ARTICLE IN PRESS

Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583

www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

An equation-based simulation environment to investigate fast

building simulation
E. Wurtz, L. Mora, C. Inard
LEPTAB, University of La Rochelle, Av. M. CREPEAU F-17042 La Rochelle Cedex, France
Received 29 July 2004; received in revised form 13 January 2005; accepted 9 June 2005

Abstract

The design of innovative heating, ventilating and air-conditioning systems for energy saver buildings relies on fast and robust
computer softwares able to predict the details in space and time of the indoor environment. In this paper we show the interest of
having in one hand, an open and exible environment to develop and test new models, and on the other hand, a fast simulation tool
that integrates satisfactory models to quickly assess the indoor environment quality.
Both tools implements a simulation method called the zonal method that is intermediate between single-node models and
computational uid dynamics models. These tools are then applied to analyze the details of the indoor environment in a cavity under
mixed convection conditions, to evaluate the thermal coupling between an electric heater and the ambiance and nally to realize a
whole year thermal comfort analysis within a dwelling cell.
r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Simulation; Energy; CFD; Zonal; SPARK

0. Introduction have been developed to solve this class of problems. The

The design of innovative buildings becomes a great
environmental challenge. This can be achieved by
reducing their energy demand and promoting renewable
energy. Some people even think that building can
produce energy. Answering such questions relies on
studying in details (in space and time) each building
component and over long periods of time. Since
experimental studies on real buildings are not feasible
in practice, there is a need for robust and fast building
energy simulation methods and tools.
In this paper, we use the zonal method which is
intermediate between one-node models and
CFD methods to characterize the details of airow and
air temperature elds as well as thermal comfort
conditions in building rooms [1]. Two different tools
Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 546 458 785;
fax: +33 546 458 241.
E-mail address: etienne.wurtz@univ-lr.fr (E. Wurtz).
rst approach consists in using the equation-based
simulation environment SPARK [2] which permits to solve
complex systems of ordinary differential and algebraic
equations while the second one, called SIM_ZONAL [3], is
a software developed in a conventional programming
language for the French company of electricity (EDF).
We will see in details the interests in having in hand this
two radically different simulation environments to
develop robust and fast building energy simulation.
Mainly, SPARK is suitable tool for testing and imple-
menting new models within an object-oriented frame-
work, without putting much efforts in developing
numerical solution methods, since a general and robust
solver is embedded in the tool. So we only focus on
models developments through the equations to dene
them. On the other hand, since the model is stable and
satisfactory, we can make strong assumptions on the
way to solve it. In this case, we make use of a
conventional programming language to build a fast
and stand-alone simulation tool (SIM_ZONAL).

0360-1323/$ - see front matter r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.06.027
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1572 E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583
Nomenclature
Variables
Cd discharge coefcient, m s1 Pan
Cp heat capacity of air, J kg1  C1
hi height of airow element i, (m)
l distance between node i and j, (m)
m_ j!i airow rate from cell i to j, kg s1
n airow model exponent, (dimensionless)
Pi pressure in cell i, (Pa)
S surface area, m2
In Section 1, the intermediate zonal approach and the
different elementary models implemented to improve
convergence and reduce simulation time for satisfactory
results in terms of temperature elds and airow
structure predictions are briey presented. Then both
simulation environments used to solve zonal models are
described. It shows how the equation-based environ-
ment SPARK enhances elementary models testing and
validation. Then the simplied tool SIM_ZONAL is
introduced for long time analysis. The last part concerns
applications in which zonal model results are compared
with highly detailed numerical and experimental results
in typical indoor mixed convection conditions. The
second application illustrates the ability of the zonal
method to describe the interaction between the indoor
environment and an electric heater. Finally, a whole-
year simulation is performed with a real climate to assess
indoor thermal comfort.
1. Approach
1.1. The zonal method
Zonal models are based on an approach that is
intermediate between single-air-node models, which give
no information about air ow patterns, and CFD models,
which give detailed temperature and ow distributions
but are extremely computationally intensive. Such
intermediate models execute much faster than CFD cal-
culations, give more accurate heat transfers than the
single-node approach and provide temperatures and
ow distributions that are detailed enough to predict
thermal comfort. In zonal models, the inside of a room
is divided into a small number of zones or cells, which
are usually rectangular parallelepiped (see Fig. 1). Mass
balance and heat balance equations are applied to each
cell and exchanges are calculated between them. The
solution of the resulting set of coupled equations gives
an estimate of airow and temperature distribution in
the room.
t time, (s)
Ti air temperature in cell i, (1C)
Vi volume of cell i, m3
Greek symbols
DP pressure difference, (Pa)
l conductivity of air, W m1  C1
ri density of air in cell i, kg m3
rj;i air density depending on Signm _ j!i , kg m3
Fj!i heat ux from cell j to i, (W)
FSource heat source in cell i, (W)
The simplest zonal models are based on xed airow
directions and application of specic ow laws for
plumes, jets and boundary layers [46]. Other models
made the inter-cell airow rates a function of the
pressure distribution [7]. But it has been shown that this
approach cannot correctly represent driving ows [8].
For this reason, a new approach was proposed that
applied specic laws for driving ows and used a power-
law pressure distribution where velocity is low [9,10].
Then, this approach has been used in other applications
such as pollutant transport in buildings [11,12]. But rst,
let us shortly recall conventional zonal model equations.
1.2. Zonal models equations
Zonal models formulation consists in applying con-
servation equations for each cell:

