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DOI 10.1007/s00170-013-5248-7
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Received: 11 March 2013 / Accepted: 5 August 2013 / Published online: 29 August 2013
# Springer-Verlag London 2013
Abstract Micromachining operations are mainly restricted to less material is needed and thus resources are saved. This
precision machining of two-dimensional microparts, usually tendency has also set foot in manufacturing industry, while it
performed on microelectrical discharge machining or constitutes a driving factor in recently evolving production
microlaser computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools. processes. Necessity for microparts production originates
However, micromilling can fully exploit computer-aided from specifications set by high quality manufacturing do-
design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software abili- mains, like electronics, aerospace and defense, medical, auto-
ties, in order to achieve more complex three-dimensional motive industries, etc. Micromachining is characterized by
micropart geometries. After fully defining the micromilling microsized part production, ranging from tens of micrometers
process parameters and related constraints, optimization meth- to few millimeters, submicrometer tolerances, and superior
odologies, such as genetic algorithms, can be coupled with surface quality. More or less, micromachining is a modern
CAM software, thus obtaining optimal process parameters and partially unexplored field. There are numerous directions
with very small calculation cost. In this study, CNC that have not yet been fully investigated, thus making
micromilling process is systematically presented, along with micromachining (and especially micromilling), an open do-
respective micromilling tools and the necessary industrial main for research and development in manufacturing
equipment for the processes. Genetic algorithm code was processes.
developed in Visual Basic, which optimizes the process and The current study examines parameter optimization of
ultimately yields optimal parameter values, including all pro- computer numerical control (CNC) micromilling processes
cess particulars. Two test cases were presented, and results using an efficient and a low-cost methodology that has been
were discussed in terms of micropart quality, production time, extensively applied in CNC machining, that is, genetic algo-
and calculation cost. rithms (GAs). In [1], Sreeram et al. aimed at optimizing three
basic cutting parameters (feed rate, depth of cut, and spindle
Keywords CNC . CAM . Micromilling . Genetic algorithm . speed) for micromilling with the objective of minimum pro-
Optimization . Surface roughness duction cost for a single part. The authors mainly focused on
the productive character of the process; however, part surface
quality was not undertaken in the study. Results prove that
1 Introduction optimal depth of cut values are higher than the ones proposed
by tool manufacturers. Liu et al. [2] examined a multiobjective
Constant demand to reduce energy consumption and material optimization for micromilling operations with adaptive data
usage leads to a general tendency of producing smaller parts modeling based on process simulation. This model managed
and machine components. Miniaturization offers the advan- depth of cut, spindle speed, and feed rate, while the objective
tages of high portability and production cost reduction, since was to obtain a Pareto front using two conflicting criteria:
minimal surface location error and minimal total tooling cost.
A. A. Krimpenis : N. A. Fountas : I. Ntalianis : Surface location error is one of the most influential factors on
N. M. Vaxevanidis (*) surface quality of a machined part. Natarajan et al. [3] created
Department of Mechanical Engineering Educators, School of
statistical models for material removal rate (MRR) and mean
Pedagogical and Technological Education (ASPETE), N. Heraklion,
141-21 Athens, Greece surface roughness (R a) using central composite design with
e-mail: vaxev@aspete.gr three-level factors. The researchers utilized response surface
158 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 70:157171
methodology (RSM) to optimize the machining parameters. tool wear, spindle speeds, and cutting fluids. This leads to a
The targets were maximum MRR and minimum surface better understanding of the process and offers a background in
roughness (R a). The investigated parameters were also spindle machine tool modelling process for micromilling.
speed, feed rate, and depth of cut. Although width of cut plays CNC micromilling appears to be one of the most flexible
an important role on cutting forces magnitude and conse- micromachining operations. It offers the advantage of produc-
quently on surface quality, it was omitted in [3]. It was ing complex three-dimensional (3D) forms, while almost all
concluded that for moderate spindle speeds and depths of other micromachining operations do not seem to share this
cut (>20 m), MRR increases. Moreover, R a is reduced as ability, or, if they do, it is technologically too demanding and
feed rates take smaller values without the effect of cutting costly. Even though micromachining processes are widely
velocitys magnitude. Bissacco [4] approached the surface used, they are limited as far as cutting material and part
generation in micromilling through experimental investiga- geometry are concerned. They are usually confined to just
tion and modeling of surface topography and cutting forces. two-dimensional patterns. In addition, costs associated with
This studys results led to the conclusion that micromilling can most micromachining equipment are very high. On the other
be effectively used as a tooling technology in the microinjec- hand, micromills can cut almost any material, varying from
tion molding process chain. soft plastic to very hard metal alloys, even ceramic materials.
