Seismic Techniques

1. Seismic Refraction Profiling

2. Seismic Reflection Profiling
3. Continuous Surface-Wave System (CSWS)
4. Down-the-hole Seismic Surveys
5. Cross-hole Seismic Surveys
6. Cross-hole Seismic Tomography
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Seismic Refraction Profiling

The seismic refraction method is based on the measurement of

the travel time of seismic waves refracted at the interfaces
between subsurface layers of different velocity. Seismic energy
is provided by a source ('shot') located on the surface. Energy
radiates out from the shot point, either travelling directly through
the upper layer (direct arrivals), or travelling down to and then
laterally along higher velocity layers (refracted arrivals) before
returning to the surface. This energy is detected on surface
using a linear array of geophones. Observation of the travel-
times of the refracted signals provides information on the depth
profile of the refractor.

The seismic refraction method is based on the measurement of the travel time of seismic waves refracted at the
interfaces between subsurface layers of different velocity. Seismic energy is provided by a source ('shot') located
on the surface. For shallow applications this normally comprises a hammer and plate, weight drop or small
explosive charge (blank shotgun cartridge). Energy radiates out from the shot point, either travelling directly
through the upper layer (direct arrivals), or travelling down to and then laterally along higher velocity layers
(refracted arrivals) before returning to the surface. This energy is detected on surface using a linear array (or
spread) of geophones spaced at regular intervals. Beyond a certain distance from the shot point, known as the
cross-over distance, the refracted signal is observed as a first-arrival signal at the geophones (arriving before the
direct arrival). Observation of the travel-times of the direct and refracted signals provides information on the depth
profile of the refractor.

Shots are deployed at and beyond both ends of the geophone spread in order to acquire refracted energy as first
arrivals at each geophone position.

Data are recorded on a seismograph and later

downloaded to computer for analysis of the first-arrival
times to the geophones from each shot position. Travel-
time versus distance graphs are then constructed and
velocities calculated for the overburden and refractor
layers through analysis of the direct arrival and T-minus
graph gradients. Depth profiles for each refractor are
produced by an analytical procedure based on
consideration of shot and receiver geometry and the
measured travel-times and calculated velocities. The
final output comprises a depth profile of the refractor
layers and a velocity model of the subsurface.

The primary applications of seismic refraction are for

determining depth to bedrock and bedrock structure.
Due to the dependence of seismic velocity on the
elasticity and density of the material through which the energy is passing, seismic refraction surveys provide a
measure of material strengths and can consequently be used as an aid in assessing rippability and rock quality.
The technique has been successfully applied to mapping depth to base of backfilled quarries, depth of landfills,
thickness of overburden and the topography of groundwater.
Seismic Techniques

RESULTS

During data acquisition individual shot records are displayed

as variable area wiggle traces displaying travel time against
distance (see right above). These enable an initial calculation
of overburden and refractor apparent velocities and provide an
important check on the quality of the data. Following
acquisition wiggle traces are used to display the data during
picking of the first-arrivals for each geophone position and
shot.

The processed data is normally presented as a series of three

plots; time-distance graphs for the picked first-arrivals on each
shot, a true depth profile for the identified refractors and a
velocity profile for the overburden and refractors. Any existing
ground truth information such as borehole and trial pit logs, is
overlain on the depth profile in order to help calibrate the
seismic results and then provide an indication of the level of
correlation along the survey line. The refractor depth is
displayed as a series of overlapping arcs that represent
the solutions for each geophone in the array. The refractor
can lie anywhere on the arcs below the intersections with
adjacent arcs (right).

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Seismic Reflection Profiling

OUTLINE

Seismic reflection profiling involves the measurement of the two-

way travel time of seismic waves transmitted from surface and
reflected back to the surface at the interfaces between contrasting
geological layers. Reflection of the transmitted energy will only
occur when there is a contrast in the acoustic impedance (product
of the seismic velocity and density) between these layers. The
strength of the contrast in the acoustic impedance of the two layers
determines the amplitude of the reflected signal. The reflected
signal is detected on surface using an array of high frequency
geophones. As with seismic refraction, the seismic energy is
provided by a 'shot' on surface. For shallow applications this will
normally comprise a hammer and plate, weight drop or explosive
charge.
Seismic Techniques

