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1
MATRICES
UNIT STRUCTURE
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definitions
1.3 Illustrative examples
1.4 Rank of matrix
1.5 Canonical form or Normal form
1.6 Normal form PAQ
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Unit End Exercise
1.0 OBJECTIVES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 DEFINITIONS
Note:
Types of Matrices:
1) Rectangular matrix :-
For e.g
2 3 4
1 2 3 23
2) Column Matrix :
1
x 2
4 31
3) Row Matrix :
x 5 7 913
4) Square Matrix :
e.g.
2 3
A
4 6 22
5) Diagonal Matrix:
e.g.
2 0 0
A 0 1 0
0 0 0 33
6) Scalar Matrix:
e.g.
5 0 0
A 0 5 0
0 0 5 33
7) Unit Matrix:
e.g.
1 0 0
A 0 1 0
0 0 1 33
It is a square matrix in which all the elements below the principle diagonal
are zero.
4
e.g.
1 3 0
A 0 0 1
0 0 5 33
e.g.
0 0 0
A 3 4 0
1 3 2 33
1 3 5
A
3 7 9 23
1 3
A Transpose of A 3 7
T
5 9 32
1 3 5
A 3 4 1
5 1 9
0 5 7
A 5 0 3
7 3 0
Determinant of a Matrix:
a) Minor of an element :
Let
A = a ij
n n
E.g. Consider,
M 11 = Minor of an element a 11
6
a a 23
A = 22
a 32 a 33
II y
a a 22
M12 = 21
a 31 a 33
E.g.
(ii) Let,
2 5 8
A = 1 3 2
0 4 6
3 2 1 2 1 3
M11 = , M12 = , M13 =
4 6 0 6 0 4
5 8 2 8 2 5
M 21 = , M12 = , M 23 =
4 6 0 6 0 4
Cij = 1
i j
. Mij Where M ij is minor of a ij .
a1 b1 c1
If A = a 2 b2 c2
a 3 b3 c3
b2 c2
A1 = The cofactor of A1 =(-1)11
b3 c3
a2 c2
B1 = The cofactor of b1 =(-1)1 2
a3 c3
a2 b2
C1 = The cofactor of b1 =(-1)13
a3 b3
7
E.g. Consider,
1 3 4
A = 0 2 1
3 7 6
0 1
c11 = 1 = 1
11 1 2
M11 c12
3 6
2 1
1 1 0 3
11 3
= . =
7 6
2 1
1 1 0 3
11 3
= . =
7 6
= 1 12 7 = 1 3
= 1 12 7 = 1 3
=5 = 3
5 3 6
C = 10 6 9
3 1 2
A1 B1 C1
C = A 2 B2 C2
A3 B3 C3
1 2 4 3
Similarly for a matrix, A = the cofactor matrix is c= 2 1
3 9
Adjoint of A CT
A1 B1 C1
Adj A = A2 B2 C2
A3 B3 C 3
Thus if,
1 3 4 5 10 3
A = 0 2 1 than Adj. A = 3 6 1
3 7 6 6 9 2
Note :
a b d -b
If A = than Adj . A =
c d 22 -c a
Thus
AA-1=A-1A=I
1
A-1 = Adj.A where A denotes determinant of A.
A
Note:- From this relation it is clear that A-1 exist if and only if A 0 i.e
A is non singular matrix.
2 1 3
A 3 1 2
1 2 3
Solution: We have,
A 2 3 4 1 9 2 3 6 1
2 7 15
A 6
A 0
A1 exists
2 3 1
A 1
1
1 2
3 2 3
0 1 2
A = 1 2 3
3 1 1
10
Solution: Consider
0 1 2
A = 1 2 3
3 1 1
= 0 1 1 8 2 5
= 0 8 10
= 2
2 3
C11 = 1 .
