensured physical and
economic survival in hostile but mineral-rich areas that
had become strategic in the Chalcolithic Period and Iron
Age. It is in this context that was introduced the technology
of catchments tunnels a factor that allows the enormous
spread of oases. They are known in Iran as qanat or kareez,
in Morocco as khettara and in Algeria as foggara. This
technique has been in use for thousands of years, over a
vast area extending from China to Persia, Spain, and even
Latin America. As it is well known, catchments tunnels are
underground channels consisting of verticals shafts con-
nected at their bottom with a sub-horizontal tunnel bring-
ing water from an aquiferous stratum. The underground
tunnel has a slight downward slope useful for the water
tapped to run down it and into the open air by gravity. That
these techniques are not the result of an imposition by a
central power, but expressions of the knowledge of local
populations, is demonstrated by their extreme variety and
environmental adaptability, and by the diverse terminology
used in each countries.
Other great civilisations such as the Minoans, located on
modern-day Crete, ourished during the Bronze Age (ca.
32001100 BC). They had wonderful water and waste-
water systems, such as those found in Knossos, Malia,
Phaistos, Zakros, and other sites. These systems included
aqueducts, cisterns, ltering systems, sedimentation
basins, rainfall-harvesting systems, terracota pipes for
water supply and sewage, and sewerage and drainage sys-
tems. As the Minoans developed trade relations with the
Greek mainland, they came to inuence the Myceneans
(ca. 1,6001,100 BC). The contact of Mycenaeans with
Minoan Crete played a decisive role in the shaping and
development of Mycenaean culture and the dissemination
of Minoan water and wastewater technologies in the cen-
tral Greece and other parts of Europe. While the two civi-
lisations were almost opposites culturally, Mycenean and
Minoan art and technology showed signs of cultural diffu-
sion. The strong bond of Minoans with Myceneans ended
when the Myceneans decided to invade Crete. After a brief
period of Mycenean control the Minoan civilisation disap-
peared. The Myceneans were the most direct ancestors
to the later Greeks. Mycenean culture and power reached
its peak around 1300 BC. Then the cultural diffusion that
resulted from trade contacts with the Hittite Empire and
Egypt started to deteriorate. All these remarkable civilisa-
tions had one thing in common, even with the advanced
capabilities to provide water supply, these civilisations
all collapsed. The interesting question is whether water
resources sustainability was a signicant component for
their failure (Mays et al. 2007).
In the later archaic (750500 BC) and classical (500336
BC) periods, both historical sources and archaeological
excavations provide evidence that water and wastewater
technologies were advanced and widespread in Greece.
Greeks built on the previous knowledge of hydraulics and
water resources, but yet they also failed. The advancement
of urban water technology and management is illustrated
by the aqueduct of Samos (known as tunnel of Eupalinos)
91
 IWA Specialist Groups
and the Peisistratean for Athens (Koutsoyiannis et al.
2008).
The Romans replaced the Greek rule in most locations,
inherited the technologies and developed them further. In
addition, the Romans substantially increased the applica-
tion scale and implemented water projects in almost every
large city (De Feo et al. 2011). The Greek and Roman water
technologies are not only a cultural heritage but are the
underpinning of modern achievements in water engineer-
ing and management practices. A few examples are the
Hadrianic aqueduct in Athens and that in ancient Olympia
known as Nymphaion of Herodes of Atticus which were
constructed in the 2nd century A.D. Apparent character-
istics of technologies and practices not only by the Greeks
and Romans, but in many other ancient civilisations are
durability and sustainability (De Feo et al. 2011). Now-
adays, the popular but inaccurate image is that Roman
aqueducts were elevated throughout their entire length
on lines of arches, called arcades. Roman engineers, as
their Greek predecessors, were very practical and there-
fore whenever possible the aqueduct followed a steady
downhill course at or below ground level (Hansen 2006).
As a matter of fact, on average 87% of the length of the
Romes aqueduct system was underground (De Feo et al.
2011). The longest aqueduct in the Roman world was con-
structed in the Campania Region, in Southern Italy. It is the
Augustan Aqueduct Serino-Naples-Miseno, which is not
well known owing to there being no remains of spectacular
bridges, but it was a masterpiece of engineering (De Feo
and Napoli 2007).
Also, management practices were integrated, combin-
ing both large-scale and small-scale systems that have
allowed cities to sustain for millennia. The durability of
some of the systems that operated up to present times,
as well as the support of the technologies and their sci-
entic background by written documents enabled these
technologies to be inherited by present societies despite
regressions that have occurred through the centuries
(e.g. in the Dark Ages). For instance, the spectacular
ruins of Pompeii provides a clearer understanding of a
Roman urban water distribution system, with similari-
ties to a modern water distribution system. In fact, the
ending point of a Roman aqueduct was the castellum
divisorium which had the double function of serving as
a disconnection between the aqueduct and the urban
distribution network as well as dividing the water ow to
various uses and/or geographical areas of the city. From
the castellum divisorium, the three pipes conveyed the
water to different parts of the city lling water towers:
the castellum secondarium or castellum privatum (De
Feo et al. 2011). It happened e.g. after the fall of the
Roman Empire, when water sanitation and public health
declined in Europe. Historical accounts tell of incredibly
unsanitary conditions heavily polluted water, human
and animal wastes in the streets, and water thrown out
of windows onto people in the streets. Consequently vari-
ous epidemics ravaged Europe. During the same period,
Islamic cultures, on the periphery of Europe, had reli-
giously mandated high levels of personal hygiene, along
with highly developed water supplies and adequate sani-
tation systems, which in several cases were the same old
Greek and Roman facilities, preserved along the centu-
ries (Mays 2008 and 2010).
92
There is no doubt that the ancient societies in Mesoamerica
and the Southwestern United States did fail partially from
the depletion of natural resources and climate change,
at least particularly as related to water (Mays 2007). The
period from about 150 AD to 900 AD, was the most remark-
able in the development of Mesoamerica. During the Clas-
sic period the people of Mexico and the Maya area built
civilisations comparable with the advanced civilisations in
other parts of the world. In Mesoamerica those ancient
urban civilisations developed in arid highlands where
irrigation (hydraulic) agriculture allowed high population
densities. In the tropical lowlands, however, there was a
dependence on slash-and-burn (milpa) agriculture which
kept the bulk of the population scattered in small hamlets.
The non-urban lowland civilisation possibly resulted from
responses to pressures set up by the hydraulic, urban
civilisation. Teotihuacan (City of the Gods) in Mexico is the
earliest example of highland urbanism (Mays 2010).
Different water and wastewater techniques were applied
according to local conditions. For example, water supply
in some Minoan settlements was dependent on springs
and in others on a surface runoff or groundwater sys-
tems. Despite this diversity, common construction mas-
tery seems to have been applied in several places in a
relatively reduced time span. It can be suggested that a
group of people living in prehistoric sites were aware of
the principles of water relevant technologies. This sug-
gests the existence of master craftsmen responsible for
constructing and maintaining the water supply system of a
community. They should also be in charge for the solution
of some water related problems and were able to provide
palaces and settlements with efcient, decentralised, envi-
ronmental friendly and even sophisticated water supply
and wastewater systems (Angelakis et al. 2011).
The link between traditional
knowledge and water resources
sustainability
At the beginning of this new millennium a water crisis which
threatens humans existence in many parts of the world is
being experienced. One might ask, how sustainable is it
to live in a world where approximately 1.1 billion people
lack safe drinking water, approximately 2.6 billion peo-
ple lack adequate sanitation, and between 2 million and
5 million people die annually from water-related diseases?
In the attempt to solve this water crisis the concepts of
water resources sustainability is creating concern. Water
resources sustainability is the ability to use water in suf-
cient quantity and quality from the local to the global
scale to meet the needs of humans and ecosystems for
the present and the future to sustain life, and to protect
humans from the damages brought about by natural and
human-caused disasters that affect sustaining life (Mays
2007). The overall goal of water resources management
must be water resources sustainability.
A component of water resources sustainability is the use of
traditional knowledge, which constitutes the ancient knowl-
edge of humanity (www.tkwb.org). The United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertication (UNCCD) provided
the following denition of it: Traditional knowledge consists