Assuming that air is incompressible, the sum of the
mass ows across the faces of a cell must be zero.
This yields to the following mass balance equation for
the standard cell i:
X
6
_ j!i 0,
m (1)
j1
where m _ j!i is the airow rate coming from cell j to
cell i.

Similarly, the net heat ow transferred into the cell
across its faces must equal the heat stored in the
volume of air in the cell. This yields to the following
heat balance equation for a standard cell:
X
6
qT i
Fj!i FSource ri V i C p , (2)
j1
qt
where Fj!i is the heat ux entering cell i coming from
cell j, FSource is the internal heat source, ri the air
density, V i the cell volume, C p the air heat capacity,
and T i the air temperature.

We assume that the relationship between air pressure,
density and temperature in a standard cell is given by
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E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583 1573

standard cells to dene specialized cells. For example, a

plume cell contains two subcells, one containing air
belonging to the plume itself and one containing
air from the surroundings. In this case, when air
velocities become small enough at the jet origin, the jet
parts of cells disappear and the ow is modeled only
with standard cells. The same partitioning approach is
applied for jet cells and boundary layer cells (see Fig. 2).
Note in this gure that, the heater and its associated
plume are contained in rectangular parallelepiped of the
same size and shape stacked on top of each other.
To describe a whole building with this approach, we
still need to couple airow equations with wall models of
intermediate level that treat air entrance through open-
ings as well as heat transfer:

Wall conduction is represented by wall interfaces that

contain a conduction model and a convection model
Fig. 1. Partitioning of a building into cells.

the perfect gas law:

Pi ri rT i , (3) Ceiling Basic cell

where Pi is air pressure and r is the universal perfect

gas constant.

For vertical faces the mass ow rate is assumed to be
a function of the pressure difference across the face. Plume cells
Therefore, the mass ow rate across each interface is Heater cell
given by
_ j!i rj;i SC d Pj  Pi n ,
m (4)
Basic cell
_ j!i ,
where rj;i is air density depending on the sign of m
C d and n some empirical coefcients governing the
ow, S the airow element surface area, and Pi and
Pj air pressure in cells i and j, respectively.

For horizontal faces the hydrostatic variation of
pressure is taken into account. Therefore, the mass
ow rate across an horizontal face is given by Air inlet

_ j!i rj;i SC d Pj  Pi  12rj hj ri hi n ,

m (5)
Wall
where hi and hj are faces height from cell i center.