DETAIL

Seismic reflection profiling involves the measurement of

the two-way travel time of seismic waves transmitted from
surface and reflected back to the surface at the interfaces
between contrasting geological layers. Reflection of the
transmitted energy will only occur when there is a contrast
in the acoustic impedance (product of the seismic velocity
and density) between these layers. The strength of the
contrast in the acoustic impedance of the two layers
determines the amplitude of the reflected signal. The
reflected signal is detected on surface using an array of
high frequency geophones (typically 48-96). As with
seismic refraction, the seismic energy is provided by a
'shot' on surface. For shallow applications this will
normally comprise a hammer and plate, weight drop
or explosive charge. In most reflection surveys shots are
deployed at a number of different positions in relation to
the geophone array in order to obtain reflections from the
same point on the interface at different geophones in the
array. Each common point of reflection is termed a
common mid-point (CMP) and the number of times each
one is sampled determines the 'fold coverage' for the
survey. Traces relating to the same CMP are stacked
together to increase the signal-to-noise ratio of the survey
before being combined with other CMP's stacked traces to
produce a reflection profile. In order to stack related CMP
traces a stacking velocity is applied to each trace. This
accounts for the difference in two-way travel time between
the normal incidence reflection (vertical travel path below
the shot) and those at increasing offsets from the shot
(known as the normal moveout or NMO). The stacking
velocity will vary down the trace to take account of the
increase in velocity with depth for each reflection event.

The simplest form of seismic reflection profiling is the

constant-offset method. This technique uses a single
geophone offset from the source by a fixed distance. The
two are moved along the survey line in equal steps with a
single trace being recorded at each position. The main
advantage of this technique is the limited amount of
processing that needs to be applied to the data due to the
almost vertical orientation of each raypath. However, in
order to avoid problems with interference from groundroll
and the shot airwave, the offset distance has to be
selected with care.

Continuous Surface-Wave System (CSWS)

Outline | Detail | Results |

OUTLINE

The continuous surface-wave method utilises a specific

type of seismic wave, known as the Rayleigh wave, in
order to determine in situ shear modulus-depth profiles to
depths of between 8m to 20m. The velocity of a Rayleigh
wave is related to the shear modulus (G) and density of
the ground through which it propagates. Unlike crosshole
seismic methods, which are routinely used to determine
geotechnical parameters such as the shear modulus
(and additionally Poisson's ratio), the CSW technique
Seismic Techniques

require no boreholes. The system comprises a

portable frequency-controlled vibrator and an array
of low frequency geophones arranged co-linearly with the
source. Rayleigh waves are generated at frequencies of
between 5Hz and 100Hz in 0.1-5Hz increments in order
to build up a comprehensive stiffness-depth profile.

DETAIL

The continuous surface-wave method utilises a specific

type of seismic wave, known as the Rayleigh wave, in
order to determine in situ shear modulus-depth profiles to
depths of between 8m to 20m below surface. The
velocity of a Rayleigh wave is related to the shear
modulus (G) and density of the ground through which it
propagates. Unlike crosshole seismic methods, which
are routinely used to determine geotechnical parameters
such as the shear modulus (and additionally Poisson's
ratio), the CSW technique require no boreholes.

Rayleigh waves are constrained to propagate within a

zone approximately 1 wavelength in depth, such that
increasing the wavelength (decreasing the frequency) of
the transmitted energy will result in an increase in the
depth of investigation. The wavelength and phase-
velocity of the Rayleigh waves generated at a particular
frequency are calculated by determining the phase shift
between the transmitted and measured signals at each
geophone location.

Phase-velocities are measured over a range of

frequencies in order to build up a dispersion spectrum for
the ground below the spread. This is then inverted to
determine a velocity-depth profile and finally a stiffness-
depth profile.The system comprises a portable
frequency-controlled vibrator and an array of low
frequency geophones arranged co-linearly with the
source. A laptop computer controls both the vibrator and
data acquisition. Rayleigh waves are generated at
frequencies of between 5Hz and 100Hz in 0.1-5Hz
increments in order to build up a comprehensive
stiffness-depth profile.