Latest interest focuses on proper structural design of They can precisely cut more complex 3D parts, since flexibil-
micromilling CNC machines, since their structural character- ity of computer-aided design (CAD)/computer-aided
istics strongly influence micropart quality. Jang et al. [5] manufacturing (CAM) technology can be fully exploited.
presented a structural design optimization of a micromilling
machine for minimum weight and maximum compliance. In 2.1 Microtooling and microtool wear
order to achieve this, researchers implemented a GA, driven
by a dynamic penalty function. Towards the same direction, Micromachining is more than a miniaturization of the con-
Huo et al. [6, 7] developed an integrated dynamic modeling ventional mill cutting technology, so are microtools. In gen-
and design approach for the analysis and optimization of a eral, two cutting edges can be found in micromilling cutters.
five-axis ultraprecision micromilling machine tool. Microtools solid body is similar to macromilling tools in
Optimization of micromilling tool geometry has also drawn terms of geometry and dimensions. The difference is that
the attention of many researchers. Fleischer et al. [8] designed, cutting edges of microcutters are found at the extension of a
tested, and manufactured a single edged cutter to reduce conical feature that starts from the end of the tool body
inherent process drawbacks, such as high tool wear and per- (Fig. 1). Geometrical accuracy of microtools, which fluctuates
formance durability of conventional micromilling tools. Ver- between 5 and 10 m is a critical technological constraint.
ification of their model included finite element simulation Further on, thermal processes should be conducted on
with the goal of maximum stability. Further on, milling tests microtools during their manufacturing, thus enhancing
were performed that reveal the models advantages, in terms microtool cutting performance [10]. In addition, several grain
of functionality and efficiency. Like conventional (or mac- sizes can be used for microtools amelioration; these act upon
ro) machining operations, micromachining may be opti- the stability of the process, in contrast to macromilling tools
mized through various modules based on artificial intelli- [11].
gence. In [9], Chiou et al. presented a computer program of Owing to small tool tip size, wear detection on tool cutting
a genetic algorithm, which utilized Pareto fronts for solution edges and tool breakage are very difficult to detect and hence
classification, in terms of MRR and tool life. to predict, since sensor technology in microscale is limited.
Prior to any effort to optimize CNC micromilling opera- Small damage on the cutting edge of a standard tool
tions, one should thoroughly understand the basic principles (macrotool) possibly produces inferior surface quality. How-
and fundamentals of this specific technology, the applied ever, in a microtool such damage leads to cutting edge de-
tools characteristics, and other special requirements. In the struction, thus gravely increasing cutting force magnitude on
next sections, micromilling concepts are briefly presented, the other cutting edge (in general, microtools are two fluted).
before the developed optimization methodology is discussed. This phenomenon ends up with total microtool breakage.
Right before total damage of the cutting edge, microtool
changes form into a more rounded shape. Increased cutting
2 Micromilling technology forces cause undesirable tool deflection, which in turn may
seriously change a micropart geometry.
Before presenting the optimization methodology further, it is Two major phenomena take place regarding tool wear. The
important to point out the specifics of micromilling that render first is chip clogging, and the second is tool run-out. Chip
these manufacturing operations slightly different than typical cloggings worst characteristic is the fact that is very difficult
CNC milling operations, as well as commenting on tools and to predict; the tool breaks just few seconds after chip clogging
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 70:157171 159
appears [3, 4]. Run-out also affects microtool life. Tool run- petroleum-based ones. However, two main reasons have led
out is caused by the inclination of tool axis, tool holder, and the micromilling industry to start using a new method called
spindle shaft. In standard CNC milling, run-out is not notice- micromist [13]. The first one concerns cost; researches
able, while in micromachining, it can dramatically affect final came to the conclusion that lubrication comprises the 17 %
micropart dimensions and tool life. Special tool holding and of the total micromilling operation cost. Thus, minimum
spindle speed systems are used in order to deal with this amount of lubricant must be utilized in the most effective
drawback. way. The second reason is related to hygiene and work safety.