The overall heat exchange across a face is the sum of
advective and conductive uxes as following:
lS Circular jet cells
_
Fj!i C p m _
j!i T j m j!i T i  T j  T i (6)
l

with l conductivity of air and l the distance between

temperature nodes i and j.
Boundary
Once the pressure-based zonal model is built we still Wall
layer cells
need to add specic models to describe driven ows (i.e.
where air velocities are high). We do not allow the
partitioning of rooms to change during a simulation.
Therefore, we must be able to handle dynamic problems
in which airows, such as plumes or jets are likely to
appear and disappear as time progresses. We handle this
by including intermittent driven ow models within Fig. 2. Jets, plumes and boundary layers are included in several cells.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1574 E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583

(based on empirical convective heat transfer coef- CFD predictions given by Airpack (Fluent tool). The
cients depending on the surface-to-air temperature considered room dimensions are 4  7:5  2:5 m3
difference). length  width  height, and it has two windows

Waltons method [13] is used to compute long and 1:95  1:3 m2 centered on East and West walls (see
short-wave radiant exchanges among the inside room Fig. 4). Inlets and outlets dimensions are 0:2  0:1 m2 .
surfaces. In this method each room surface is assumed East and West walls and roof are in contact with
to radiate to a ctitious surface whose area, emissivity outdoor and South and North walls are adjacent to
and temperature give about the same heat transfer from heated rooms.
the room surface as in the actual multi-surface case. Fig. 5 presents mass airow rates predictions made
The advantage of the method is that it considerably with the linearized version of zonal models compared
reduces the number of interchange equations. with Airpack results within the rst vertical plane
dened in Fig. 4 (i.e. at x 13L). The x-axis in Fig. 5
represents j and k interface coordinates in South/North
1.3. Investigation on models
and bottom/top directions, respectively.
At the different points of the vertical section x L=3,
We have seen that zonal models formulation relies on
the zonal model predicts mass ow rates that are well
two element types: standard cells that implement heat
oriented (i.e. the airow structure is well captured) but
and mass transfers where air velocities are low, and
greatly underestimated in intensity when compared
some specialized cells describing regions of the room
with CFD results. One can argue that the airow
where the airow is dominated by driving forces (jet,
formulation in zonal models may be responsible for
plume, etc.). If the later implement widely used empirical
these discrepancies.
relations based on ne characterization of specic ow,
Actually, since pressure differences between two
the standard model assumes that where air velocities are
adjacent cells can be very small (less than 0.1 Pa) the
low, air exchanges are governed by a Bernoulli-like
linear coefcient of the simplied model may be higher
equation (see Eq. (4)). In this equation, C d is a discharge
coefcient and is usually xed to 0.83 while n represents
the type of airows (1 in laminar cases and 0.5 when
turbulent). This formulation has been used extensively
in order to support airow solution in zonal modeling
[14,8], but may not be suitable for simplied heat and
mass transfer modeling. In fact this kind of relations
introduces some instabilities around zero for DP
_
qm=qDPj 0 ! 1. Therefore we investigated the oppor-
tunity to approximate this power-low airow relation-
ship with a linear expression (see Fig. 3)
_ C %d SDP
m (7)
with in this case C %d 1:2 for DP 2 0:5; 0:5.
To evaluate the approximation degree caused by this
simplication, we compare our zonal results with
Fig. 4. Geometry and meshing.
3

PLANE X=1 (eo)

0.83xDP^1/2 2 0.15
Approximation Sim_Zonal
Airpack
Mass flow rates (kg/s)

1 0.2xDP+0.75 0.10
1.2xDP
DP 0.05
0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
0
-1
-0.05

-2
-0.10
0.2xDP-0.75 00 10 20 01 11 21 02 12 22
-3 Cells

Fig. 3. Linear pressure law. Fig. 5. Mass airow comparison between SIM_ZONAL and AirPack.