11
1
1 1
1 3
C12 = 1
1 2
. 8
3 1
1 2
C13 = 1
1 3
. 5
3 1
1 2
C21 = 1
2 1
. 1
1 1
0 2
C22 = 1
2 2
. 6
3 1
0 1
C23 = 1
23
. 3
3 1
1 2
C31 = 1
31
. 1
2 3
0 2
C32 = 1
3 2
. 2
1 3
0 1
C33 = 1
3 3
. 1
1 2
Thus,
1 8 5
Cofactor of matrix C = 1 6 3
1 2 1
And Adjoint of A= C1
11
1 1 1 1 1 1
= 8 6 2 A 8 6 2
1 1
2
5 3 1 5 3 1
Definition:-Orthogonal matrix.:-
AT A1
Example 3:
Cos Cos
show that A = is orthogonal matrix.
Sin Cos
Solution:
Cos Sin
A=
Sin Cos
Cos Sin
AT =
Sin Cos
1 0
= I
0 1
A is an orthogonal matrix.
1 2 2 3 cos sin
i) , ii) , iii) ,
2 2 4 1 sin cos
1 3 2 cos sin 0 1 2 3
iv) 3 0 5 , v) sin cos 0, vi) 2 3 1
2 5 0 0 0 1 3 1 2
1 1 1
vii) 1 2 3
2 1 3
1 tan 1 tan
cos sin 2 C= 2 ,
Q.3) If A = , B = , ,
sin cos
tan 1 tan 1
2 2
prove that A= B.C-1
4 3 3
Q. 4) If A = 1 0 1 , prove that Adj. A= A
4 4 3
1 2 1
Q. 5) If A = 0 1 1 , verify if (Adj.A)1= (Adj.A1)
1 1 2
1 2 1
Q.6) Find the inverse of A = 0 1 1 , hence find inverse of
2 2 3
3 6 3
A = 0 3 3
6 6 9
13
a) Minor of a matrix
e.g. Let
1 3 1 4
A = 4 0 1 7
8 5 4 3
The determinants
1 3 1 3 1 4 1 1 4
4 0 1 , 0 1 7 , 4 1 7 ,
8 5 4 5 4 3 8 4 3
1 3 0 1 3 4
, , , 1 , 0 , 3 ,
4 0 5 4 0 7
e.g.(i) Let
1 0 2
A = 2 4 1
3 5 7
14
1 0 0 2
A1 = 4, A 2 = 8 etc.
2 4 4 1
1 0 2
A3 = 2 4 1 1 23 2 2 19 0
3 5 7
Rank of A= 3
1 1 2
(ii) A = 1 2 3
0 1 1
Here,
1 1 2
A1 = 1 2 3 11 1 1 2 1 0
0 1 1
1 1
A2 = 1 0
1 2
Thus minor of order 3 is zero and atleast one minor of order 2 is non-zero
Rank of A = 2.
Some results:
(i) Rank of null matrix is always zero.
(ii) Rank of any non-zero matrix is always greater than or equal to 1.
(iii) If A is any mxn non-zero matrix then Rank of A is always equal to
rank of A.
(iv) Rank of transpose of matrix A is always equal to rank of A.
(v) Rank of product of two matrices cannot exceed the rank of both of
the matrices.
(vi) Rank of a matrix remains unleasted by elementary
transformations.
Elementary Transformations:
(iii) Adding non-zero scalar multitudes of all the elements of any row
(or columns) into the corresponding elements of any another row (or
column).
1 2 3
A = 1 4 2
2 6 5
Solution:
1 2 3
Given A = 1 4 2
2 6 5
R2 R2 - R1 & R3 R3 - 2R1
1 2 3
0 2 1
0 2 1
Here two column are Identical . hence 3rd order minor of A vanished
1 3
Hence 2nd order minor 1 0
0 1
e(A) 2
I o
If a matrix A of order mxn is reduced to the form r using a
o o
sequence of elementary transformations then it called canonical or normal
form. Ir denotes identity matrix of order r .