For further information on the Continuous Surface-Wave

System see 'The Continuous Surface-Wave System: A
Modern Technique for Site Investigation', Menzies, B. &
Matthews, M. (1996); Special Lecture: Indian
Geotechnical Conference, Madras, December 11-14th
1996.

RESULTS

Raw results are initially presented as a dispersion curve

of phase velocity against depth. Inversion of the curve
results in a stiffness-depth profile (shear modulus-depth)
for the sampling location (see above) that can be
compared directly to the results of other methods such as
seismic cone penetration (SCPT). Each test takes
approximately 2 hours and provides about 50 stiffness
measurements at different depths. A preliminary
stiffness-depth profile can normally be computed on site
using an empirical wavelength /depth inversion routine.
Seismic Techniques

Downhole Seismic Surveys

Outline | Detail | Results |

OUTLINE

Downhole seismic surveys are the simplest and cheapest

method in the suite of borehole seismic techniques, as
they require only a single borehole. Seismic energy is
generated on surface at a fixed distance from the top of
the borehole. The travel times of the first-arrival seismic
waves are measured at regular intervals down the hole
using a string of hydrophones or, in the case of S-wave
surveys, a single clamped triaxial geophone that is
gradually moved down the hole. The P- and S-wave
arrival times for each receiver location are combined to
produce travel-time versus depth curves for the complete
hole. These are then used to produce total velocity
profiles from which interval velocities and the various
elastic moduli can be calculated (in conjunction with
density data from geophysical logging of the borehole).

DETAIL

Downhole seismic surveys are the simplest and cheapest

method in the suite of borehole seismic techniques
requiring only a single borehole. Seismic energy is
generated on surface at a fixed distance from the top of
the borehole. The travel times of the first-arrival seismic
waves are measured at regular intervals down the hole
using a string of hydrophones or, in the case of S-wave
surveys, a single clamped triaxial geophone that is
gradually moved down the hole.

P-wave energy is normally provided by a hammer and

plate or weight drop similar to shallow seismic reflection
and refraction profiling surveys. Polarised S-waves are
generated using a shear wave hammer. This comprises
two hammers connected to either end of a plank that is
held to the ground using a vehicle or heavy weight.
Collecting both positive and negative polarised (so called
A and B) S-waves using the two hammers separately,
enables the S-wave arrivals on the receiver shot records
to be distinguished from those of P-waves and coherent
noise.

RESULTS
Seismic Techniques

Crosshole Seismic Surveys

Outline | Detail | Results |

OUTLINE

Crosshole seismic surveys involve measurement of the

travel time of seismic energy transmitted between two or
more boreholes in order to derive information on the
elastic properties of the intervening materials. One hole
is used to deploy the source whilst the other hole(s) are
used to detect the arrival of the seismic energy. The
travel times of the seismic waves are derived from the
first-arrivals identified on the seismic trace for each shot-
receiver position and are used with the known
distance(s) between the shot/receiver boreholes to
calculate the apparent velocities (P and S) for each depth
interval. This data is then used to derive a vertical profile
of the various elastic moduli.
Seismic Techniques

DETAIL

The relationship between the velocity of seismic waves

and the density and elastic properties of the materials
through which they are travelling means that seismic
techniques can be utilised to provide information on
various geotechnical properties of the subsurface, such
as Poisson's ratio and the shear modulus. The most
common method of measuring these properties in
engineering studies is through the use of crosshole
seismic surveys.

Crosshole seismic surveys involve measurement of

the travel time of seismic energy transmitted
between two or more boreholes. One hole is used to
deploy the source whilst the other hole(s) are used to
detect the arrival of the seismic energy. In order to obtain
properties such as Poisson's ratio, both P-wave
(compressional) and S-wave (shear) data has to be
acquired. This normally requires the use of two separate
sources. P-wave energy is detected using a string of
between 10-24 hydrophones suspended in water in the
borehole. As shear waves are unable to travel through
water or air they are detected using a single triaxial
geophone clamped to the inside of the borehole using a
hydraulic system. Data is collected at fixed intervals
down the hole (normally 0.5-2m) by moving the shot and
detector(s) in parallel. In the case of an array of
hydrophones the string is kept fixed until the shot has
passed below the depth of the last hydrophone.