E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583
PLANE X=1 (eo)
0.15
0.1
Mass flow rate (kg/s)
0.05
0
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
00 10 20 01 11 21
Cells
Fig. 6. Mass airow evolution when increasing discharge coefcients.
than 1.2. For this reason we realized a parametric study
on the new discharge coefcient C %d with values ranging
from 1.2 to 5.
Fig. 6 shows that if we compare mass airow rates
obtained with Airpack, higher values of discharge
coefcients permit to obtain a better air circulation
representation. This result is interesting because it
conrms a physical study about discharge coefcient.
Nevertheless, this example does not permit to propose
any denitive conclusions, it indicates that the use of a
pressure law needs to be very careful and avoid
obtaining a complex airow description. We also have
shown that this coefcient should be a function of the
mesh density because the different discharge coefcients
characterize the global pressure loss in a room.
Nevertheless, to keep a simple approach there is no
interest in proposing a complex airow model. Although
mass airow rates are underestimated in a few cells (e.g.
01, 21) these rst results may be satisfactory enough to
estimate thermal comfort in a room once an adequate
specic model is implemented to represent local airow
driving forces.
Now the zonal approach has been presented in some
extent, next section describes the two simulation
environments used to implement the zonal method.
2. Simulation environments
Zonal models were rst implemented in the general
simulation environment SPARK particularly suitable for
testing new models. Aside of this work a dedicated tool
was implemented in a conventional programming
language while taking as much assumptions as possible
to make it robust and fast, although it would be difcult
to make it evolve in the future. This simulation code
called SIM_ZONAL will also be presented in this section.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
1575
2.1. Implementation in SPARK (SimSPARK)
C=1.2
C=2 SimSPARK, is a SPARK simulation driver. It is able to
C=3
C=5 generate the zonal room model with some selected
Airpack
specic models (e.g. coupled heat and mass transfers
through wall materials), to pre-process weather data les
and to post-process the results. These different features
are discussed in this subsection [15].
2.1.1. The object-oriented simulation environment: SPARK
SPARK is a general simulation environment that
supports the denition of simulation models and
solution of these models via a robust and efcient
02 12 22 differential/algebraic equation solver [2]. In SPARK, the
modeler describes the set of equations dening a model
as equation-based objects. At the lowest level, an atomic
class characterizes one equation and its variables. Then,
macroscopic classes can be created as an assembly of
various atomic or macroscopic classes. The entire model
is built by connecting the different necessary objects
derived from the class library. If one class of objects
needs to be reused, it can be instantiated as many times
as required, without any additional effort.
At this stage, it is important to note that the model is
input/output free. The particular problem to be solved is
then described by imposing the adequate input data
(boundary and initial conditions) and by specifying the
variables to be solved. So in this environment it is not
necessary to order the equations or to express them as
assignment statements (algorithms) in opposition to
conventional modular environments such as Matlab/
Simulink [16] or TRNSYS [17].
SPARK uses a mathematical graph of the model to
decompose it as strong components to be solved
independently. Within each component, SPARK nds an
appropriate function call sequence to get the solution. If
no direct sequence is possible, as evidence by a cyclic
problem graph, a small cut set is determined so as to
minimize the number of variables involved in the
Newton-like iterative numerical solution process. As a
result, this decreases the size of the Jacobian matrix
involved in the Newton iteration within the component.
Consequently, the way SPARK handles the solution of
coupled nonlinear equations makes it a fast solver for
building energy simulation problems.
Since the cut sets of variables have been identied,
the problem specication le is converted into a C++
program which is then compiled, linked and executed to
solve the problem for given boundary and initial
conditions.
We used SPARK to implement the solution of zonal
models presented in the previous section. The corre-
sponding set of equations consists of a class library that
has been organized using hierarchical relations between
the different classes to improve model selection and
maintainance.
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1576 E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583