Note:-
2 1 3 6
A = 3 3 1 2
1 1 1 2
Solution:
2 1 3 6
A = 3 3 1 2
1 1 1 2
R1 R 3
1 1 1 2
3 3 1 2
2 1 3 6
R 2 3R1 , R 3 2R1
1 1 1 2
3 6 2 4
0 1 5 10
R 2 7R 3
1 1 1 2
0 1 33 66
0 1 5 10
17
R1 R 2 , R 3 R 2
1 0 32 64
0 1 33 66
0 0 28 56
1
R3
28
1 0 32 64
0 1 33 66
0 0 1 2
R1 32 R 3 , R 2 33 R 3
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
I3 o
Rank of A=3
1 2 7
A = 2 4 7
3 6 10
Solution:
1 2 3
A = 2 4 7
3 6 10
R 2 2R1 , R 3 3R1
1 2 3
2 4 7
3 6 10
R3 R 2
1 2 3
0 0 1
0 0 0
R1 3R 2
18
1 2 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
C2 2C1
1 0 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
C1 C3
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
I2 0
Rank of A= 2
1 1 2 4
2 3 1 1
A =
3 1 3 2
6 3 0 7
Solution:
1 1 2 4
2 3 1 1
A =
3 1 3 2
6 3 0 7
R 2 2R1 , R 3 3R1 , R 4 6R1 ,
1 1 2 4
0 5 3 7
0 4 9 10
0 9 12 17
R 2 R3
19
1 1 2 4
0 1 6 3
0 4 9 10
0 9 12 17
R1 + R 2 , R 3 4R 2 , R 4 9R 2
1 0 8 7
0 1 6 3
0 0 33 22
0 0 66 44
R 4 2R 3
1 0 8 7
0 1 6 3
0 0 33 22
0 0 0 0
1
R3
11
1 0 8 7
0 1 6 2
0 0 3 2
0 0 0 0
C3 - C4
1 0 1 7
0 1 3 3
0 0 1 2
0 0 0 0
R1 + R 3 , R 2 3R 3
1 0 0 5
0 1 0 3
0 0 1 2
0 0 0 0
C4 - 5C1 3C2 2C2
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
20
I3 0
0 0
Rank of A= 3
Reduce the following to normal form and hence find the ranks of the
matrices.
2 3 4 3 4 6
1 2 3
i) 3 1 2 ii) 4 3 1 iii) 5 5 7
1 2 4 3 1 4
1 2 1 0
1 2 3 0
2 1 3 6 3 2 1 2
2 4 3 2
iv) v) 3 3 1 1 vi) 2 1 2 5
3 2 1 3
1 1 1 2 5 6 3 2
6 8 7 5
1 3 1 3
2 6 2 6 10 3 4 5 6 7
3 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
vii) 1 2 4 3 5 viii) 5 6 7 8 9
2 0 4 6 10 10 11 12 13 14
1 0 2 3 5 15 16 17 18 19
If A is any mxn matrix r then there exist non singular matrices P and Q
such that,
Ir 0
0 PAQ
0
A = Im In (i)
Ir 0
0 PAQ (ii)
0
21
2 1 3
i) A 3 4 1
1 5 4
Solution: Consider
A= I3 AI 3
2 1 3 1 0 0 1 0 0
3 4 1 = 0 1 0 A 0 1 0
1 5 4 0 0 1 0 0 1
R1 R 3
1 5 4 0 0 1 1 0 0
3 4 1 = 0 1 0 A 0 1 0
2 1 3 1 0 0 0 0 1
C2 5C , C3 4C1
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 5 4
3 11 11 = 0 1 0 A 0 1 0
2 11 11 1 0 0 0 0 1
R 2 R3
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 5 4
1 0 0 = 1 1 0 A 0 1 0
2 11 11 1 0 0 0 0 1
R 2 R1 , R 3 2R1 ,
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 5 4
0 0 0 = 1 1 1 A 0 1 0
0 11 11 1 0 2 0 0 1
C3 C2
22
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 5 1
0 0 0 = 1 1 1 A 0 1 1
0 11 0 1 0 2 0 0 1
1
R3 ,
11
1
1 0 0 0 0 1 5 1
0 0 0 = 1 1 1 A 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 2
0 0 1
11
0
11
R 2 R3
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 5 1
0 1 0 = 1 2
11 0 11 A 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1
Thus
0 0 1
1 1
P= 0 2 P =
11 11 11
1 1 1
1 5 1
Q= 0 1 1 Q =1
0 0 1
2 1 3 6
ii) A 3 3 1 2
1 1 1 2
Solutions:
Consider
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 0
A= 0 1 0 A
0 0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0 1