Workers receive all toxic consequences of lubricants and as a
2.2 Spindles of CNC micromilling machine tools result, lubricant quantity reduction through micromist tech-
nology significantly contributes to human protection and en-
As stated in [11], micromilling operations require high spindle vironmental preservation.
speeds, thermal stability, and accuracy. Although pneumatic
and air turbine systems are very fast, they cannot provide 2.4 CNC micromachine tool 3D modeling
sufficiently high torque. Consequently, they are not appropri-
ate for cutting hard materials, such as hardened steel and Taking under consideration all related technical requirements,
titanium, which are typical materials for micromachining op- a typical CNC micromilling machine tool was modeled in a
erations. Even though air driven or turbine driven spindle modern 3D CAD system, as seen in Figs. 2 and 3. It must be
systems are not powerful enough, they offer advantages in noted that 3D modeling of this machine is not a copy of an
cutting soft materials, such as plastic, aluminum alloys, etc. existing CNC micromill model, but it is inspired by typical
When it comes to hard material cutting, the need for higher ones and the demands of micromilling processes. Although it
torque is vital and DC electric motors appear to be the appro-
priate spindle choice for micromilling machine tools. Despite
the fact that DC electric motors produce lower spindle speeds,
they offer better spindle speed accuracy and control. Besides,
thermal expansion of the spindle may be critical, so lubrica-
tion and temperature control are very important issues for
successful micromilling operations.
is a simplified assembly of an actual working CNC machine Micromilling machine tools are usually vertical C frame
tool, this model implements proper axes movement, or bridge type. C frame machine tools (see Fig. 3) are more
microtool, and spindle characteristics. Electronic systems for light weighted, offering better stiffness and accuracy. This
micromachine tools were not studied in depth, as this exceeds advantage disappears when large stepdown values are applied
the aim of this study, but their volumes were included in the in machining strategy, since in this manner stiffness is negated
model as black boxes. [14]. If high stepdown values cannot be excluded from the
3D modeling of the CNC micromachine tool helps in better machining process, bridge-type CNC micromilling machine
understanding of micromilling principles, as far as kinematics tools should be preferred.
and visualization were concerned, thus obtaining an on hand
perception of the process and the machine tool, as well as the
specifics that make micromilling processes different and 3 Finding optimal parameter values for CNC micromilling
unique compared to standard CNC milling. Table 1 presents processes
some key elements in the 3D modeling of the CNC
micromachine tool. Whenever it is possible, conventional CNC milling compo-
As stated previously, micromilling is more demanding and nents like machine tools, tool holders, parts, and milling
requires exceptionally tight fits between moving parts com- cutters can be scaled down to generate micromilling ones.
pared to normal-scale CNC milling machine tools. Small CAD/CAM systems may suitably support such operations
deficiencies in a single moving part of the machine tool lead by enhancing abilities and options like data translation (i.e.,
to noticeable dimensional or shape inaccuracies and therefore maintaining the geometry integrity when translating features
the machining operations total failure. Thus, a micromill of a part), tolerancing (i.e., tool path calculations with toler-
consists of top quality parts that are tightly and accurately fit ance demands down to 0.01 m), and special machining
together, in order to instill and assure efficiently. It goes strategies to provide cutting modes able to sustain chip load
without saying that micromilling machine tool geometry is a and allow variations to feeds and speeds. Moreover, tool
very important factor as it affects stiffness, accuracy, thermal motions in micromilling is of paramount importance since
ability, and control. rounding in microparts with a smaller value than the stepover
may lead to sharp edges while rounding with larger values
than the stepover can generate excessive scallops.
Table 1 Characteristics of CNC micromilling machine tool 3D model It is questionable, however, whether such special demands
Table size 20070 mm can be specified by experience, experiments, or trial and error
XY travel 13446 mm strategies. Enhancing performance of micromilling operations
Z-axis total travel 370 mm can be carried out by mathematical algorithms, after quantiz-
Max. rotational speeda 24,000 rpm ing the effect of various process parameters on micropart
Powera 100 W surface quality and process productivity. Artificial intelligence
Voltagea 110120 V or 220240, 60 Hz
techniques, especially GAs, have been proven to be quite
Weighta 7 kg
promising in this direction, since they are renowned to per-
form well in finding optimal solution in vast (or even un-
a
Taken from literature and are typical for this type of machine tools known) solutions spaces at small calculation cost. Besides,
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 70:157171 161
4 Genetic algorithms
NO
chromosome. Phenotype includes the actual values of the individual is certainly selected prior to others into the next
problem parameters. Chromosome is an encoded form of the generation.