The travel times of the P and S waves are derived from

the first-arrivals identified on the seismic trace for each
shot-receiver position and used with the known
distance(s) between the shot/receiver boreholes to
calculate the apparent velocities (P and S) for each depth
interval. This data is then used to derive a vertical profile
of material stiffness properties. Where the borehole
separation is small the calculated apparent velocities will
equate to the true velocities for each depth, as the
energy travels direct from source to receiver. However,
where a refracted or reflected wave arrives at the
receiver first (first-arrival), this will not be the case,
leading to spurious calculations of the material stiffness
properties. Where refraction/reflection is considered to be
a problem computer modelling of the raypaths should be
utilised to help derive true interval velocities.

RESULTS

First arrival times for the P- and S-wave data are

picked in a similar manner to conventional surface
seismic techniques and other borehole methods
using wiggle traces. Identification of the S-wave
arrivals is aided by the collection of opposite
polarity shots during data acquisition. During
picking the shot record pairs are initially viewed
side by side. Subtraction of one record from the
other results in cancellation of P-waves and
stacking of the S-wave data.

Following picking of the arrival time data for each

shot-receiver location and calculation of velocity
(based on the borehole separation) the data is
Seismic Techniques

displayed as a plot of velocity against depth

(above). Calculation of the various elastic
moduli is carried out using additional information on
the density of the various geological strata in the
holes. This is normally obtained from geophysical
logging of the boreholes. Final results are generally
displayed as tables or profiles of the calculated
moduli such as Poisson's ratio and the bulk shear
modulus.

Crosshole Seismic Tomography

Outline | Detail | Results |

OUTLINE

Borehole seismic tomography involves the measurement

of the travel times of seismic raypaths between two or
more boreholes in order to derive an image of seismic
velocity in the intervening ground. Data is collected using
one hole for the seismic source (normally a sparker) and
measuring first-arrival times using strings of hydrophones
in the others. Travel times are collected at regular
intervals (usually 0.5m to 2m) all the way down the
hole(s) for each shot position. This results in a network of
overlapping raypaths that can then be used to model the
velocity profile. The resulting velocity image is termed a
tomogram and enables identification of anomalous
velocity zones lying between the boreholes as well as
imaging individual velocity layers.

DETAIL

Borehole seismic tomography involves the measurement

of the travel times of seismic raypaths between two or
more boreholes in order to define an image of seismic
velocity in the intervening ground.

Data is collected in a similar manner to crosshole seismic

surveys by using one hole for the seismic source
(normally a sparker) and measuring first-arrival times
using strings of hydrophones in the others. However,
unlike crosshole, travel times are collected at regular
intervals (usually 0.5m to 2m) all the way down the
hole(s) for each shot position.

Measurement of arrival times for each shot, at each

position in the receiver borehole, results in a network of
overlapping raypaths which can then be used to model
the velocity profile (see figure). The plane separating the
source and receiver holes is divided into a mesh of grid
cells known as finite elements. Each element in the mesh
is assigned a starting velocity and the synthetic travel
time for the portion of each raypath passing through it is
calculated. In this way the total travel time for each
raypath is built up and then compared to the measured
travel time. The velocities assigned to the various
Seismic Techniques

elements are then adjusted iteratively until the

calculated and measured travel times for the
raypaths are the same. As many of the cells are
intersected by a number of raypaths the process can
result in very accurate estimates of the velocity for each
cell.

The resulting velocity image is termed a tomogram and

enables identification of anomalous velocity zones lying
between the boreholes as well as imaging individual
velocity layers. The primary application of borehole
seismic tomography is in engineering studies for the
identification of features such as fault zones and voids.
When combined with an S-wave survey, the data can
additionally be used to provide information on material
stiffness properties (see crosshole seismic surveys).

RESULTS

During data acquisition individual shot records are

displayed as variable area wiggle traces indicating travel
time against downhole distance for each shot position.
Following acquisition wiggle traces are used to pick the
first-arrivals for each source/receiver pair. The image
displays a shot gather for 40 receiver locations down a
hole.

Following picking the raw travel-time data is input into the

modelling software and the ray coverage between the
two holes is displayed as a ray density profile (right). This
provides an initial indication of the amount of data within
different sections of the profile and helps illustrate the
resolution of the final model.

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