2.1.2. SimSpark
Problem generation automation: The problem genera-
tion consists of automating the generation of the
SPARK problem specication le based on its con-
ceptual description. The latter species the grid density
on each direction, the grid dimensions, the types of
building elements used and their location in the
simulation domain (e.g. apertures, ventilation inlets/
outlets, glazing, etc.). All these data are stored in a
structured data tree based on the XML1 language. This
language is powerful since many tools are developed
around it. Our main interest here is to make the
conceptual description easy to share between different
computer codes with low implementation efforts. And in
our opinion this can bring many advantages in long
term developments, such as exchanging data through
the web.
Model selection: As shown in the previous subsection,
all major elements of the simulation domain (cells,
interfaces, and wall classes) have the same xed data
interface whatever is the model implemented in the class. Fig. 7. SimSPARK graphical user interface (model choice tab).
That way, we are able to interchange models without
changing the problem description le. So the model
selection is only made by giving to SimSPARK the run the simulation. The GUI for post-processing is also
corresponding set of directories of classes. Then this linked to the last tab. SimSPARK is highly congurable,
information is stored in the conceptual description of so that new elementary models can immediately be
the problem. This model selection mechanism has tested and coupled to the overall zonal model library.
proven to be very powerful for new model development
and validation. To do so, one can develop his new 2.2. Integration within a fast computer code
particular model satisfying the data interface standard, (SIM_ZONAL)
integrate it to the library, and then select it to build the
coupled simulation. The software SIM_ZONAL is a tool for evaluating
Input data generation: In the previous simple simula- indoor temperature and air ow distributions for
tion example, a 2  1  2 mesh using the envelope residential and ofce buildings [3]. The aim of this EDFs
model with heat transfer only, the number of unknowns (Electricity of France) software developed in collabora-
is 808 while the number of input data is 285. So it can be tion with LEPTAB (University of La Rochelle) is to
complex to manage so many input data when the evaluate thermal comfort situation and specically risks
domain grid is denser. To overcome this problem, we of discomfort (risk of draught, indoor gradient tem-
developed an input data preprocessor, so that all input perature, etc.) taking into account the coupling with the
variables can be set in a exible way. All dynamic values building envelope. The objective is to obtain a simple
related with the external environment are computed and robust software for rapid appraisals, that could be
from a weather data le. complementary to CFD codes.
Run and solver controls: The different run parameters This tool allows users to achieve dynamical and
as well as the solver settings are prescribed for each parametric simulations with variable room congura-
simulation. We also developed a mechanism to generate tions, different heating systems (electric heaters, heating
data used by SPARK to initialize dynamic variables as or cooling oors or ceilings) as well as many boundary
well as their derivatives. conditions (meteorological conditions) with a 1-h time
Front-end for pre- and post-processing: Fig. 7 presents step. The nal aim is to calculate comfort criteria such
the SimSPARKs graphical user interface (GUI) aimed as PMV or UCRES (comfort criteria developed by CSTB).
at giving some high level functions to quickly setup the SIM_ZONAL is based on a rough partitioning of the
main parameters of the simulation (the room partition- room which is divided into a small number of cells:
ing, the models and corresponding library directories they are rectangular parallelepipeds. The number of cells
used for the envelope modelling, and the names of is usually in the range of 10100, compared to hundreds
classes used from these directories) and then build and of thousands or more for typical CFD calculations. Heat
and mass balance equations are applied to cells and
1
Extensible Markup Language. exchanges are calculated between them. The zonal
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E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583
model is coupled with a single-node building energy
simulation tool in order to control heating power
based on some building use scenarios and meteorologi-
cal conditions. These features allow assessing the risk
of discomfort within a room. A graphical user interface
is used to set all parameters and visualize dynamic
results.
We will present three applications: two comparisons
between zonal model results, experimental data and
CFD predictions in (i) an academic case under mixed
convection conditions, (ii) a room heated with an
electric convector, and nally (iii) a whole year energy
analysis of a heated room.
3. Applications
3.1. Indoor environment under mixed convection
conditions
3.1.1. Case study
Zhang et al. [18] developed an experimental facility to
provide measurements of the mean and turbulent
behavior of room ventilation ows. An outer room
with an heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning
(HVAC) system simulates different weather conditions
by controlling the environment around the test room
(see Fig. 8) which is equipped with its own HVAC
system, and of a uniform oor heating system of 48
controllable panels to simulate internal heat loads.
Velocities and temperature were measured at 205
locations in the central vertical section of the test
room with a 1D hot-wire anemometer and a thermo-
couple, respectively, with an automatic computer-con-
trolled system for data acquisition and probe
positioning.
In the test case P6 presented by Zhang et al. [18], air
enters the test room through the diffuser at velocity U ref
of 1:71 m s1 Red 5:8  103 ) and a temperature T d of
23.1 1C, while the oor temperature T f is maintained at
39.7 1C (Gr 3:7  1011 ). Under these mixed convection
conditions, measurements indicated that the ow inside
the room was two-dimensional except very close to the
end walls.
d=0.051 m h=0.203 m
Uref
2.08 m H=2.44 m
1.32 m
W=5.79 m
Fig. 8. Zhangs experimental setup.
1577
3.1.2. Predictions vs. experimental data
In this section, we will present airow patterns,
velocity and temperature distributions predicted from
zonal and RANS k 
(Reynolds averaged Navier
Stokes equations with k 
turbulence model [19])
models for Zhang et al.s [18] conguration presented
above. Then, all predictions will be compared with
experimental data.
3.1.2.1. Airflow patterns. Zhang et al. [18] used a
smoke injection technique for room airow pattern
visualization within the experimental setup. Their
observations are reproduced in Fig. 9. A jet is produced
downstream the inlet slot, and crosses all the test room,
to nally create a ow recirculation over the entire
room.
Figs. 10 and 11 present airow patterns obtained from
zonal models with no jet model and with a semi-
empirical jet model from Rajaratnam [20], respectively.
In the rst case, when no particular functions are
patched onto the standard model to characterize the jet,
the former falls down very quickly at the rst quarter
x=W 0:25 of the test room since the incoming air
temperature is about 2.5 1C lower than the average inner
air temperature. In the second case, momentum is well
characterized by adding a jet model into the standard
zonal model. In this case the overall recirculation
Fig. 9. Airow visualization made by smoke injection [18].
Velocity pattern with no jet model
1
0.75
y/H
0.5
0.25
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
x/W
Fig. 10. Airow pattern from standard 8  6 zonal model.
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1578 E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583
Velocity pattern with jet model
1 predictions.
0.75
y/H
0.5
0.25
0 in the vertical section located at x 0:75 W. On the
0 0.25 0.5 0.75
x/W
Fig. 11. Airow pattern from 8  6 zonal model with jet model.
Fig. 12. Airow pattern from 73  57 RANS model.
prediction is satisfactory, compared with experimental
airow visualizations.
So in this case, where most of ow driving forces are
due to the momentum added to air by the jet, a good
estimation of airow patterns with zonal models
requires modeling the jet carefully.
We also performed two-dimensional conventional
RANS k 
simulations of Zhang test room with a
domain grid of 73  57 cells. Fig. 12 presents airow
patterns obtained with this model. In this case, the main
recirculating ow prediction is in agreement with
experimental airow visualizations.
In order to quantitatively compare airow predictions
with experimental data, predicted velocity proles will
be compared with measured values along three vertical
lines at x=W 0:25, 0.5, and 0.75.
3.1.2.2. Velocity field. Since velocity measurements
were done using a one-dimensional hot-wire probe, we
do not have access to horizontal and vertical compo-
nents of the velocity but only to the resultant magnitude.
Also, one-dimensional hot-wire probe can only capture
the magnitude of air speed, including uctuations. Since
RANS k 
model predict averaged values of velocity
components, one need to add uctuating terms to
predicted mean velocities before calculating the module
of the velocity to be compared with experimental data.
Assuming turbulence isotropy and normal distribution
of uctuating terms, one can sample the distribution
(1000 elements in this case) to get a uctuating terms
population. Then, those terms were added to average
Fig. 13 presents speed predictions obtained by two
zonal models with a jet model along with RANS k 