of practical (instrumental) and normative knowledge con-
cerning the ecological, socio-economic and cultural envi-
ronment. Traditional knowledge originates from people
and is transmitted to people by recognisable and expe-
rienced actors. It is systematic (inter-sector and holistic),
experimental (empirical and practical), handed down from
generation to generation and culturally enhanced. Such a
kind of knowledge supports diversity and enhances and
reproduces local resources.
Where can traditional knowledge help in water resources
sustainability to be implemented? Because water impacts
so many aspects of our existence, there are many facets
that must be considered in water resources sustainability.
How do we overcome our modern day shortcomings and
strive for water resources sustainability? Possibly one way
is to study the past. The use of traditional knowledge may
play a major role in solving some of the present day and
future water resources sustainability issues, especially in
developing parts of the world.
Many civilisations, which were great canters of power and
culture, were built in locations that could not support the
populations that developed. Now we nd ourselves in simi-
lar situations in many places around the world. Arid zones
cover 41.3% of the worlds land surface, corresponding
to 34.7% of the planets inhabitants (2.1 billion people).
Urban growth in these areas has been largely sustained
by tapping remote water resources. Under the growing
pressure of global warming, these resources are becom-
ing increasingly insufcient and are at risk of complete
collapse in the medium and long term. The situation of
urban centres in arid regions is therefore critical. Only so
much water ows in the worlds rivers: the concentration of
resources in built-up areas has worked to the detriment of
outlying lands, depriving ora and fauna of the water their
vital processes require and hence triggering processes of
soil degradation, erosion and desertication.
One might argue that if the ancient societies had our
present day technologies, they would not have failed. How-
ever, even newer technologies, are not the answer for our
present day problems; therefore, there is need to rely on
traditional knowledge to tackle these problems.
What relevance does the failure or collapse of ancient civi-
lisations have upon modern societies? Learning from the
past and discovering the reasons for the success and fail-
ure of other societies seems very logical. We certainly are
a much more advanced society than those of the ancient
societies, but will we be able to overcome the obstacles
to survival before us? The collapse of some civilisations
may have been the result of the very processes that had
been responsible for their success (e.g. the Mayans and
Romans and others).
What relevance do ancient civilisations have upon modern
day water resources sustainability? Or better yet, what can
we learn from these ancient civilisations? Diamond (2005)
proposed a ve-point framework for the collapse of socie-
ties: (a) damage that people inadvertently inict on their
environment, (b) climate variability, (c) hostile neighbours,
(d) decreased support by friendly neighbours, and (f) soci-
etys responses to its problems. Three of these can relate
to water resources sustainability.
IWA Specialist Groups
Past, present and future cities
It is well accepted that urbanisation will continue to
increase in the future and its impacts to the environment
and especially to water and wastewater will continue to
increase signicantly. In the food-chain, production of
meat, sh and dairy products consume 2.9-fold more
water, 2.5-fold more energy, 13-fold more fertiliser and
1.4-fold more pesticides than the vegetarian ones. Thus,
in the near future their production will account for more
than 50% of the overall water consumption.
On the other hand, the old water and wastewater tech-
nologies developed in ancient civilisations, which are the
underpinning of the modern achievements, may provide
valuable insights for sustainable water and wastewater
engineering and management practices in the future cit-
ies. Lessons to be learnt from the past could be relevant
to (a) Design philosophy of water and wastewater projects
(e.g. construction and operation period); (b) adaptation to
the environment; (c) management (balancing water avail-
ability with the demand); (d) architectural aspects of the
cities; (e) diet habits; and (f) sustainability, as a design
principle (Koutsoyiannis et al. 2008; Mays 2010).
As an example, currently, engineers typically use a design
period for structures of about 40 to 50 years as dictated
by economic considerations. Sustainability, as a design
principle, has entered the engineering lexicon only in the
last decade. Naturally, it is difcult to estimate the design
principles of ancient engineers but it is notable that sev-
eral ancient works have operated for very long periods,
some until recent times and other are still operative. For
example, wastewater and stormwater drainage systems
were functioning in Minoan settlements since the Bronze
Age (Angelakis et al. 2005). These include bathrooms and
other sanitary and purgatory facilities, as well as wastewater
and storm sewer systems. In fact, the hydraulic and archi-
tectural function of sewer systems in palaces and cities are
regarded as one of the salient characteristics of Minoan
civilisation. They were so advanced that they can be suc-
cessfully compared with their modern counterparts.
Epilogue (and outlook)
Many civilisations, which were great centres of power and
culture, were built in locations that could not support the
populations that developed. Now we nd ourselves in simi-
lar situations in many places around the world. How do we
balance the mega water projects with the methods of tra-
ditional knowledge? Koutsoyuannis et al. (2008) explored
the legacies and lessons on urban water management
learned from the ancient Greeks. They summarised the
lessons learned as follows:
a) The meaning of sustainability in modern times should
be re-evaluated in light of ancient public works and
management practices. Technological developments
based on sound engineering principles can have
extended useful lives.
b) Safety, with respect to water, is of critical importance in
the sustainability of a population.
93
 IWA Specialist Groups
c) In water-short areas, development of cost-effective
decentralised water and wastewater management pro-
gram is essential.
d) Traditional knowledge could play important role for sus-
tainable water supply in the future cities.
e) Climate variability is not a new phenomenon. People
have always had to cope with the uncertainty natural
phenomena and unpredictability of the environment.
Precisely these conditions have shaped knowledge and
adapted it locally to respond to adversity with appro-
priate techniques for capturing and distributing water,
protecting soil, recycling and optimising energy use.
These techniques constitute a great reserve of biologi-
cal diversity and sustainable knowledge.
The use of traditional knowledge does not directly apply
techniques of the past but instead, attempts to understand
the logic of this model of knowledge (Laureano 2007).
Traditional knowledge allowed ancient societies to keep
ecosystems in balance, carry out outstanding technical,
artistic, and architectural work that has been universally
admired. The use of traditional knowledge has been able
to renew and adapt itself. Traditional knowledge incorpo-
rates innovation in a dynamic fashion, subject to the test of
a long term, achieving local and environmental sustainabil-
ity. An important subject for the sustainability in develop-
ing nations of the world is to research the implementation
of methods of traditional knowledge for water supply. Many
of these techniques may prove to be very valuable over the
more conventional (more sophisticated) ones.
The ancients for the most part lived in harmony with
nature and their environment, those that did not failed.
Their actions should be warnings to us, in other words the
ancients have warned us. Today we do not live in harmony
with nature and the environment.
Usually we dene ancient civilisations as those conned Laureano P. (2000). The Water Atlas, Traditional Knowledge to
far away into past and, therefore, dated as very old. How-
ever, compared to the time scale they were the dawn of
civilisation, their being ancient is more properly referred to
as being young civilisations. If we relate the evolution of
civilisation using the human life as the time scale, rather
than centuries, it would be more immediate to recognise
the ancient civilisations like young whereas the mod-
ern civilisation as old. It is well known that young people
have a greater risk attitude, compared to the elderly and
thus the rst civilisations were more genuine, spontane-
ous, instinctive as well as they had a greater risk attitudes
that leading them toward the construction of wonderful
and fantastic works, better understanding the human
needs and wishes. In the light of the water and wastewater
94
technologies perspective, this is particularly true because
water is the beginning of life as stated by (Aristotle, Meta-
physics, 983 b.). Thus, we have to recover the ability to
think young, to think sustainable!
References
Angelakis, A.N., Koutsoyiannis, D. and Tchobanoglous, G.
(2005). Urban wastewater and stormwater technologies in
the Ancient Greece. Water Research 39(1): 210220.
Angelakis, A.N., Dialynas, M.G. and Despotakis, V. (2011). Evolu-
tion of water supply technologies in Crete, Greece through
the Centuries. In: Evolution of Water Supply Throughout Mil-
lennia. IWA Publishing, London, UK (in press).
Angelakis, A.N., Salgot, M., Paranychianakis, N.V. and De Feo,
G. (2010). 2nd Newsletter: IWA-SG on Water and Waste-
water Technologies in Ancient Civilizations. IWA, pp. 124,
http://www.iwahq.org/Home/Networks/Specialist_groups/
List_of_groups/Water_and_Ancient_Civilizations/.
De Feo, G. and Napoli, R.M.A. (2007). Historical development of
the Augustan aqueduct in Southern Italy: Twenty centuries
of works from Serino to Naples. Water Science and Technol-
ogy: Water Supply 7(1), 131138.
De Feo, G., Mays, L.W. and Angelakis, A.N. (2011). Water
and Wastewater Management Technologies in Ancient
Greek and Roman Civilizations. In: Treatise on Water
Science (P. Wilderer, ed.), vol. 1, pp. 322, Academic Press,
Oxford, UK.
Diamond, J. (2005). Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fall or
Succeed. Viking, New York, USA.
Hassan, F.A. (1998). Climate change. Nile oods and civilization.
Nature and Resources 32(2), 3440.
Hansen, R.D. (2006) Water and wastewater systems in impe-
rial Rome. http://www.waterhistory.org (accessed February
2010).
Jalter, M. (1983). La Sant par les Eaux. 2000 ans de thermal-
isme. S.I. lInstant Durable, Clermont-Ferrand, France.
Koutsoyiannis, D., Zarkadoulas, N., Angelakis, A.N. and
Tchobanoglous, G. (2008). Urban water management in
Ancient Greece: legacies and lessons. ASCE, Journal of
Water Resources Planning & Management, 134(1): 4554.
Combat Desertication. UNESCO, Laia Libros, Barcelona,
Spain.
Laureano P. (2007). Ancient water techniques for proper
management of Mediterranean ecosystems. Water Science
& Technology, Water Supply 7(1): 237244.
Mays, L.W. (ed.) 2007). Water Resources Sustainability.
McGraw-Hill, New York, USA.
Mays, L.W. (2008). A very brief history of hydraulic technol-
ogy during antiquity. Environmental Fluid Mechanics 8(5):
471484.
Mays, L.W. (ed.) (2010). Ancient Water Technologies. Springer,
The Netherlands.
Mays, L.W., Koutsoyiannis, D. and Angelakis, A.N. (2007). A brief
history of urban water supply in antiquity. Water Science &
Technology: Water Supply 7(1): 112.