phenotype. All operators modify the encoded population in 3. Tournament selection scheme: the individual with the
chromosome form, but final population and optimal results are highest fitness value between m randomly pre selected
presented in their phenotypic form, so they can clearly be individuals is selected. Note that m is the number of
understood. Chromosomes can be found in one of the follow- competing individuals.
ing three different encodings: 4. Ranking selection scheme: this scheme is based on the
ranking of individual fitness values. Additionally, individ-
1. Real encoding: parameter values are expressed as real
uals are selected by the number of their reproduction into
numbers between 0 and 1.
the next generation based on a predefined ranking table.
2. Binary encoding: parameter values are expressed as
5. Expected value selection scheme: this scheme is based
strings of 0 and 1.
on the expected value of individual fitness. According to a
3. Gray binary encoding: a variation of the binary encoding [17].
probability, the expected value of an individual is calculat-
ed. Then, the probability of the selected individual is de-
4.1 Genetic algorithm structure and basic genetic operators creased by a predefined number, e.g., 0.5. Thus, this selec-
tion scheme relatively prevents individuals from being
A basic GA comprises of a selection (reproduction) mecha- selected more than twice in the population (occupation).
nism, a crossover (recombination) mechanism, and a mutation
mechanism (operator). Each of these basic operators works on
strings in a population only with simple bit changes. Note that 4.1.2 Crossover
in the explanation of the algorithm and its operators, binary (or
Grey binary) coding is implied for simplicity reasons. More Crossover operator generates new individuals as candidate
on real encoding can be found in [18]. Figure 4 depicts the solutions in GAs. GAs search the solution space mainly using
optimization procedure that a basic GA follows. one of the crossover operators. Absence of crossover opera-
In order to improve GA efficiency and convergence speed, tors would make GAs random search algorithms. Crossover
several advanced genetic operators and their variations have operator exchanges substrings between two individuals and
been introduced and applied by researchers so far. Mecha- replaces old individuals with others that have new genotypes.
nisms of genetic operators are based on biology, genetics and Recombination between two strings is performed according to
ecology. Moreover, advanced operators in GAs are applied to the type of crossover operator. Depending on the number of
address difficulties related to premature convergence and break points among individuals, crossover mechanism
minimal deceptive problems. The following sections describe recombines strings of their genotype. Several crossover types
some of the most known and implemented schemes that are can be implemented. Most common crossover types in GAs
integrated in GA architecture. are enumerated below: [15, 16].
1. One point crossover is one of the basic crossover opera-
4.1.1 Selection
tors. By choosing a break point as a cross site, the one point
crossover recombines substrings between two individuals.
After initialization, GA procedure continues with reproduc-
2. Multipoint crossover is a crossover operator with more
tion, recombination and mutation. Selection simulates the
than one break points on a string. Multipoint crossover
process of natural selection and GAs need a similar mecha-
recombines some substrings, which are cut by some break
nism to make a population evolve towards a better direction of
points between individuals.
optimal solutions. The main procedure of a selection module
3. Uniform crossover: in uniform crossover operator, a
is to reproduce a population by preselecting an individual with
mask pattern is randomly generated including 0 and
a selection probability proportional to its fitness value. In this
1. Recombination between two individuals is then
kind of selection, an individual with higher fitness can pro-
achieved by exchanging the characters in the genotype
duce more than one offspring. Since selection is performed
string according to the mask pattern.
stochastically, a number of identical (or the exactly same)
4. Cycle crossover operator first selects a starting point
individuals may be chosen by chance. Most common types
(not a crossing site). Then, it makes a closed round of
of selection schemes are listed below [15, 16]:
substrings between individuals.
