Hypothesis: The

Electrophysiological Basis of Evil

Eye Belief
colin andrew ross
The Ross Institute
Richardson, TX
rossinst@rossinst.com

abstract

The sense of being stared at is the basis of evil eye beliefs, which are regarded as
superstitions because the emission of any form of energy from the human eye has
been rejected by Western science. However, brainwaves in the 1–40 Hertz, 1–10
microvolt range emitted through the eye can be detected using a high-impedance
electrode housed inside electromagnetically insulated goggles. This signal, which
the author calls ‘‘human ocular extramission,’’ is physiologically active and has
distinct electrophysiological properties from simultaneous brainwave recordings
over the forehead. Western science’s rejection of evil eye beliefs may be based on
an erroneous rejection of a widespread component of human consciousness, the
sense of being stared at, which may in turn be based on a real electrophysiological
signal. The author proposes a series of future studies designed to determine
whether human ocular extramission is the basis of evil eye beliefs.
k e y w o r d s : human energy fields, evil eye beliefs, extramission theory,
electrophysiology, western science

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introduction
Belief in the evil eye is not universal but is widespread throughout many differ-
ent cultures, languages, and continents (Maloney 1976; Dundes 1981; Elworthy
2004). According to evil eye beliefs, a person can have a malevolent influence
on another person, animal, object, or building by looking at the target. This can

Anthropology of Consciousness, Vol. 21, Issue 1, pp. 47–57, ISSN 1053-4202, & 2010 by the
American Anthropological Association. All rights reserved.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-3537.2010.01020.x

47
48 anthropology of consciousness 21.1

be done deliberately by individuals seeking to cast a spell, or unwittingly by

individuals who are jettatore by nature.1 There are innumerable amulets, ritu-
als, practices, sayings, and counter-spells for the evil eye, and there are
traditional practitioners who specialize in treating evil eye sickness. The symp-
toms of evil eye influence tend to be general malaise, headache, and digestive
problems but can also include infertility and death.
Evil eye beliefs are an elaboration of ‘‘the sense of being stared at’’ (Sheldrake
2003, 2005a, b). Consciousness of another person’s stare is common, but cannot
have any basis in physiological reality according to Western science; therefore it
is maintained that evil eye beliefs cannot be based on anything other than su-
perstition. All writers on the subject reviewed by the author (Toulmin 1953;
Schrodinger 1967) agree that there is no basis in objective reality for the evil eye.
For example, Schoeck stated that:

An enlightened executive in our society may suspect the encroachment of a

subordinate who conceivably covets his job. Thereupon the executive devel-
ops stomach ulcers. In primitive culture our executive would believe that the
envious subordinate shot him the evil eye.

There is, of course, no real link, no physical process between victim and jet-
tatore. The whole drama takes place within the victim. [Schoeck
1981[1955]:199]

In the words of Winer and Cottrell:

Could an erroneous, ancient theory of visual perception still be a commonly

held belief of children and adults at the end of the 20th century? A number
of ancient philosophers, including Plato, Euclid, and Ptolemy, believed in
what has been termed the extramission theory of visual perception. This ex-
tramission theory stressed that there were emanations from the eyes during
the act of seeing. That is, essences or the like were thought to leave the eye
during the act of visual perception. With advances in the sciences of optics
and physiology, the extramission theory was replaced by what is called the
intromission theory. This theory holds that there is only input to the visual
system and that this information alone allows people to see. The extramis-
sion theory was ultimately put to rest in scientific and philosophical circles
in the early 17th century, although informed opinion had generally dis-
missed extramission notions as early as the 13th century. [Winer and
Cottrell 1996:137]

In a series of articles, Winer and colleagues (Winer and Cottrell 1996; Winer
et al. 2002, 2003) differentiated two theories of vision: intromission, which is
endorsed by Western science, and extramission, which is rejected by Western
science. Winer and colleagues were dismayed that a substantial number of
the electrophysiological basis of evil eye belief 49