Water reuse: a growing option
to meet water needs
Written by V. Lazarova, J. Hu and L. Sala on behalf of the Specialist Group
Introduction
During the past few years, water reuse is characterised by
a major expansion, becoming thus a competitive option to
meet water needs and to respond to the climate change
(Jimenez and Asano 2008; GWI 2010). The growing inter-
est in water reuse is observed in both developed and
developing countries with a major trend for diversication
of water reuse practices. Recycled water is considered as
an important element of integrated water resource man-
agement and, in exchange for an increase in energy con-
sumption, it is making possible to close or accelerate the
urban water cycle and preserve the natural water resources
and biodiversity. According to the recent market study of
GWI 2010, the growth of water reuse is expected to out-
pace desalination with a strong increase up to +300% of
the capacity of high-quality water reuse plants owing to the
lower energy requirements.
Water reuse applications
One of the most important trends of this accelerated devel-
opment is the diversication of water reuse practices. By
2000, agricultural irrigation was, and still remains, the
major water reuse application (Lazarova and Bahri 2005;
Jimenez and Asano 2008). During the past decade, urban
water reuse mainly for landscape and golf course irriga-
tion has emerged as the application with the highest rate
of development. Indirect potable reuse, and in particular
aquifer recharge (Figure 2.1), have been implemented in
many countries as an efcient solution for the augmen-
Figure 2.1. View of the recharge with recycled water of the
unconned dune aquifer of Torreele/St-Andr in Belgium.
IWA Specialist Groups
tation of water supply after complementary polishing and
storage of recycled water. Other relevant and cost efcient
applications are also emerging such as environmental
enhancement (replenishment of ponds, lakes, wetlands,
rivers) and industrial use of reclaimed urban wastewater.
Finally, direct potable reuse, practiced for over 40 years
in Namibia, is starting to be considered in California as an
option for the next 20 years leaving some bitter contro-
versy behind (Leverenz et al. 2011).
Water reuse terminology
To facilitate communication among different groups asso-
ciated with water reuse, it is important to understand the
terminology used in this eld, including the glossary used
in recent water reuse regulations.
Water reuse is the most commonly used term for the
benecial use of treated wastewater, but can also refer to
reuse of stormwater, rainwater or greywater (used potable
water from bath and sink). Treated wastewater suitable
for a given reuse application is often called reclaimed or
recycled water. According to the Oxford English Diction-
ary, these two terms are synonyms. Because the public
is widely engaged in recycling paper, glass, plastics and
other household wastes and clearly understands what the
word recycling means, water recycling is the preferred
term in several recent regulations.
Consequently, water reuse, water recycling and water rec-
lamation are synonyms used to indicate the use of properly
treated wastewater for benecial purposes. The preferred
term should be water recycling, as better accepted and
easier to understand for the large public.
It is important to stress that with the implementation of
advanced membrane treatment technologies, the qual-
ity of recycled water is equivalent and even better than
natural freshwater. For this reason and to improve public
acceptance, new terms are emerging such as NEWater,
EcoWater, etc.
Finally, only planned water reuse projects are included
within the terms water recycling or water reuse. The under-
standing and the acknowledgment of the non planned
water reuse in particular, river water downstream of raw
or treated wastewater discharge is also very important
but have to be dissociated from the planned benecial
reuse of adequately treated wastewater.
95
 IWA Specialist Groups

Technical advance in water reuse
Over 3000 water reuse projects have been assessed by a
survey conducted a few years ago (Bixio et al. 2005), some
of them in an advanced planning phase. The major part of
the water recycling schemes are located in Japan (>1,800)
and the USA (>800), followed by Australia (>450), Europe
(>200), the Mediterranean and Middle East area (>100),
Latin America (>50) and Sub-Saharan Africa (>20). Now-
adays, this number should be signicantly higher with the
fast development of water reuse in China, India and the
Middle East. As mentioned previously, agricultural and
urban irrigation remains the major use of recycled water.
Several mature treatment technologies enable to produce
recycled water quality to meet the water quality require-
ments for the intended reuse applications. The major tech-
nical challenge is to ensure the reliability of plant operation
to consistently meet water reuse regulations.
Table 2.1 illustrates the most common treatment trains
for the main water reuse applications. Non-conventional
(extensive or natural) treatment processes are an efcient,
easy to operate and cost effective solution for developing
countries and rural areas for full treatment or polishing of
secondary efuents.
One of the major technical challenge of wastewater treat-
ment for agricultural water reuse is to ensure the health
safety, and at same time to conserve the fertilising value
of wastewater. Advanced physico-chemical primary treat-
ment, implemented in Mexico, achieved this objective by
means of the combination of high-rate clarication and
disinfection, without the removal of dissolved carbon,
nitrogen and phosphorus, the last two being the main fer-
tilising elements.
It is important to underline that even for irrigation, recycled
water of microbiological quality identical to that of drinking

Table 2.1. The most common wastewater treatment schemes recommended for the major water reuse applications

Extensive (non-conventional)
Type of reuse treatment trains Intensive treatment trains or mixed technical solutions
1. Restricted E.1a. Stabilisation ponds I.1a. Secondary treatment by activated sludge (AS)
irrigation in series (including I.1b. Other secondary treatment trains, e.g. trickling lters,
aerated lagoons) bioltration
E.1b. Wetlands in series I.1c. Advanced primary treatment (high rate clarication) and
E.1c. Others: inltration- ltration
percolation, algae I.1d Idem as a,b,c with a disinfection step
ponds, etc. (chlorination or (UV) or maturation ponds)

2. Unrestricted E.2a. Not recommended I.2a. Secondary treatment by activated sludge with
irrigation, E.2b. Only in special cases tertiary ltration and disinfection (Cl, UV or ozone)
e.g. crops trains E.1. with a well I.2b. Membrane bioreactor (MBR) followed by disinfection
eaten raw designed and monitored (Cl or UV)
polishing step such as I.2c. Secondary treatment by activated sludge
maturation ponds followed by soil-aquifer treatment (SAT)
3. Urban uses, E.3. Not recommended I.3a. Idem as I.2a,b,c
e.g. irrigation of I.3b. Secondary treatment by activated sludge followed by
parks, golf tertiary ultraltration (MF or UF) with chlorination
courses