23
1 0 0 0
2 1 3 6 1 0 0
3 3 1 2 0 1 0 A 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 1 1 2 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
R1 R 3
1 0 0 0
1 1 1 2 0 0 1
3 6 2 4 0 1 0 A 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
2 1 5 10 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
C2 C1 , C3 C1 , C4 2C 1
1 1 1 2
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
3 6 2 4 0 1 0 A 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
2 1 5 10 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
R 2 3R1 , R 3 2R1
1 1 1 2
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 6 2 4 0 1 3 A 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 5 10 1 0 2
0 0 0 1
R 2 6R 3 ,
1 1 1 2
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 28 56 6 1 9 A 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 5 10 1 0 2
0 0 0 1
C4 2C3
1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 28 0 6 1 9 A 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 2
0 1 5 0 1 0 2
0 0 0 1
C3 5C2
1 1 4 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 28 0 6 1 9 A 0 1 5 0
0 0 1 2
0 1 0 0 1 0 2
0 0 0 1
1
R 2 , R 3 1
28
24
1 1 4 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 3 1 9 A 0 1 5 0
14 28 28 0 0 1 2
0 1 0 0 1 2
0
0 0 0 1
R 2 R3
1 1 4 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 5 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 2 A
0 0 1 2
0 0 1 0 3 1 9
14 28 28 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 4 0
0 1 0 1 5 0
I3 0 = 1 0 2 A
0 0 1 2
314 1 9
28 28 0 0 0 1
0 0 1
1
P = 1 0 2 , P
28
314 1
28
9
28
1 1 4 0
0 1 5 0
Q = , Q 1
0 0 1 2
0 0 0 1
Also,
Rank of A = 3.
1 0 2 1 2 3 2 3 1 1
i) 2 3 4 ii) 2 3 5 1 iii) 1 1 1
3 3 6 1 3 4 5 1 1 1
25
1 3 5 7
2 3 4 7
iv) 3 4 7 9 (v) 4 6 8 10
15 27 39 51
5 4 6 5
6 12 18 24
1 2 3
1) Find the inverse of matrix A 4 5 6 if exists.
7 8 9
1 1 1
ii) Find Adjoint of Matrix A 0 2 1
2 1 1
26
1 0 2 1
1 1 0 1
iii) Find the inverse of A by adjoint method if A
1 0 1 2
2 3 1 0
1 2 3
iv) Find Rank of matrix A 4 5 6
7 8 9
Cos Sin 0
v) Prove that the matrix A Sin Cos 0 is orthogonal
0 0 1
Also find A1.
0 1 3 1
1 0 1 1
vi) Reduce the matrix A to the normal form and
3 1 0 2
1 1 2 0
find its rank.
vii) Find the non singular matrix and . such that A is the normal
1 1 1
form when A = 1 1 1
3 1 1
1 1 1 1 2 1
X = 2 3 4 & Y 6 12 6
3 2 3 5 10 5
2 4 2
A = 2 1 2
1 0
27
1 1 1 1 2 1
ix) If X = 2 3 4 & Y 6 12 6
3 2 3 5 10 5
Then show that xy yx where denotes Rank.
8 3 6 1
1 6 4 2
x) Find the rank of matrix A =
7 9 10 3
15 12 16 4
*****
2
LINEAR ALGEBRIC EQUATIONS
UNIT STRUCTURE
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Canonical or echelon form of matrix
2.4 Linear Algebraic Equations
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Unit End Exercise
2.1 OBJECTIVES
2.2 INTRODUCTION
Note :
1) The number of non-zero rows in Echelon form is the rank of the
matrix.