1. Roulette wheel selection scheme : this scheme selects an 5. Partially matched crossover (PMX): the PMX cross-
individual with probability in proportion to its fitness over operator is performed by executing two procedures.
values. Like the cycle crossover operator, PMX is a special
2. Elitist selection scheme: this scheme preserves the fit- mechanism, which may be applied in order to overcome
test individual through all generation t, that is, the fittest permutation problems.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 70:157171 163
4.1.3 Mutation limits can be defined on user friendly forms (see Fig. 5).
Hence, a convenient environment is provided with the opti-
Mutation simulates replicating errors in nature. In GAs, mu- mization module. This implies that no specialization is needed
tation operator replaces a randomly selected character on the in order to use the optimization algorithm, as it is build to
string with another one, e.g., bit 0 with 1 and vice versa. guide even inexperienced users to calibrate it at will on their
Mutation is performed regardless of an individual fitness own specific micromilling optimization problems. The devel-
values. The most common mutation operation is the one oped GA supports both real and binary encoding.
point changing per individual. Several mutation types are
met in nature, such as inversion, translocation, and duplica- 5.1 Machining parameters as problem variables
tion. These are also the mutating mechanisms applied to GAs
to simulate these phenomena [15, 16]. The developed GA manages five variables, which are the
undertaken problem parameters:
1. Inversion: inversion partially changes a character se-
quence from one direction to the opposite. At first, two 1. Cutting tool: cutting tool parameter includes diameter and
points are chosen randomly and the string is cut at these operational properties of the tool such as maximum feed
points. Then the substring is linked in the reverse direction rate, cutting forces etc.
into the remaining one. 2. Stepover: this specifies the distance of parallel passes in
2. Translocation (or shift): this operator changes the XY plane (tool engagement).
character sequence by moving to a different position in 3. Stepdown: this defines the distance of parallel passes in Z
the individual. During translocation, a substring is chosen direction (axial depth of cut).
randomly as described in inversion. The substring is then 4. Feed rate: feed rate is the cutting tool movement velocity.
translocated to a randomly chosen break point (or locus). 5. Spindle speed: this is the rotational speed of the spindle.
3. Duplication : this mechanism overlaps the same
Cutting tools are chosen from a simple database which
substring on a string. The substring is randomly chosen
consists of eight different tools. These tools are solid carbide
as in inversion. The substring is then overwritten to a
end mills, TiAlN coated, and able to be operated under dry
randomly selected locus.
cutting conditions. Their characteristics are shown in Table 2.
Stepover value is expressed as percentage (%) of the tool accuracy is difficult to be encoded. Several analytical models
diameter. Stepdown value was chosen as constant at 0.1 mm. for surface quality prediction have been proposed in literature
This is because some microtools cannot reach any random [19]. In order to test the GAs attitude and performance, an
stepdown value. In addition, the CAM system had trouble exponential mathematical prediction model for R a prediction
dealing with very small stepdown values, and this led to was used. The specific model was formulated by conducting
premature convergence of the GA. Thus, the best alternative actual experiments and processing the results through regres-
was to keep stepdown values fixed and let the algorithm sion analysis and RSM.
manage the rest four variables (cutting tool, stepover, feed
rate, and spindle speed). Besides, preparatory GA runs con- 5.2.1 Machining time
cluded that stepdown value of 0.1 mm is the optimal one for
almost all best solutions for the studied test cases. A fixed Machining time (t m) describes the time at which the CNC
stepdown value was thus a safe decision that facilitates and machine tool operates, in order to remove unnecessary material
accelerates algorithm convergence. Feed rate was expressed from a part. It includes tool changes and rapid tool movements,
as percentage (%) of the maximum microtool feed rate. Max- but no other machine idle times, such as part loading, part
imum feed rate was calculated reckoning a usual CNC unloading and setup times. Its magnitude is automatically
micromilling machine and the microtool characteristics. calculated on both CNC machine control units and CAM
All process parameters were subjected to technological con- systems after tool path calculation. It is thus easy to figure out
straints that stem from micro-NC machine tools. To perform when and where productivity decelerates and how it can be
evaluations using the proposed GA for both real and binary improved. Hence, t m should be introduced as an optimization
encoding, lower and upper limits were programmed for machin- objective. Alternatively, some researchers use MRR to measure
ing parameters to specify their value range. Hence, spindle speed productivity, but this is not very helpful when the machining
settings were set from 10,000 to 24,000 rpm, feed rate from 1 to process is a part of an overall manufacturing procedure.
100 (as a percentage of the tools maximum feed for a given
work material), stepover from 1 to 100 (as a percentage of the 5.2.2 Mean surface roughness
tools cutting diameter) and stepdown (depth of cut)=0.1 mm.