4. Dual distribution E. 4. Not applicable I.4. Idem as I.2a,b or I.3b with ozonation as disinfec-
in-building for tion step or activated carbon for colour removal
toilet ushing
5. Aquifer recharge E. 5. Not applicable I.5. Idem as I.2a,b
via inltration
basins
6. Indirect potable E.6. Not applicable I.6a. Multibarrier conventional treatment processes,
reuse, e.g. direct e.g. AS or BRM followed by ozonation,
aquifer or ltration, activated carbon, nal disinfection
reservoir recharge I.6b. Advanced membrane treatments, e.g. AS or
BRM followed by MF/UF, reverse osmosis (RO)
and advanced oxidation (UV/H2O2)
7. Industrial uses E.7. Not applicable I.7a. AS or BRM with nitrication followed by chlorination (cooling)
(cooling or boiler I.7b. AS followed by MF/UF and RO with a dou-
water) ble pass RO for high pressure boiler water
I.7c. BRM followed by RO with a double pass
RO for high pressure boiler water

Source: adapted from Lazarova 2001, Bixio et al. 2005 and Asano et al. 2007

96

Figure 2.2. View of maturation ponds in Jordan.
water can be consistently produced, which is the case with
Title 22 disinfected efuent for unrestricted irrigation of
crops eaten raw and public gardens and lawns. Accord-
ing to the California Water Recycling Criteria (2000), the
Title 22 treatment includes coagulation, occulation,
sedimentation, ltration and disinfection. A more recent
tertiary treatment for this purpose is the combination of
high-rate tertiary ltration and UV radiation. The major
irrigation projects using such high quality recycled water
are implemented in Monterey County, California (120,000
3
m /d) for irrigation of 5000 ha of farmland with vegetable
crops; Milan, Italy (432,000 m3 /d) for irrigation of 22,000
3
ha of rice; Virginia, Adelaide in Australia (65,000 m /d) for
horticultural crops irrigation.
Advance in science and technology greatly contributes
to the implementation of new more efcient wastewater
treatment trains. Advanced technologies, especially mem-
branes, enable the production of high quality recycled
water equivalent to drinking water quality. A number of
recent projects and/or expansions of existing reuse facili-
ties have chosen membrane technologies, in particular
for indirect potable reuse (Water Replenishment Project
in Orange County, California; Wulpen Aquifer Recharge
Project in Belgium; Western Corridor in Australia;
NEWater Projects in Singapore). The high reliability of
membrane treatment and the decreasing membrane cost
favour the implementation of membrane tertiary treat-
ment for non-potable applications such as urban uses
for landscape irrigation, toilet ushing and re protection
(Sydney Olympic Park and Rouse Hill, Australia), as well
as for industrial purposes as cooling or boiler water (West
Basin Water Recycling Project, California; Luggage Point
Project, Australia).
The Groundwater Replenishment (GWR) System in
Orange County, California, is the largest water purication
project in the world for indirect potable reuse (265,000
3
m /d; 70 mgd). The GWR System produces high-quality
recycled water that exceeds all state and federal drink-
ing water standards and enables to meet the annual
needs of local population. The GWR System takes highly
treated wastewater and puries it using a state-of-the-
art, three-step process microltration, reverse osmosis,
and advanced oxidation by ultraviolet (UV) radiation and
hydrogen peroxide. The majority of the treated water is
pumped to recharge lakes in Anaheim where the water
IWA Specialist Groups
Figure 2.3. View of microltration units, Western Corridor
(Australia).
Figure 2.4. The NEWater Visitor Centre in Singapore.
takes the natural path of rainwater as it lters through
sand and gravel to the deep aquifers of the groundwater
basin. Some of the recycled water, 21 to 57%, depending
on the time of the year, is injected into Orange Coun-
tys seawater intrusion barrier. The GWR System helps
decrease Orange Countys dependency on imported
water from the Colorado River and Northern California. It
takes a resource that would otherwise be wasted to the
ocean, puries it and provides a new source of water.
Additionally, the new facility uses approximately one-half
the amount of energy required to transport the imported
surface water. It also minimises the amount of ow to the
ocean outfall during storms, preserving the countys vital
coast. The GWR System maintains water diversity in an
arid region, provides high-quality water for the ground-
water basin and protects the environment by reusing a
precious resource.
Another well-known project for high-quality recycled
water production is Singapore NEWater. In 2002, the
rst NEWater plant was born. Singapores NEWater con-
sists of polishing treated wastewater (both from domestic
and industrial origin) by a three-stage tertiary treatment
of ultraltration, reverse osmosis and ultraviolet. The
NEWater quality surpasses the World Health Organization
requirements for drinking water and is used mostly by the
industry (cooling of air conditioners) but also for indirect
potable reuse. It is expected that NEWater will meet 30%
of Singapore water needs by 2011, providing a secure
alternative to the traditional water sources represented by
importations from neighbour Malaysia and by the local
catchments.
97
 IWA Specialist Groups
An important new concept in water reuse is the t to
use approach, which consists in the production of recy-
cled water quality that meets the needs of the end users.
When water reuse is implemented for different purposes,
the most cost efcient solution is to use several tertiary
treatment trains to produce designed water for each
type of use. The best world example of the application of
this concept is the West Basin Water Recycling Plant in
3
California (315,000 m /d), which produces ve quality
recycled water: (1) disinfected tertiary efuent for irriga-
tion, (2) nitried disinfected tertiary efuent for industrial
cooling make-up water, (3) high-quality softened recycled
water after microltration (MF), reverse osmosis (RO) and
advanced oxidation (UV + H2O2) for the salt-intrusion
barrier, (4) MF/RO disinfected water for cooling and low-
pressure boiler feed and (5) MF and double pass RO for
high pressure boiler feed water.
Advanced treatment technologies and innovative analytical
methods are making possible the production of recycled
water similar and even better that drinking water quality.
Nevertheless, the scientic evidence for the elimination
of emerging contaminants and pathogens is not enough
to achieve the public acceptance and political support for
some water reuse projects. Such an example is the West-
ern Corridor Recycled Water Project in Australia, which is
intended to supplement drinking water reservoirs using a
seven-barrier system to ensure the highest recycled water
quality. This planned indirect potable reuse project puries
the efuent from six wastewater treatment plants by micro-
ltration, reverse osmosis and advanced oxidation before
supplementation of the water supply dams (an environ-
mental barrier). The goals of the research are optimising
existing processes and/or investigating alternative technol-
ogies, monitoring and evaluating contaminants of concern
and, where possible, developing strategies to further mini-
mise or eliminate the identied risks. Research demon-
strates that recycled water treated using the seven-barrier
system adopted complies with all relevant standards and
regulations for recycled water. However, conveying these
scientic ndings successfully to the large public and
convincing them that recycled water from this process is
perfectly safe and valuable alternative water supply for the
growing population is still a very challenging task.
Owing to the emerging high demand of high quality recy-
cled water, membrane technology is a hot topic in water
reuse R&D. MBR have already been proven to sustain
higher efuent quality for reverse osmosis (RO) and more
cost effective novel ltration methods are being inves-
tigated. One of them is the forward osmosis (FO) where
separation occurs by using the osmotic pressure gradient
between the feed solution and a highly concentrated draw
solution. Treatment and recovery of RO brine generated
during water reclamation is also under consideration using
innovative technologies such as capacitive deionisation
that uses an electric eld and porous electrodes to sep-
arate the anions from the cations and ultimately remove
salts from the feed solution.
Challenges of water reuse
Despite the growing development of water reuse world-
wide, its full-scale implementation and operation still face
several regulatory, economic, social and institutional chal-
98
lenges. Water reuse practices have to be adapted to each
local situation in order to be safe, amenable, benecial and
sustainable, both nancially and environmentally. Water
reuse quality criteria shall be consistent and enforced by
good management of recycled water quality with on-line
control.
The convergence of water reuse regulations is a very impor-
tant challenge for the worldwide development of water
reuse and its integration in urban water management. New
regulations should be based on health protection, but also
including treatment goals and a simple not very expensive
water quality monitoring. A costly compliance monitoring,
as those required by few recent regulations, could be an
impediment to water reuse development.
Economic viability of water reuse projects is another signi-
cant challenge that can be afforded by means of adequate
water management policies. In fact, the value of recycled
water is determined by the use to which it is put. Full cost
recovery is a desirable objective but depends on ability to
pay and the importance of other management objectives,
including social and environmental criteria. Unfortunately,
water reuse pricing is suffering from the competition
with undervalued and/or subsidised conventional water
resources and the lack of nancial incentives.
An understanding of social and cultural aspects of water
reuse is necessary to develop sustainable water recycling
schemes. Reuse projects can fail for lack of social support,
and reuse for potable purposes meets with the strongest
opposition. Even for non-potable reuse purposes, public
attitudes such as perception of water quality and willing-
ness to pay or to accept a wastewater reuse project play
an important part. In every country, the publics knowl-
edge and understanding of the safety and applicability of
recycled water is a key factor for the success of any water
reuse programme. Consistent communication and easy to
understand messages need to be developed to the public
and politicians explaining the benets of water reuse for
the long term water security and sustainable urban water
cycle management.
Energy shortage is nowadays a worldwide problem.
Recently, alternative or renewal energy has attracted great
attention. In the sector of wastewater treatment, energy
consumption has been carefully examined and research
works on energy minimisation in wastewater treatment
and/or water reuse through novel processes are currently
under investigation. The bottleneck for high-end water
recycling systems, which usually involve membrane tech-
nologies and consume substantial amount of energy has
been noted. In the near future, the challenges in water
reuse would be the development of novel processes that
consume less energy and/or enhance energy recovery.
Conclusions
Water recycling and reuse are rapidly growing practices
worldwide that can be sustainable, cost competitive and
energy saving options to increase water availability, pro-
viding thus a viable solution to adapt to climate change.
Water reuse has been recognised as the solution for water
shortage problems worldwide. Water reuse industry ben-
ets from technology advances and innovations, but also