college students believe in the extramission theory, and they call for better sci-
ence education in an effort to correct this erroneous belief.
According to Western science, evil eye beliefs are superstitions. Anthropo-
logical study of evil eye belief, then, must focus on its cultural and social
functions, origins, patterns of dispersal, and relationship with other beliefs and
mythologies. The evil eye beliefs of ‘‘primitive’’ societies are considered super-
stitions by Western science because they are based on the extramission theory of
vision:
An incautious person admired a string of twelve horses he saw one day; at
once the bells on the two foremost horses shivered into a thousand pieces,
but the horses themselves remained unhurt, the bells having attracted all the
evil to themselves. The amulets, in short, are a species of lightning conduc-
tor, just as the power of overlooking is thought popularly to be a kind of
electricity which resides in the eye. [Hardie 1981[1923]:112]
Evil eye beliefs must be validated if there is to be electrophysiological support
for the extramission theory of vision. This does not mean that all components of
evil eye beliefs, or all components of any extramission theory, would be scien-
tifically validated, only that there would be a core physiological reality to
support the extramission theory. One can regard rain dances as superstitions
while accepting the reality of rain; and one can regard beliefs about evil spirits
entering the soul through the eyes as superstitions while accepting the reality of
intromission. Similarly, one can regard many evil eye beliefs as superstitious
while recognizing that they give expression to an objective and accurate con-
sciousness of extramission.
Rather than being purely superstitious, evil eye beliefs are a cultural elabora-
tion of the sense of being stared at, which is based on subjective detection of
extramission. This is a hypothesis in the anthropology of consciousness for two
reasons: (1) it provides a fundamentally new approach to the study of evil eye
beliefs, and (2) it provides a method for studying anthropologically determined
limitations in the consciousness and world view of Western scientists.

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experimental data supporting the extramission theory

of vision
The author hypothesized that there is validity to the extramission theory of
vision; that extramission and intromission are not necessarily mutually exclu-
sive models. Beliefs in the evil eye are derived from an objective physiology that
is consistent with extramission theory according to the theory of human energy
fields (Ross 2009). The author also hypothesized that human extramission is
50 anthropology of consciousness 21.1

composed of electromagnetic radiation in the same frequency range as the

general field that emerges through the skull: 1–40 Hertz and 1–100 microvolts.
Recent developments in sensor and amplifier technology have made it possible
to detect the electrocardiogram remotely at a distance of one meter, and
the electroencephalogram at a shorter distance (Prance et al. 2000, 2008;
Harland et al. 2002a, b). Because the electromagnetic field of the brain emerges
through the skull and is detectable remotely, the theory of human energy fields
predicts that human ocular extramission can likewise be detected remotely.
Because ocular extramission does not have to pass through the skull, it is
predicted to have greater amplitude than the general field emerging through
the skull. The amplitude might also be increased by the geometry of the skull,
the presence of the optic nerve terminal at the retina, and conscious focusing
and attention.

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materials and methods

The EEG neurofeedback equipment used in this study was an Atlantis II
biofeedback unit and its accompanying software from http://www.brain
master.com. Except for the high-impedance electrode, all other electrodes used
were conventional silver chloride electrodes purchased from the same supplier.
The high-impedance electrode consisted of a planar array fabricated using
custom silicon-based printed circuit techniques. The multielectrode array had
a single 235-micrometer shank, 15 micrometers thick, with 64 sites arranged on
the shank. The multielectrode array was then bonded to a printed circuit board
with a Samtec connecter. The 64 sites on the Samtec connector were then
shorted with solder and attached to custom EEG cables, effectively making the
multielectrode array one single electrode of 64 distinct contacts with a collec-
tive site size of (64177 mm2) 5 11,328 mm2. Impedance of the electrode in
physiological saline was 30 kiloohms. Impedance of the electrode in air was not
taken, but is assumed to be in the giga-ohm range.
The high-impedance electrode was placed on the inside of the right lens of a
pair of goggles. The electrode was mounted such that it was about two centi-
meters in front of the right iris of the test subject, a 58-year-old Caucasian male.
In order to obtain sufficient electromagnetic insulation to be able to detect a
signal, the right front lens of the goggles was covered with multiple layers of
aluminum foil and copper wire mesh. A ground electrode was placed on the left
mastoid. For Channel 1, a reference electrode clip was placed on the right ear
lobe and the active electrode was inside the goggles. For Channel 2, a reference
electrode clip was attached to the left earlobe and the active electrode was
placed above the right eyebrow at Fp2. Exterior and interior views of the goggles
the electrophysiological basis of evil eye belief 51

fi g u r e 1 . h u m a n o c u l a r e x t r a m i s s i o n d e t e c t i o n g o g g l e s ,
exterior view

are shown in Figures 1 and 2. Nine 3-second readings were taken from both
channels with eyes closed, and nine 3-second readings from both channels with
eyes open. During all readings the participant’s facial musculature was still.
The mean (SD) amplitude in microvolts in each frequency range over the
nine runs was calculated for both the eyes-open and eyes-closed conditions.
Mean amplitudes for each location, frequency range, and condition were then
compared with each other using t tests. Significance was set at po.05.