Mean surface roughness (R a) best represents surface quality,
5.2 Quality objectives for optimization and it is widely adopted almost in all machining optimization
methodologies. To facilitate computations, an exponential
Two quality objectives were considered in the optimization prediction model was implemented. The basic equation that
study. The first was machining time (t m), as a means to measure calculates R a is:
process productivity, and the second mean surface roughness
(R a) of the machined part as an attribute that reflects part Ra k 1 nk 2 sk 3 ak 4 1
quality. It is well known that surface roughness is measured
by appropriate measuring devices. Hence, it cannot be chosen
as an optimization criterion when using CAM systems by where R a is the mean surface roughness (m), n is the spindle
default because they inherently lack the ability to predict phe- speed (rpm), s is the feed rate (mm/rev), a is the depth of cut
nomena probabilistic in nature, such as unpredictable factors (mm), and k 1, k 2, k 3, and k 4 are constants
that appear during machining and strongly influence quality. Equation 1 implements the exponents/constants (k 1, k 2, k 3,
Dimensional accuracy of microparts is also a parameter that and k 4) to both facilitate mathematical computations (through
cannot be calculated by CAM software, and even though R a logarithmic properties) and determine the arithmetic magni-
may be expressed through predictive models, dimensional tude of each independent variable (machining parameters) so
as to finally generate a number as close as possible to the watches, microelectronics, etc. Miniatures of jewels have also
actual one for a given quality objective. Note that Eq. 1 is drawn the interest of consumers. Hence, these microparts
typically applied to all cutting processes where the inputs cover two major manufacturing fields: functional
(operational parameters) of the process, i.e., spindle speed micromechanisms and aesthetics. The studied microgear has
(rpm), feed rate (mm/rev), and depth of cut affect the outputs a diameter of 2 mm and thickness of 2 mm. The jewelry piece
such as surface roughness and/or cutting force components. is 7 mm in diameter and 1 mm in thickness. The raw stock
Therefore, it is reasonable to use Eq. 1 as the starting point selected was supposed to be Aluminum 6061-T6 series alloy
for this analysis. Utilizing experimental results mentioned for CAM software simulations. The parts are shown in Fig. 6
above and applying standard mathematical approaches, (3D CAD models) and Fig. 7 (detailed drawings).
Eq. 1 is transformed to the R a analytical model of Eq. 2 [19]:
5.4 GA optimization of microparts
Ra 90:63224n0:31871 s0:62663 a0:1677 2
As stated previously, the main drive for this study was to create
an optimization algorithm, which can offer optimal CNC
Even though the analytical model of R a presented above is micromilling parameter values for 3D microparts, such as the
not fully dedicated to micromachining; yet, high speed ma- ones seen in Fig. 6. In order for this to work, a platform is
chining operations share many similarities in terms of cutting needed on which the optimization algorithm can interact with a
mechanics. Besides, it is the GAs functionality that is tested given CAM system. The platform has already been developed
regardless of the analytical expression reflecting the fitness. and was presented in previous work [20], but it was properly
What is investigated is the utilization of exploitable mathe- modified, so that it copes with the specific demands of
matical models in an alternative methodology, such as GAs, micromilling processes. The code of the communication plat-
which complies with modern CNC technology and high- form feeds the CAM system with all necessary information
speed cutting instead of obsolete ones. As it is in the nature related to machining strategies and parameter values and ex-
of exponential models to predict more efficient optimum tracts numerical results from it, such as machining time, pro-
solutions to a machining optimization problem (better curve cess statistics, and 3D models of part geometries. Calibration of
fitting and regression), they are extensively utilized for the platform on micromilling processes was a result of exten-
such issues either as process models or as objective functions sive experimentation with the CAM system itself. Although
for intelligent algorithms. Eq. 2 used in this paper is such a both t m and R a were considered, the developed GA performs
function. As such, it practices the exponents (k 1, k 2, k 3, and single objective optimization, as will thoroughly be explained
k 4) to both facilitate mathematical computations (through in the following sections. The proposed genetic algorithms
logarithmic properties) and determine the arithmetic magni- workflow and system structure is depicted in Fig. 8.
tude of each independent variable (machining parameters) so
as to finally generate a number as close as possible to the 5.4.1 Solver description and objective function formulation
actual one for a given quality objective.