faces several new challenges such as concerns on health
impacts, energy footprint and social and economic consid-
erations. It is believed that there is still a long way to achieve
the ultimate goal of sustainable water management world-
wide, where water reuse plays a key role in establishing a
benecial linkage between water, nature and human.
References
Asano, T., Burton, F.J., Leverenz, H.L., Tsuchihashi, R. and
Tchobanoglous, G. (eds) (2007). Water Reuse: Issues,
Technology, and Applications, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Bixio, D., De Heyder, B., Cikurel, H., Muston, M., Miska, V.,
Joksimovic, D., Schfer, A.I., Ravazzini, A., Aharoni, A.,
IWA Specialist Groups
Savic, D. and Thoeye, C. (2005). Municipal wastewater
reclamation: where do we stand? An overview of treatment
technology and management practice. Water Science and
Technology: Water Supply, 5(1) 7785.
Global Water Intelligence (2010). Municipal Water Reuse Mar-
kets. Media Analytics Ltd.,Oxford, United Kingdom.
Jimenez, B. and Asano, T (eds) (2008). Water Reuse: An Inter-
national Survey of Current Practice, Issues and Needs. IWA
Publishing, London.
Lazarova, V. and Bahri, A. Eds. (2005). Irrigation with recycled
water: agriculture, turfgrass and landscape, CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL, USA.
Leverenz, H.L., Tchobanoglous, G. and Asano, T. (2011). Direct
potable reuse: a future imperative. Journal of Water Reuse
and Desalination, 1(1), 210.
99
 IWA Specialist Groups

Watershed and River

Basin Management
Written by Zaki Zainudin, Wendell Koning, Michael Weyand, Peter Kelderman and Bob Crabtree
on behalf of the Specialist Group

Leaps and bounds have been made in areas related to
river basin management on a global scale, in line with vari-
ous technological advances of the 21st century. We review
six emerging trends related to water science, research and
management.
in the future. These are, amongst others, climate change
aspects, groundwater and marine topics as well as the
installation of adaptive and exible institutions. To address
these emerging issues several recommendations for future
transboundary water management are made.

Adopt guidance on climate change and update it as our

Transboundary water management
1 Harmonise surface water, ground water, coastal and
and challenges
One of the main issues, which have come under the close
scrutiny of the W&RBM SG, is international transboundary
water management, where a position paper was produced,
elaborating various issues related to the subject matter and
was presented at the IWA 2010 Young Water Professionals
(YWP) conference in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Transbound-
ary water management refers to water management proc-
esses that straddle at least one political jurisdiction, either
within a nation or across an international boundary. For
example, 20 European countries depend on neighbouring
countries for more than 10% of their water resources and
5% draw 75% of their resources from countries upstream
(UNECE 2009). Global water withdrawals have tripled
over the past 50 years. At the same time, ood events,
caused by climate change effects; increased imperme-
able surfaces, and anthropogenic use of ood plains, are
increasing in both frequency and severity. It is estimated
that almost half of the worlds population will be living in
areas of high water stress by 2030 (UNESCO 2009).
Thus, there is increased potential for conict over the allo-
cation of water resources and the distribution of the ben-
ets and costs associated with water use, which escalates
when management has to be coordinated across borders.
Political power is not equally distributed and can be used to
maximise benets to one nation rather than for the collec-
tive good of all nations and the environment (SIWI 2009).
Traditionally, transboundary water management was
focused on the four main aspects: protecting downstream
users, equitable and efcient allocation, planning and
investment, and integrated monitoring and assessment.
However, other emerging issues will require attention for
effective transboundary water management to be achieved
knowledge increases.
marine policies.
Ensure legal agreements are implemented and linked to
local actions on the ground.
Clarify the outcomes required from cooperation and how
the costs and benets of cooperation are distributed.
Climate change and environmental
2,3
Impacts
Climate change is now a common discussion item amongst
politicians, scientists, weather experts and the public.
However, the reality of climate change and the expected
impacts are a challenge to dene. It is very difcult to fore-
cast conditions in watersheds in 50 to 100 years, and yet,
it is expected that water managers will set up measures
and implement them in water systems to meet the given
circumstances in the future. Climate change models for
example, have predicted a reduction of 30% to inows
in the Murray system. In the past twelve years, much of
southern Australia has recorded lower than average rain-
fall, and in particular, extreme low rainfalls were recorded
in 2006 and 2007. This weather pattern has led to
extremely low inows for the Murray River and its tributar-
ies and contributed to the antecedent conditions for three
mega res (2003, 2007 and 2009). The recent drought
sequence in the Murray Darling Basin may be a natural
drought sequence exacerbated by climate change. The
impact of these events on the farming communities, the
irrigation industry, town water supply and environmental
ows has been signicant.
Looking upon climate change impacts in Europe, this region
has to deal with two major developments. First, there may

1
Adapted from Kirsty L. Blackstock; Perri Standish-Lee; Michael Weyand; Wendell Koning, Alan Vicorya and Peter Litheratry, Transboundary
waters: the role of integrated water resource management, IWA, Water 21, October 2011, pp. 2224.
2
Adapted from Climate Change Impacts on River Basin and Freshwater Ecosystems: Some Observations on Challenges and Emerging
Solutions, Avi Ostfeld, Stefano Barchiesi, Matthijs Bonte, Carol R. Collier, Katharine Cross, Geoff Darch, Tracy A. Farrell, Mark Smith, Alan
Vicory, Michael Weyand and Julian Wright.
3
Adapted from John Riddiford, Water Management in Challenging Times A Perspective from South-East Australia, IWA W&RBM News-
letter, February 2010.