results. In all three sections, RANS k 
models predic-
tions give a satisfactory estimate when compared with
experimental data. The jet section is well characterized,
and the recirculation slightly underestimated especially
1 other hand, all zonal models give a satisfactory speed
estimate in the jet region, while the recirculation (speed
in the lower section of the room) is underestimated.
In the previous subsection, we saw how dependent
was the results of zonal models on user expertise
according to the jet modeling. With this RANS k 

model results, almost no expertise is required but more
computation effort is needed.
3.1.2.3. Temperature field. When comparing tempera-
ture proles along the three central vertical lines
(at x 0:25, 0.5, and x 0:75 W), all models used
give a satisfactory agreement with experimental data
(see Fig. 14). We can only see some small discrepancies
in the lower region, where we saw that velocities were
underestimated. So, when no more details are required,
one can choose zonal models as a suitable tool to assess
the temperature eld in rooms. On the other hand, when
more details of airows are required (e.g. pollutant
transport modeling) one may choose RANS k 
models
instead.
3.1.3. Conclusion
In this section, we compared the ability of zonal
models and a conventional RANS k 
model to predict
airow and temperature distribution in a two-dimen-
sional ventilated room under mixed convection condi-
tions. In this conguration, zonal models give a
satisfactory estimate of airow patterns only with
specic laws to model momentum added to air by the
jet. Zonal models give a rough estimate of the structure
of the recirculation in the room, whereas RANS k 