A key point in the optimization algorithm is to properly define
5.3 Microparts for optimization the objective function, as this is the criterion that calculates the
performance of candidate solutions. The programmed com-
Two microparts were chosen as test cases for the developed munication platform operates as the intermediate between the
optimization method. These parts were selected keeping in GA and the CAM system. This is known as the solver, and it
mind modern industrial needs. For instance, microgears are is called every time the GA asks for objective function values.
used in a wide range of products, such as micromechanisms of When the solver is called by the GA, a programming function
For i = 1 to 40
Coding Phenotype.dat
Machining time
Crossover
calculation
Weighted sum is
END
returned to GA
loads the 3D part geometry and the phenotype values of the solver proceeds with calculation of R a, according to Eq. 2,
variables. This function checks if the values lie inside the presented in Section 5.2.2. In GAs, single objective philosophy
chosen variable limits and if there is a previous run of the GA dictates that these two values of t m and R a must be normalized
with the same variable values. In case that variable values lie before they are combined. A typical way to normalize these
outside these limits, the solver returns a penalized value (e.g., values is by dividing them with an accordingly high value, so
1020) for the objective function. This prevents populations of that the normalized value is bigger than 0 and smaller than 1.
following generations from taking variable values in the vicin- Thus, the objective function is a weighed sum of normalized R a
ity that offers penalized objective values. If there is a previous and t m values and takes the form of Eq. 3.
run with the same variable values, the solver outputs the results
of the specific previous run. This way, total execution time of WS w1 Ra w2 t m WS 0:7 Ra 0:3 t m 3
the algorithm is seriously reduced. If none of these assumptions
is satisfied, then the CAM system imports the part, creates the where WS is the weighed sum, the objective function of the
raw stock model, sets machining strategy and machining pa- GA, R a is the normalized mean surface roughness, t m is the
rameters from variable values, and the machining simulation normalized machining time, and w 1 andw 2 are the weighing
begins. When simulation comes to an end, the CAM system coefficients of R a and t m, respectively.
outputs the machining time. The solver handshakes with the It should be noted that the weights are based on researcher
CAM system and takes up machining time values. Then the experience and/or the overall goals of the optimization
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 70:157171 167
procedure. In the current study, the value of w 1 is significantly B. Evolution: the developed GA incorporates an evolution-
larger than that of w 2 because in microparts milling, it is ary module, which determines the total number of gener-
important to obtain optimal surface finish, especially in func- ations, and it also manages the execution sequence of all
tional parts, rather than the machining time needed without other operators. The population emerges in chromosome
neglecting production time. To emphasize this assumption, the form and is transformed to phenotype. The solver is then
value for w 1 was set to 0.7 (surface roughness) while w 2 was called and objective function values are obtained. The
set to 0.3 (machining time). phenotypic values along with objective values are written
For the normalization procedure, an analytical expression to an output file, so that can be readable in terms of
was utilized aiming at normalizing the values subjected to a process variables and machining criteria (actual machin-
range between 0 and 1. This expression is given in Eq. 4: ing time and mean surface roughness). The optimal
values are the machining parameters that simultaneously
xN max xN min
xR xmin xN min 4 produce minimum machining time and minimum surface
xmax xmin roughness of the machined part, as described in
Section 5.4.1.
C. Ranking : ranking operator ranks individuals in an as-
where X R is the real value of a parameter before normaliza-
cending order based on objective function values.
tion, X min and X max are the minimum and maximum values of
D. Fitness function : the calculation of each individuals
a parameters value range obtained from a data set of prelim-
fitness depends on its place in ranking. Highly ranked
inary experiments, xN min and xN max are the minimum and maxi-
individuals are more fit than others. During the optimi-
mum normalized values of a parameter X (0<xN min <xN max <1).
zation flow, values emerged after ranking have very small
The two criteriasurface roughness and machining
differences. To tackle this problem, an exponential func-
timeare conflicting each other, meaning that they can never
tion was used to separate best individuals from the rest.
be achieved simultaneously; very fine surface part finishes
always take very long to machine and small machining times FF i RSexp2RF i 5
always lead to evidently scalloped parts. The weighing coef-
ficient values were obtained after experimentation, and they where
are more or less qualitative, in the sense that R a is a more
RS is the sum of all ranking function individuals
important factor than t m. When a GA utilizes an equation such
RF i is the value of ranking function for i individual
as Eq. 3, it tries to locate the search space locus that satisfies
both criteria linearly combined by their respective weighing E. Selection : the implemented selection scheme was of
coefficients. roulette wheel selection type; specifically the stochas-
tic sampling with partial replacement one. According to
5.4.2 Implementing GA operators this scheme, selected individuals are pointed out by a
random number generator. This generator is biased to-
A careful review of the respective literature concerning GA wards the fittest individuals. Each time an individual is
applications for machining optimization problems may lead to chosen, its reselection probability is reduced, so that best
suitable selections for operators. The implemented operators individuals do not prevail in the selection process, thus
along with their particular characteristics are described in the avoiding strong elitism and solution capturing in local
following sections: optima in the GA.