100

Figure 1. The Danube River Basin - covering 19 European states: Albania, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia,
the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Macedonia, Montenegro, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Switzerland, Ukraine.
be changes in temperature conditions. It is expected that
there is a tendency to dryer and hotter summers as well
as wetter and milder winters. However, although different
calculations on climate modelling have been made, there
is still uncertainty as to what extent these changes in tem-
perature will occur. Secondly, it is expected that there will
be a change in the intensity of heavy storm events but,
similar to the temperature changes, to what extent is still
uncertain. To gain knowledge about possible climate con-
ditions in the future, it is thus necessary to use climate
change models in predicting impacts of climate change
on river basin and freshwater ecosystems. The majority
of global circulation models predict that climate change
will result in severe changes in the water cycle leading to
signicant drying in some areas of the world and wetting
in others. More detailed modeling identies specic spatial
and temporal complexities, such as strong changes in the
seasonality of river ows. Despite uncertainty pertaining to
methods, assumptions and input data of climate change
models, most models point towards a trend of an increas-
ing frequency of ooding and droughts events.
The fourth report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (Bates et al. 2008) predicted the following
impacts on freshwater resources and ecosystems, ranging
from likely to a high degree of condence in their occur-
rence based on observational records and climate change
projections.
Global warming is likely to cause large-scale changes in
the hydrologic cycle impacting timing, intensity and du-
ration of water ows. Precipitation and average annual
runoff will increase in high latitudes but decrease in some
IWA Specialist Groups
subtropical and lower mid latitudes, especially in regions
currently already dry; Increased intensity and variability
in precipitation will likely increase risks of ooding and
droughts (in many locations suffering extreme poverty
like Bangladesh).
Water supplies from glaciers and snow cover will likely
decline, reducing river base ows and increasing peak
ows and consequently changing the water quality
(Bonte and Zwolsman 2010).
There is a high condence that rising water tempera-
tures and related changes in ice cover, total dissolved
solids (TDS), oxygen levels and circulation will impact
freshwater biological systems.
In addition, freshwater species often serve as excel-
lent indicators of ecosystem functions. Key threat driv-
ers which can be identied include increasing dam
density; river fragmentation; consumptive water losses,;
over abstraction; increase in cropped land; increase in
impervious surfaces; wetland non-connectivity; increases
in invasive species and aquaculture; and, increased load-
ings of organics, pesticides, sediments, nitrogen and phos-
phorous (Vrsmarty et al. 2010). Habitat loss and degra-
dation present particular challenges to freshwater species
that, in many cases, cannot relocate, with ecosystems of-
ten highly concentrated in relatively restricted areas.
Eventually, the combination of these factors erodes the
resilience of ecosystems until they cease to cope with
sudden changes. Managing rivers based on identication
and implementation of environmental ows can help pro-
tect the resilience of aquatic ecosystems. Environmental
ows are based on maintenance of variable ows both
within and between seasons and years to meet ecological
101
 IWA Specialist Groups

needs such as provision of healthy, diverse sh and ripar-
ian habitat, channel maintenance and water quality (Poff
et al. 2010; Arthington et al. 2010).
3. Water quality modelling and
4,5
artificial neural network
Water quality models are useful tools, which can, for
example, be used to project and assess the effects of
climate change in river basins. In Malaysia, water qual-
ity modeling is widely used to draft sustainable river basin
management strategies. They have become an integral
part of environmental management including for environ-
mental impact assessments (EIAs) and river rehabilitation
initiatives (Zainudin at al. 2009). Computer models enable
pre-visualisation of impacts from proposed developmental
activities before it actually occurs, which enables a thor-
ough environmental management plan under various test
scenarios with optimal cost and deteriorative implications.
Models are also used as an investigative tool in relation to
assessment and development of abatement measures that
need to be taken to maintain or achieve a specic target
quality. Once the baseline model has been developed,
each reach (tributaries and main-stem) can be scruti-
nised to determine its Waste Assimilative Capacity (WAC).
Depending on the current condition of the river, whether it
is still within or beyond the desired water quality, the total
amount of pollution load that it can still sustain or needs
to reduce can then be determined using the water quality
model (Mills et al. 1986). There are various types of models
available in the market, both open source and commercial,
and each with its own advantages and limitations, as well
as specic focus areas. The input data and competency
of the modeler are important variables for consideration to
attain convincing and reliable model output. Nothing gives
the modeler a better indication of the water quality charac-
teristics of a water column than conducting an on-site eld
survey collecting water quality and hydraulic data.
Catchment based water quality modeling is gaining wide-
spread use in the UK to understand where the greatest
benet in a catchment can be achieved through end
of pipe and diffuse pollution reductions. Model results
are used to target cost-effective investment by the envi-
ronmental regulators, the water industry, and those with
responsibilities for agriculture and urban diffuse pollu-
tion. SIMCAT is a mathematical model that describes the
quality of river water throughout a catchment by using a
Monte-Carlo simulation approach to predict the behavior
of the summary statistics of ow and water quality, such as
the mean and a range of percentiles. A key feature of SIM-
CAT is the ability to derive quality relationships between
points in a river based on the statistics of observed
data. This enables SIMCAT to consider errors associated
with sampling of data rather than errors associated with
calibration of more detailed deterministic water quality
process representations. Catchment scale river water
quality modelling with the Environment Agencys SIMCAT
stochastic-deterministic river quality model is regarded as
the best current approach to support decision making for
river water quality planning in the UK.
Water quality monitoring is performed to collect and ana-
lyse various water quality constituents. The data collected
covers a wide range of parameters over a given period
of time and is benchmarked against various standards
to ascertain its benecial use. Currently, as mentioned
above, there are various water quality models that are used
to assess and project effects of climate change in river
basins. These models have some limitations (Ali 2007),
related to their underlying formulations and structure. Arti-
cial Neural Networks (ANN) are used to solve complex
engineering problems where it is difcult to develop models
from the fundamental principles, particularly when dealing
with non-linear systems. ANN is a system loosely modeled
on the human brain. It resembles the human brain in two
respects: the knowledge is acquired by the network through
a learning process, and inter-neuron connection strengths
known as synaptic weights are used to store the knowledge.
ANN can be dened as a distributed computational system
composed of several individual processing elements oper-
ating largely in parallel, interconnected according to some
specic topology (architecture) and having the capability
to self-modify connection strengths during the processing
of element parameters (learning) (Haykin 1994). Some
research has been carried out to apply ANN to water qual-
ity forecasting (Palani et al. 2008). It is expected that the
ongoing global research in water science will move in the
direction of enhanced utilisation of more robust modeling
tools, such as ANN to become a key component in meeting
higher level of water quality and increased demand.
Development of decision support
6,7
systems (DSS)
Integration of water quality models and geographical infor-
mation system (GIS) tools gives rise to decision support
system (DSS) platforms that eases use for the end-user
and enables graphical analysis of potential impacts. Such a
system was developed for the world-famous Three Gorges
situated on the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, that has
a total length of 193 km. There are more than 8,500 com-
mercial ships in operation, 17 cities and more than 1,700
industrial enterprises located by the reservoir. Industrial,
municipal and ship efuent has become the main pollution
source for the Yangtze River and results in, on average, 12
water pollution accidents in the Three Gorges Reservoir
Area (TGRA) every year. An integrated GIS based water
pollution management information system for the TGRA,
called WPMS_ER_TGRA, was developed. The ArcGIS
Engine was used as the system development platform and
Visual Basic as the programming language. The simulation

4
Article contribution from Zaki Zainudin and Bob Crabtree from the IWA Specialist Group on Watershed and River Basin Management.
5
Article contribution from Mohammed Saedi Jami, Bioenvironmental Engineering Research Unit (BERU), Kulliyyah of Engineering, Inter-
national Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM).
6
Adapted from Zhai Jun, An Integrated Geographic Information (GIS)- Based Water Pollution Management Information System for the
Three Gorges Reservoir Area, P.R. China., IWA W&RBM Newsletter, September 2010.
7
Adapted from Pau Prat, Llus Corominas and Manel Poch, Environmental Decision support system to select Robust operational strategies
in Urban water Systems (ENDERUS). IWA W&RBM Newsletter, September 2010.