velocity predictions are in good agreement with experi-
mental data. Finally, both classes of models are able to
assess temperature proles in the room. So zonal models
could be a suitable tool to estimate thermal comfort in a
ventilated room, when details of airow are required one
may use conventional RANS k 
models.
3.2. Coupling between an electric heater and the indoor
environment
This second application presents the results of a
collaboration with an industrial partner (Atlantic,
electric heater manufacturer) that yield to the develop-
ment of a specic model to describe electric heater
inuence upon indoor environment characteristics. This
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583 1579

x = 0.25 W x = 0.5 W
1 1

0.75 0.75

z/H
z/H

0.5 0.5

Experimental Data Experimental Data

0.25 8x6 zonal 0.25
8x6 zonal
8x10 zonal 8x10 zonal
73x57 CFD 73x57 CFD

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
||U||/U ||U||/U
ref ref

x = 0.75 W
1

0.75
z/H

0.5

Experimental Data
0.25 8x6 zonal
8x10 zonal
73x57 CFD

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
||U||/U
ref

Fig. 13. Horizontal speed proles.

model were integrated in SIM_ZONAL software. The
application consists in a room with a window on the
West wall and an electric heater placed at the East wall.
Other characteristics are described in Fig. 4. We have
chosen a meshing of 27 cells and Figs. 15 and 16 describe
temperature elds in the different cells in the vertical
median plan and in both subcells around the plume.
At rst we have got reference results with an experi-
mental study validated with CFD numerical simulations
(Fig. 15). The small differences between these two
approaches give enough condence in the results to use
them as reference to characterize zonal model results.
These results were compared with zonal model
predictions integrating specic laws to describe the
plume generated above the electric heater (see Fig. 16).
Results of Fig. 16 presents a higher temperature
gradient in the central vertical section of the room than
in reference results. Then, based on the work presented
in Section 1, we decided to specify new discharge
coefcients (C %d 5) to improve our results and we can
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1580 E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583

x = 0.25 W x = 0.5 W
1 1

Experimental Data Experimental Data

8x6 zonal 8x6 zonal
0.75 0.75 8x10 zonal
8x10 zonal
73x57 CFD 73x57 CFD
z/H

z/H
0.5 0.5

0.25 0.25

0 0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 0 0.25 0.5 0.75
(T-Td) / (Tf -Td) (T-Td) / (Tf -Td)

x = 0.75 W
1

Experimental Data
8x6 zonal
0.75 8x10 zonal
73x57 CFD
z/H

0.5

0.25

0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75
(T-Td) / (Tf -Td)

Fig. 14. Temperature proles from zonal and RANS k
.

see in Fig. 17 which compares the different results that
we get a much better estimate of the temperature eld. It
clearly seems that with an adequate choice of discharge
coefcients temperature eld predictions can clearly be
improved.
At this stage of this work, we demonstrated the
difculty to determine universal values for C %d discharge
coefcients in the zonal modeling approach. So,
research efforts are currently done on developing
a deterministic method to compute these coefcients
for each ow component of the grid from RANS k 

predictions for typical ventilated room congurations.
3.3. A whole-year analysis
This third application illustrates some capabilities of
SIM_ZONAL through the study of a room solicited by a
fan coil during a whole year. Fig. 4 describes geometry,
meshing and different characteristics of the room. This
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583 1581