A. Initialization: in the initialization routine, population size F. Crossover: the developed GA uses two different cross-
and variable number are decided. The latter is an imme- over functions, depending on the encoding type. If vari-
diate result of the problem modeling. Initial population able encoding is binary, then single point crossover
contains random values for the four variables within the operator is used. If encoding is carried out with real
selected value limits. The GA was encoded both by real numbers, then a uniform crossover operator is used. In
numbers and binary digits. The underlying thought was both cases, two individuals (parents) produce two new
to investigate and compare the performance of both ones (offspring). Couples of individuals are selected
encoding types, in terms of convergence speed, calcula-
tion cost and result quality. Users are prompted to choose Table 3 Real and binary encoding GA run times for the two microparts
encoding type from a form at the beginning of the GA
Encoding Jewelry part Microgear
execution (Fig. 5). Further on, chromosomes are
transformed to their phenotypes to facilitate variable as- Real 17 min, 32 s 14 min, 12 s
signment to the CAM system, which cannot read chro- Binary 21 min, 35 s 16 min, 36 s
mosome values.
168 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 70:157171
Table 5 GA optimal cutting conditions and optimal criteria values for the jewelry part
Encoding Cutting tool Stepover (%) Stepdown (mm) Feed rate (%fmax) Spindle speed (rpm) R a (m) t m (s)
applied tool-path strategy was an offset one (parallel passes in consequently, although mean surface roughness is approxi-
XY planessee Fig. 10) and was selected for the reason mately the same, machining time is almost twice as much.
explained above in the case of the microgear part. Figure 9b The GA evolution diagram presents the GA convergence and
depicts the machined part after the end of simulation on the optimal results per generation. The binary encoded GAs
CAM system, while Fig. 10 illustrates the trajectory lines of evolution diagram does not follow a constant descending
this particular tool path. direction. In about 33th generation, the GA loses its way
GA results for microgear and jewelry part are presented in and creates a small hill. This probably happened because of
Tables 4 and 5 respectively . mutation operator, which totally altered the population char-
The GA evolution diagrams (Fig.11a, b) illustrate that both acteristics, since convergence was trapped in a local mini-
GA encodingsreal and binaryconverge in the same glob- mum. Thus, in very few generations, the GA managed to
al optimum for both parts, although the two GA runs started escape the local minimum and found the path to the global
from a different point due to the random initialization of the minimum. This proves the importance of mutation operators
algorithm. in GAs.
Real and binary encoded GAs reached the same global The performance of GAs applied to general machining
minimum from different evolution paths. Stepdown, feed optimization problems, as far as quality of the results is
rate, and spindle speed are practically the same and the only concerned, is more or less expected, as this has been
difference appears in cutting tool and stepover values. Binary already proved in numerous machining optimization studies.
encoding ended in a smaller tool and stepover value, so However, since the GA used in this work optimizes a
micromachining operation, it was not a priori known wheth-
er the implementation of GAs would be just as effective.
Nevertheless, the results obtained from experimental runs
on the two microparts have indicated that optimizing
micromachining operations with GAs is just as beneficial
as in conventional macromachining.
The proposed optimization concept can greatly facilitate
the industrial machining field, since the whole module can
operate on CAM systems, found in all workshops of the
manufacturing field. Apart from the well integrated nature of
the proposed optimization approach, results for machining
time and surface quality were obtained in a quite short run
time using a typical PC, in about 20 min. A drawback of the
proposed approach is that it runs under a particular CAM
system. This occurs because each system determines and
handles its own automation objects within the Application
Program Interface. It is a future perspective of the authors to
further develop the whole notion and expand the communi-
cation platform, so that it will be capable of cooperating with
Fig. 10 Depiction of tool path for offset strategy several commercially available CAM systems.
170 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2014) 70:157171
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