102

analysis of pollution incidents is mainly divided into three
steps: add or edit the accidental pollution source; quickly
calculate the concentration eld and its movement in time;
and, analyse and visually show the simulation results.
Subsequently, the GIS-based information system was
applied to the emergency water pollution management
following a shipwreck that released 10 tons of phenol into
the Yangtze River over 2 hours. The results showed that
WPMS_ER_TGRA can assist with emergency water pollu-
tion management by simulating the transfer and diffusion of
accidental pollutants in the river. Furthermore, it can iden-
tify the affected area quickly and show how it will change
over time within a few minutes of an accident occurring.
In Spain, the Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA) in
collaboration with the Laboratory of Chemical and Environ-
mental Engineering (LEQUIA) are working on the project
Environmental Decision support system to select Robust
operational strategies in Urban water Systems (END-
ERUS) that aims at developing an Environmental Deci-
sion Support System (EDSS) that addresses management
problems in urban water systems, including the sewer
system, wastewater treatment plants, storage tanks and
the receiving water bodies. The EDSS will suggest opera-
tional strategies that will improve the overall performance of
the system and, at the same time, will contribute to achiev-
ing the environmental standards promoted by both the
European Water Framework Directive (WFD) (2000/60/
EEC) and the Spanish Plan Nacional de Calidad de las
Aguas (PNCA) 2007-2015. The EDSS will include specic
knowledge about: i) the physical, chemical and biological
processes taking place in the different operational units
comprising the UWS; ii) the complex interactions amongst
these units, and, nally iii) a set of upstream actions based
on literature, previous experiences or simulation studies
mainly focused on the protection of the receiving water.
ENDERUS will dene operating strategies to achieve differ-
ent objectives. These strategies will be evaluated by means
of dynamic mathematical models of the integrated urban
water system and by using environmental legislation and
economic and social criteria. The operating strategies will
also be characterised using sensitivity analysis (to nd the
most sensitive parameters in the urban water system) and
estimating the robustness against changes in the waste-
water composition, in the sewer system conguration, and
against toxic, hydraulic and pollutant shocks.
Emerging contaminants in surface
waters and drinking water production
8 and management strategies using
In Europe, millions of people depend for their drinking
water on surface waters, such as the Danube, Meuse,
Rhine, and Tagus River Basins. These surface waters are
contaminated with thousands of chemical compounds
originating from industry, agriculture and household uses
and their number is still increasing. This confronts drinking
water companies with the challenge and responsibility to
deal with contaminants in their sources and still prepare
8
Adapted from Corine J. Houtman, Emerging contaminants in surface waters and drinking water production, IWA W&RBM Newsletter,
March 2011.
9
Adapted form Joon Ha Kim, Joo-Hyon Kang and Sung Min Cha, Non-Point Source (NPS) Monitoring and Management Strategies Using
Constructed Wetlands, IWA W&RBM Newsletter, February 2010.
IWA Specialist Groups
safe drinking water. Classes of emerging contaminants
now detected in the aquatic environment that are of rel-
evance for drinking water production include endocrine
disrupting compounds such as hormones and compounds
with hormone-like properties, pharmaceuticals, illicit and
non-controlled drugs, sweeteners, personal care products,
complexing agents, nanoparticles, peruorinated com-
pounds, ame retardants, pesticides, and fuel additives.
The individual compounds are observed in concentrations
that are generally considered too low to cause acute effects.
Nevertheless, health effects due to long-term exposure to
a mixture of low concentrations of all kinds of emerging
contaminants cannot be excluded with current knowledge.
Moreover, contamination of drinking water with man-made
substances is considered to be unwanted. Drinking water
companies use the precautionary principle to prevent the
release of emerging contaminants into the environment as
the preferred approach to safeguard sustainable drinking
water production. In the mean time, they use extensive
monitoring of their water sources; and, the development
and application of advanced treatment techniques to pre-
pare safe drinking water.
In Canada, in addition to those contaminants previously
identied, attention is now being given to the presence of
pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment, that are com-
monly used in the livestock industry. There are approxi-
mately 6.4 million head of cattle, 2.1 million pigs, 11.8
million chickens, and 0.7 million turkeys in the province of
Alberta (Statistics Canada 2006). Many of these animals
receive medication; however, information regarding specic
pharmaceuticals and their usage volumes in Alberta, and
other provinces of Canada, are not routinely collected. Peni-
cillin was the most commonly used antimicrobial and was
administered in the animalsdrinking water and by injection.
In Alberta, Forrest at al. (2011), analysed 247 water sam-
ples from 23 watersheds during the open water season
between, May 2005 and May 2006. Samples were analysed
for 27 commonly used veterinary pharmaceuticals. Trace
(ngL-1) concentrations of antimicrobials were detected in
51% of the samples (127 out of 247 samples). Maximum
concentrations for the nine antimicrobials detected ranged
between 3 and 250 ngL-1 (Forrest at al. 2011). The anti-
microbials detected and their concentrations were found
to be similar to those in some recent European and North
American livestock pharmaceutical stream surveys.
Non-Point Source (NPS) monitoring
9
constructed wetlands
Wastewater treatment plants are commonly utilised to
reduce contaminants from points-sources of pollution to
protect water bodies. However, with regard to non-point
sources of pollution (NPS), this approach has various
drawbacks and practical limitations due to the potential
volumes to be treated. In Korea, around 40% of the
pollution load is attributed to NPS and this is expected
103
 IWA Specialist Groups
to increase further, up to 50%, by 2015. Therefore, best
management practices (BMPs) are becoming an emerg-
ing issue in Korea (Kim et al. 2007).
Constructed wetlands are widely recognised as a cost-
effective method to reduce NPS pollution in both urban and
rural area (Gunes and Tuncsiper 2009, Poe et al 2003).
The Korean government launched a new mitigation pro-
gram to reduce the elevated pollution contribution from
diffuse by means of constructed wetland. Gwangju Insti-
tute of Science and Technology, a leading institution of
environmental science and technology in Korea, carried
out the research on NPS management using constructed
wetlands since September 2008. The constructed wetland
is located at the Yeongsan watershed in the Jeolla Prov-
ince, the southwest part of the Korea. The results showed
that the removal efciency of the wetland was highly vari-
able depending on the sampling strategies, meteorologi-
cal conditions, and operation of the wetland system. The
characteristics of particulates, including TSS and turbidity,
represented quite different patterns when the sampling
frequencies increased or decreased. Clear evidence of the
relationship between hydrograph and pollutograph further
supported that pollutant loads could be reasonably esti-
mated based on rainfall depth and soil condition.
In the United States and Canada, Ducks Unlimited (DU) is
an organisation committed to the conservation of wetlands
and the development of constructed wetlands for waste-
water treatment. Their conservation strategy is comprised
of the following elements (DU 2011): restoring grasslands,
replanting forests, restoring watersheds, working with
landowners, working with partners, acquiring land, con-
servation easements, management agreements, and, the
use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
Among notable projects that they have completed is the
construction of the 15 hectare Annapolis Royal wetland in
2002. The wetland is being used to treat the communitys
wastewater before it enters the Annapolis River (Ducks
Unlimited 2011). The quality of efuent from Annapolis
Royal already met environmental standards, but it was
high in phosphorous and nitrogen, which are two nutrients
that, when abundant, reduce water quality and degrade
habitat. The approach has improved the quality of water
owing into the Annapolis River and the nutrients that ow
through the wetland enrich and enhance the area for wild-
life (Ducks Unlimited 2011). The project also consists of a
trail system and interpretive signage to encourage the local
community to come out and enjoy their wetland.
References
Ali, M.Z. (2007). The application of the articial neural network
model for river water quality classication with emphasis on
the impact of land use activities: a case study from several
catchments in Malaysia. University Of Nottingham. PhD
Thesis.
Arthington, A.H., Naiman, R.J. and McClain, M. E. (2010). Pre-
serving the biodiversity and ecological services of rivers: new
challenges and research opportunities. Freshwater Biology
55: 117.
Bates, B.C., Kundzewicz, Z.W., Wu, S. and Palutikof J.P.
(2008). Climate Change and Water. Technical Paper of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva, IPCC
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Bonte, M. and Zwolsman, J.J.G. (2010). Climate change induced
salinisation of articial lakes in the Netherlands and con-
sequences for drinking water production. Water Research