2) To reduce the matrix to Echelon form only row transformations are
to be applied.
Solved Examples :-
2 3 -1 1
1 -1 -2 4
A
3 1 3 2
6 3 0 7
Solution:
2 3 -1 1
1 -1 -2 4
A
3 1 3 2
6 3 0 7
R1 R2
1 -1 -2 4
2 3 -1 1
A
3 1 3 2
6 3 0 7
R2 R2 2 R1
R3 R3 3 R1
R4 R4 6 R1
29
1 1 2 4
0 5 3 7
A
0 4 9 10
0 9 12 17
4
R3 R3 R2
5
9
R4 R4 R2
5
1 1 2 4
0 5 3 7
A
0 0 33 5 22 5
0 0 33 5 22 5
R4 R4 R3
1 1 2 4
0 5 3 7
A
0 0 33 5 22 5
0 0 0 0
Rank of A e A
No. of non-zero rows
3
a1 b1 c1 x d1
a b2 c2 y d
2 2
a3 b3 c3 z d3
A X D
i.e. AX D
a1 b1 c1 : d1
A : D a2 b2 c2 : d 2
a3 b3 c3 : d3
A1 AX A1D
IX A1B
X A1B
which is required solution of the given non-homogeneous equation.
i.e
2 x1 3x2 x3 0
x1 2 x2 3x3 0
4 x1 x2 2 x3 0
Solution: The system is written as
AX 0
2 3 1 x1 0
1 2 3 x 0
2
4 1 2 x3 0
Hence the coefficient and augmented matrix are the same
We consider
2 3 1
A 1 2 3
4 1 2
2 3 1
A 1 2 3
4 1 2
R1 R1 R2
32
1 2 3
A 2 3 1
4 1 2
R2 R2 -2 R1 & R3 R3 4R1
1 2 3
0 7 7
0 9 10
R2 R2 1
7
1 2 3
0 1 1
0 9 10
R3 R3 +9R2 & R1 R1 2R2
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 19
R3 R3 1
7
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 1
R2 R2 +R3 & R1 R1 R3
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
Hence Rank of A is 3
( A) 3,
The coefficient matrix is non-singular
x1 x2 x3 0
Example 3: Solve the following system of equations
x1 3x2 2 x3 0
2 x1 x2 4 x3 0
x1 11x2 14 x3 0
Solution: The given equations can be written as
AX 0
33
1 3 2 x1 0
2 1 4 x 0
2
1 11 14 x3 0
Here the coefficient & augmented matrix are the same
1 3 2
A 2 1 4
1 11 14
R2 R2 -2 R1 & R3 R3 R1
1 3 2
0 7 8
0 14 16
R3 R3 2R2
1 3 2
0 7 8
0 0 0
Here rank of A is 2 i.e
( A) 2
So the system has infinite non-trivial solutions.
1 3 2 x1 0
0 7 8 x 0
2
0 0 0 x3 0
x1 3x2 2 x3 0
7 x2 8x3 0
7 x2 8 x3
8
x2 x3
7
Let x3 8x3
8
x2
7
8
x1 3 2 0
7
24
x1 2 0
7
24
x1 2
7
10
x1
7
34
10 8
Hence x1 x2 and x3
7 7
10
7
1
x
x 8
2 7
x3
Hence infinite solution as deferred upon value of
2 x 3 y 4 z 2
x y 3z 4
3x 2 y z 5
Solution: In the matrix form
2 3 4 x -2
1 1 3 y 4
3 2 1 z -5
2 3 4 : 2
A : D 1 1 3 : 4
3 2 1 : 5
1
R2 R2 R1
2
3
R3 R3 R1
2
2 3 4 : 2
A : D 0 2 5 : 5
5
0 5 5 : 2
2
R2 R3 R2
2 3 4 : 2
A : D 0 5 2 5 : 5
0 0 5 : 7
35
AD 3
A 2
AD A
The system is inconsistent and it has no solution.