Experimental results CFD results (FLUENT) indoor temperature setpoint (19 1C). The values are
issued from a weather le and permit to calculate
22,2 22 22.2 23 22,5 22
solar gains which have to be taken into account in the
room energy balance based on its orientation and
26 21.8 21.7 21.6 27 20.5 20.5 20.5
characteristics.
T
Next step consists of taking into account heating and
W E 21 21 21 20 20 19,5
cooling systems. At this time the power supply is
B calculated with a well-mixed zone energy analysis tool
Heater placed on west wall : Power = 500 W
West wall outside temperature : 0 C with a choice of set point temperature. The power is
Outside temperature other walls : 20 C then an input of SIM_ZONAL and allows to run the
Geometrical dimensions : W/E: 4 m, S/N: 4 m, B/T: 2.6 m simulation. Fig. 19 presents the computed power supply
Fig. 15. Comparison between an experimental study and CFD results.
evolution in this case.
Simulation results are presented in Fig. 20. In this
gure, only three cells have been selected to plot air
With a standard plume model temperature evolution along the central vertical line in
the room. First we can see that air temperature at the
center of the room (cell 111) remains close to the
23.9 22,1 20.9 setpoint while a vertical temperature gradients appears
mostly in heating mode. The knowledge of temperature

40 3000
25 19.4 20.1 Solar gains
External temperature
30 Set temperature
2500
20
Temperature [C]

10 2000

Solar gains [W]

17.1 18.1 18.6 0
1500
-10

Fig. 16. Zonal method results left with a plume model and right after -20 1000
correction of discharge coefcient values. -30
500
-40
-50 0
30 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Experimental Data Time
CFD
27 Fig. 18. Outside and set temperatures (19 1C) and solar gains.
SimZonal
Discharge coef.
Temperature

24

1500
21
1000

18
500
Power [W]

15 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Cells
-500
Fig. 17. Temperature comparative study with different modeling
methods. -1000

-1500
0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
room has two windows, one inlet and one outlet placed
over and under the windows, respectively. Time
Fig. 18 presents weather data for the given location Fig. 19. Heating/cooling fan-coil power versus time for a 1-year period
(i.e. outside temperature and solar gains) as well as the issued from a well-mixed zone energy analysis tool.

1582 E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583
eld inside a room and mass airow evolution allows us
to estimate thermal comfort characteristics in the room.
Since 27 values of air temperatures are computed by the
zonal model, PMV and PPD values are calculated on
columns of air within the occupation zone (height
bellow 1.8 m). In this case, PPD and PMV values are
almost homogeneous and constant, and they stay
around 6.5 and 0:2, respectively.
Fig. 21 presents the graphical user interface of
SIM_ZONAL. It allows the user to set the geometry,
choose and locate some standards HVAC systems (e.g.
fan coil, electric heater, or electric heating oor) as well
as their parameters. A whole year analysis using weather
22
21
Temperature [C]
20
19
18
17
16
0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Time
Fig. 20. Computed air temperature at 3 selected locations in the room.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
data can then be performed in about 5 min on a
standard personal computer (1.5 GHz). Finally, the
result visualization mode of this application (presented
in the gure) presents animated temperature and airow
elds in the room along with weather data and spatially
averaged thermal comfort indicators.
4. Conclusions
In this paper, two softwares implementing the zonal
method have been presented. The rst one SimSPARK,
developed within an object-oriented environment is
particularly suitable for testing models without too
much code development efforts. The second one
SIM_ZONAL, developed with a conventional program-
ming language (C++) implements zonal models with
the maximum of assumption aimed at improving the
speed of the solution process.
Applications have shown that the zonal modeling
approach can be a suitable method to estimate
temperature elds in a room with reasonable accuracy.
On the other hand, even if adding specic laws to
describe momentum-driven ows such as jets improves
Cell 110
airow pattern predictions, in the whole, zonal models
Cell 111 can give a satisfactory estimate of airow patterns but
Cell 112
not highly detailed information on air speed magnitude.
Nevertheless, this approach may be adequate to estimate
indoor thermal comfort. Also, SIM_ZONAL has proven to
be a suitable tool for annual thermal comfort analysis
studies with a few minutes computation time.
Fig. 21. Graphical user interface.
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E. Wurtz et al. / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 15711583
Finally, further developments are needed to improve
discharge coefcient estimation. One way is under study.
It consists of extracting this information from
RANS k 
model predictions in typical airow cong-
urations.
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