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Ducks Unlimited (2011). How DU conserves Wetlands and Wa-
terfowl and Annapolis Royal Wetland. http://www.ducks.
org/conservation/how-we-conserve / http://www.ducks.ca/
province/ns/projects/annapolis/index.html
Forrest, F., Lorenz, K., Thompson, T., Keenliside, J., Kendall, J.
and Charest, J. (2011). A scoping study of livestock antimi-
crobials in agricultural streams of Alberta. Canadian Water
Resources Journal 36(1): 116.
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temore, R.C. (1986). Handbook: Stream Sampling for Waste
Load Allocation Applications, 1st edition. Washington, DCU-
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tion for water quality forecasting. Marine Pollution Bulletin
56(9): 15861597.
Poe, A.C., Piehler, M.F., Thompson, S.P. and Paerl, H.W. (2003).
Denitrication in a constructed wetland receiving agricul-
tural runoff. Wetland 23(4), 817826.
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R.J., Kendy, E., Acreman, M., Apse, C., Bledsoe, B.P., Free-
man, M.C., Henriksen, J., Jacobson, R.B., Kennen, J.G.,
Merritt, D.M., OKeefe, J.H., Olden, J.D., Rogers, K., Tharme,
R.E. and Warner, A. (2010). The ecological limits of hydro-
logic alteration (ELOHA): a new framework for developing
regional environmental ow standards. Freshwater Biology
55(1), 147170.
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S.A. (2006). Reported antibiotic use in 90 swine farms in
Alberta. Canadian Veterinary Journal 47(5), 446452.
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Front_1_lowres.pdf
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Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development. Statistics and
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publications/brochure/Water_Convention_e.pdf
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3: Water in a Changing World. The United Nations Educa-
tional, Scientic and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Paris,
and Earthscan, London.
Wu, C.Y., Kao, C.M., Lin, C.E., Chen, C.W. and Lai, Y.C. (2010).
Using a constructed wetland for non-point source pollution
control and river water quality purication: a case study in
Taiwan. Water Science & Technology 61(10), 25492555.
Vrsmarty, C.J., McIntyre, P.B., Gessner, M.O., Dudgeon, D.,
Prusevich, A., Green, P., Glidden, S., Bunn, S.E., Sullivan,
C.A., Reidy, C., Liermann and Davies, P.M. (2010). Glo-
bal threats to human water security and river biodiversity.
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Winery wastewater treatment
in a sustainable perspective
Written by D. Bolzonella (SG Chair), R. Chamy (SG Secretary), F. Cecchi, R. S. Chrobak, H.H. Fang,
M. Greven, A. Grasmick, D. Jeison, J. Lema, J. Mata-Alvarez, R. Moletta, R. Mulidzi, J. Rochard
on behalf of the Specialist Group
Introduction
Wine production is one of the leading sectors in the food
processing industry and accounted for some 27.6 million
tons (on average) in the years 20052009: 64% of the
production originated from European countries, while the
Americas accounted for another 20%, then Asia, Oceania
and Africa accounted for 7%, 5% and 4%, respectively.
Three European Countries, Italy, France and Spain, gener-
ated 57% of the worldwide production. Figure 1 shows the
wine production of major players of the wine market in the
past few years.
Unfortunately, the wine-making process has some impor-
tant environmental drawbacks:
the intensive use of land,
the large use of water,
the application of pesticides,
the production of large amount of waste and wastewater,
which need proper treatment to be disposed of.
Figure 1. Wine production per annum in the main.
IWA Specialist Groups
Just to emphasise some key gures, the water footprint
of wine is reported to be 120 litres of water for one glass
of wine (125 ml): that is 1,000 m3 per m3 of wine, a level
comparable to that of other crops requiring intensive irriga-
tion (Bolzonella and Fatone 2010), while its carbon foot-
print is some 1.2 g of CO2 equivalent per bottle (720 ml)
(Kern and Rochard 2009).
Because all these aspects are of fundamental importance
for future sustainable wine production, the Specialist Groups
members are active researchers in all these areas, with an
obvious particular emphasis on wastewater treatment.
Wine and water: an overview
When considering the environmental impacts deriving from
wine-making, the production of wastewaters is of primary
importance: in fact, water is used in several washing activi-
ties in the different steps of wine-making, like crushing and
de-stemming, fermentation, ltration and bottling.
105
 IWA Specialist Groups
Produced wastewaters are characterised by variable ow
rates, as they are seasonal in nature, high in organic load-
ing (up to 10 gCOD/L and more during vintage) and in
carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C/N > 30) and sometime low in
pH. In terms of ow rate, 6070% is produced in three
months, during vintage and wine production. Because
of all these peculiarities, winery wastewaters need to be
properly treated in high-efciency systems before their
release in the sewerage system or the environment.
The treatment of winery wastewater can realised using
several biological processes based both on aerobic or
anaerobic systems using suspended biomass or biolms.
Several systems are currently offered by technology provid-
ers and current research envisages the availability of new
promising technologies for winery wastewater treatment
(Andreottola et al. 2009). When considering the main wine
producers, France, Italy and Spain, where vineyards and
cellars are more often part of the urban rather than rural
environment, intensive processes with small footprints are
preferred (Moletta et al. 2009) whereas in non-European
contests extensive treatment processes, like ponds and
constructed wetlands, can be preferred because of their
low power demand and excess sludge production (Arienzo
et al. 2009; Mulidzi 2010).
General trends and challenges
Considering the contributions and discussions to the most
recent conferences of the Specialist Group, some hot top-
ics for the future research can be enlightened here.
The necessity for a sustainable viticulture and wine-
making clearly remains the main and primary concern.
Therefore most efforts are related to the reduction of the
environmental impacts of the wine-making industry. In
general, the need for better waste and wastewater man-
agement, better control over chemical stores, as well as
denite improvement in water management and increase
in solid wastes recycling are clear targets. In fact, these will
preserve the environment on the one hand and will cause
long-term cost savings on the other. The following hot top-
ics for future research can be considered in particular.
High-performance wastewater treatment
and reuse
Considering the European situation, there is a clear neces-
sity for high-performance intensive processes: in recent
years, a vast mass of work has dealt with both the study
and application of membrane bioreactors. These systems
have demonstrated their capability in coping with high
hydraulic and organic loading variability in reactors with
a relatively small footprint (Guglielmi et al. 2009; Shah
et al. 2008), producing an efuent with interesting char-
acteristics for reuse. Obviously, this technique is particu-
larly energy-demanding (Bolzonella and Fatone 2010).
Unfortunately, this is typically the case when the market
overcomes research and development: a lot of work for
a deeper understanding and optimisation of these proc-
esses is needed in the near future.
Another important piece of work related to this topic is the
research and application of anaerobic processes: in fact,
because of their typical characteristics (that is, high organic
106
content and biodegradability), they are particularly suit-
able for several different anaerobic processes, depending
on the solids content of the waste(water) (Moletta 2005,
2009; Chamy et al. 2007).
Extensive treatment processes
Beside high-performance processes, extensive processes
also need further development. These systems are histori-
cally very diffuse in the southern part of the planet (see,
for example, Arienzo et al. 2009; Mulidzi 2010). Recently,
the use of high-performance wetlands has also found
new application in the European context (Rochard et al.
2010).
Micropollutants management
Large amounts of pesticides and chemicals are used in
agriculture. In the light of a more sustainable viticulture,
the management of spraying residues and water for wash-
ing activities should be considered with particular atten-
tion (Rochard et al. 2009). These waters can be treated
by physical, chemico-physical and biological processes,
or a combination of those, to reduce the presence of these
harmful compounds. Although some commercial solutions
are already available, this topic remains on the agenda for
future improvements.
Carbon footprint
Wine production and winery wastewater treatment inevi-
tably produce and emit greenhouse gases (GHG) such as
CO2, CH4, N2O (Kerner et al 2009; Rosso et al. 2009).
Further investigations are needed in this eld and the life-
cycle assessment (LCA) to reduce the environmental activ-
ity of wine-production.
In addition, in this case, the introduction of anaerobic
processes, because of their relatively low energy demand,
can reduce the GHG emissions.
Conclusions
The wine industry, from grape growing to bottling and
delivery, determines considerable environmental impacts.
Most of those are related to water management and waste-
water treatment. According to the scenario illustrated
above, notable efforts are needed to face these impacts:
researchers in the elds of water management and waste
and wastewater elds are called to cooperate with col-
leagues of other disciplines to reduce the wine industry
footprint.
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