fi g u r e 2 . h u m a n o c u l a r e x t r a m i s s i o n d e t e c t i o n g o g g l e s ,
interior view
52 anthropology of consciousness 21.1

table 1. mean (sd) amplitude readings (mv) of ocular

extramission and on the scalp (fp2) with eyes open and closed

Ocular Extramission

Deltaa

Deltaa Thetaa Alpha Beta Gammaa

(1–4 Hz) (4–8 Hz) (8–12 Hz) (13–21 Hz) (28–42 Hz)

Eyes open 8.46 (4.89)b 5.35 (2.09) 5.48 (3.16) 7.94 (3.46)b 2.36 (1.23)b
Eyes closed 3.73 (1.65) 2.60 (1.69) 3.32 (1.78)b 7.35 (3.67)b 1.23 (0.41)
Fp2
Delta Theta Alphaa Beta Gammaa
Eyes open 4.23 (1.02) 3.93 (1.31) 4.01 (1.49) 4.00 (1.59) 1.21 (0.36)
Eyes closed 3.82 (0.64) 3.70 (1.56) 6.63 (2.03) 4.13 (1.12) 1.66 (0.53)

a
Eyes open and eyes closed conditions differ at this electrode location at po.05.
b
Ocular extramission and Fp2 differ at po.05.

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results
The results of the recordings are shown in Table 1. Statistical data for the sig-
nificant differences in the ocular extramission signals, comparing the eyes open
and eyes closed conditions were: delta, t(16) 5 2.75, po.02; theta, t(16) 5 3.07,
po.008; and gamma, t(16) 5 2.61, po.02. At Fp2, statistical data for the sig-
nificant differences comparing the eyes open and eyes closed conditions were:
alpha, t(16) 5 3.12, po.007; and gamma, t(16) 5 2.11, po.05.
Comparing the ocular extramission with the signal at Fp2, in the eyes open
condition, significant differences were: delta, t(16) 5 2.54, po.03; beta,
t(16) 5 3.10, po.007; and gamma, t(16) 5 2.69, po.02. Comparing the ocular
extramission to Fp2 in the eyes closed condition, significant differences were:
alpha, t(16) 5 3.68, po.002; and beta, t(16) 5 2.52, po.03.

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implications of the electrophysiological basis

of evil eye belief
Human ocular extramission can be detected at short range in an electromag-
netically insulated environment using a high-impedance electrode. The results
of the recordings demonstrate that an electromagnetic signal emerges from the
eyes, and that in some frequency ranges it has greater amplitude than the field
the electrophysiological basis of evil eye belief 53

emerging through the skull, which is consistent with the author’s hypothesis.
Human ocular extramission has distinct electrophysiological properties com-
pared with the signal read by an electrode at Fp2. It demonstrates reversed
blocking in delta, for instance, while conventional alpha blocking and no
delta blocking are observed at Fp2. Alpha blocking is well recognized in the
neurofeedback literature (Demos 2005) and can be detected remotely using
high-impedance electrodes that make no physical contact with the person
(Harland et al. 2002a).
The fact that human ocular extramission is composed of electromagnetic
radiation in the frequency range sampled by neurofeedback equipment does
not mean that higher frequency components do not exist, and does not imply
that additional, as-yet-unmeasured signals are not emitted in tandem with the
components in the 1–40 Hertz range. Sheldrake and Bohm (1982) discussed
Sheldrake’s theory of morphogenic fields: Sheldrake proposed that these as-yet-
unmeasured fields underlie and provide the mechanism for the sense of being
stared at and other phenomena regarded as paranormal, such as mental telep-
athy and clairvoyance. The measurable component of ocular extramission in
the 0–40 Hertz range could be considered to be a special limited instance of the
larger theoretical category of morphogenic fields. Extralow frequency electro-
magnetic radiation emitted through the eyes cannot account for the possibility
that the sense of being stared at can be transmitted through video cameras and
electronic circuits, as described by Sheldrake (2003, 2005a, b), however. This
phenomenon would require a property of morphogenic fields not possessed
by conventional electromagnetic radiation. The advantage of studying the
component of human ocular extramission that can be measured with existing
technology is that it transforms the sense of being stared at into a testable
scientific theory.
In terms of the anthropological study of evil eye beliefs, then, there is now a
testable scientific hypothesis about the electrophysiological basis of evil eye
beliefs, because there is a detectable electromagnetic signal emerging from the
eyes. Further electrophysiological study should focus on the amplitude, polar-
ization, coherence, frequency, and other properties of the signal, and
particularly its range of propagation. For human extramission to be detectable
by a human target, the signal must travel at least tens if not hundreds of meters
in the natural environment.
One might think that ocular extramission could not be the mechanism un-
derlying the sense of being stared at due to the inverse square law, according to
which the power density of any electromagnetic signal decreases with the
square of the distance. However, this does not apply to extralow frequency
radiation in the range sampled by neurofeedback equipment. Barr et al. (2000)
state that, ‘‘In the lower ELF field, the attenuation suffered by globally propa-
gating electromagnetic waves is extraordinarily small. It amounts to only 0.3 dB/
54 anthropology of consciousness 21.1

1,000 km at 10 Hz, increasing with frequency to 1 dB/1,000 km at 60 Hz.’’ Deci-

bels (dB) is the unit for attenuation. In terms of electromagnetic signaling
between biological organisms, for all practical purposes, the attenuation of
ocular extramission at ecologically relevant distances is negligible. This means
that extramission is a realistic candidate for the underlying mechanism of the
sense of being stared at. Additionally, common sense would lead one to con-
clude that if an astronaut on the moon can maintain voice communication with
the earth, then digitized electromagnetic signals containing information could
be transmitted and received in the biosphere over distances of hundreds of
meters.
One might also consider the possibility that the signal being detected is not
really coming from the brain, but either from the retina or the eyeball. Con-
ventionally, electroretinography involves stimulating the retina with light in
order to trigger release of photons by the retinal tissues (Fulton et al. 2003). As
the ocular extramission in the present study is detected in complete darkness
inside goggles, the mechanism of conventional electroretinography cannot be
contributing to the signal. The size of the microelectrode relative to the retina is
not a relevant technical consideration for this reason. Even if there is a small
contribution from the retina, however, that would not alter any ecological
function of extramission.
Future research on human ocular extramission should include large samples
of subjects. Additionally it would be of interest to study the electrophysiological
properties of ocular extramission in individuals with a variety of different med-
ical diseases and psychiatric disorders, including multiple sclerosis, macular
degeneration, congenital blindness, enucleation of an eyeball, traumatic injury
to the visual cortex, and conversion disorder blindness. Subjects could be stud-
ied while in different psychophysiological states including being drowsy, in a
coma, asleep, or highly anxious.
Future research could address whether members of some cultures have lower
average thresholds for the sense of being stared at than members of other cul-
tures, which could in part be a function of local variations in the earth’s
geomagnetic field, or, in the modern world, the amount of ambient electro-
magnetic pollution in the area. The decay of evil eye beliefs when people
emigrate to an urban Western culture might in part be due to the signal for
extramission sinking below threshold in the electromagnetically polluted envi-
ronment of a big city. This possibility does not exclude the causal influence of
cultural forces in decay of evil eye beliefs.
There may be a zone of subliminal subthreshold extramission detection that
can be documented with galvanic skin response, heart rate variability, and other
physiological measures. The theory of human energy fields (Ross 2009) pro-
poses that the ability to detect extramission was selected for over a millennia in
predator–prey interactions. A gazelle that could register the stare of a lion, even
the electrophysiological basis of evil eye belief 55

if this occurred only subliminally as a sense of unease, could take evasive action
and the associated genes would be selected for. In human beings, subliminal
detection of extramission might likewise generate a sense of danger, malaise, or
unease that could then be culturally transformed or psychologically amplified
into the typical symptoms of evil eye sickness.
Human ocular extramission may be one example of a general electromag-
netic field emitted from the heart, abdominal plexes, other body locations,
and the body as a whole. According to the theory of human energy fields,
reductionist biological models of the brain–mind field should be replaced
with a telecommunications model, because a telecommunications model
generates a wide range of testable hypotheses that are not possible within a
bioreductionist model. For instance, it is possible that a medicine man may
emit a focused electromagnetic signal during a fertility ritual that actually
increases the germination rate of seeds in a field. This is a testable scientific
hypothesis because an electromagnetic gun that mimics the emission of the
medicine man could be used to affect germination rates in a hydroponic
garden.

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conclusion
A wide range of beliefs in spirits could provide us subjective, culturally trans-
formed testimony concerning the interaction of human beings with
electromagnetic fields in the environment. The entire biosphere is built on the
interaction of organisms with extremely weak natural electromagnetic sig-
nalsFfor example, the synthesis of chlorophyll by plants requires that the plant
capture photons and harness their energy to drive biological processes. Simi-
larly, human beings capture photons in order to synthesize vitamin D. Photons
in the visible range are only a tiny subset of the sea of electromagnetic infor-
mation in which all life forms have evolved for a billion years. We should listen
for the testable theories of electromagnetic field interactions hidden in a wide
range of rituals, beliefs, experiences, and practices. The theory of human energy
fields leads to a wide range of studies that marry anthropology and electrophys-
iology. The electrophysiological basis of evil eye belief is but one example of the
general theory.

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note

1. Jettatore is the Italian word for individuals who have the power to cast the evil eye.
56 anthropology of consciousness 21.1

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