3x y 2 z 3
2 x 3 y z 3
x 2y z 4
Solution: In the matrix form,
3 1 2 x 3
2 3 1 y -3
1 2 1 z 4
A X D
Now we join matrices A and D
Consider
3 1 2 : 3
A:D 2 -3 -1 : -3
1 2 1 : 4
1 2 1 : 4
A:D 0 -7 -3 : -11 ........(1)
0 0 8 7 : 8 7
This is in Echelon form
AD 3
A 3
AD A Number of unknowns
system is consist and has unique solution.
Step (2) : To find the solution we proceed as follows. At the end of the
row transformation the value of z is calculated then values of y and the
value of x in the last.
1 2 1 x 4
0 7 3 y -11
0 0 8 7 z -8 7
Expanding by R 3
8
Z 8
7 7
z -1
expanding by R 2
7 y 3z 11
7 y 3(1) 11
7 y 3 11
7 y 14
y2
exp anding by R1
x 2y z 4
x 4 1 4
x 1
x 1, y 2,z -1
Example 6: Examine for consistency and solve
5x 3 y 7 z 4
3x 26 y 2 z 9
37
7 x 2 y 10 z 5
Solution:
5 3 7 x 4
3 26 2 y 5
7 2 10 z 6
A X D
Consider
5 3 7 : 4 x 4
A : D 3 26 2 : 9 y 5
7 2 10 : 5 z 6
1
R1 R1
5
1 3 5 7 5 : 4 5
A : D 3 26 2 : 9
7 2 10 : 5
R 2 R2 3 R1
R 3 R3 7 R1
1 3 5 7 5 : 45
A : D 0 121 5 11 5 : 33 5
0 11 5 1 5 : 3 5
1
R 3 R3 R2
11
1 3 7 : 4
5 5 5
A : D 0 1215 115 : 33 5
0 0 0 : 0
AD 2
A 2
AD A 2 3 Number of unknowns
The system is consistent and has infinitely many solutions.
Let
38
z k....... k parameter
By expanding R 2
121 5 y 11 5z 33 5
11y-z 3
z3
y
11
put z k
k 3
y
11
By exapanding R1
x 3 y7 z 4
5 5 5
7 16k
x
11 11
i) 2 x1 x2 2 x3 x4 6
6 x1 6 x2 6 x3 12 x4 36
4 x1 3x2 3x3 3x4 1
2 x1 2 x2 x3 x4 10
Ans : consistent
ii) x1 2, x2 1, x3 1, x4 3
2 x1 x2 x3 x4 2
3x1 x2 x3 x4 2
x1 2 x2 x3 x4 1
6 x1 2 x2 x3 x4 5
Ans : Infinitely many solutions,
5 9
iii) x1 k , x2 3 4k , x3 2 k , x4 k 3
2 2
3 x1 x2 x3 4
2 x1 5x2 2 x3 3
x1 7 x2 7 x3 5
Ans : Inconsistent
iv) x1 x2 x3 0
39
x1 2 x2 x3 0
2 x1 x2 3x3 0
Ans: Trivial Solution.
v) x1 2 x2 3x3 0
2 x1 4 x2 7 x3 0
3x1 6 x2 10 x3 0
Ans : Definitely many solution
x1 1
x
2 2
x3 0
1) Reduce the following matrix in Echolon form & find its Rank.
1 3 6 1
1 4 5 1
i) A Ans : Rank = 2
1 5 4 3
1 2 1 3
4 1 2 1
ii) A Ans : Rank = 3
3 1 1 2
1 2 0 1
40
1 2 3
iii) A 2 1 0 Ans : Rank = 2
0 1 2
1 1 1
iv) A 1 1 1 Ans : Rank = 2
3 1 1
Ans:- x 2, y 1, z 0.
ii) 2x1 - x2 - x3 = 0, x1 - x3 = 0, 2x1 + x2 - 3x3 = 0
1
Ans:- x1 x2 x3 ..... 1 .
1
.
iii) 5x1 - 3x2 -7x3 + x4 = 10
-x1 +2x2 +6x3 - 3x4 = -3
x1 + x2 +4x3 - 5x4 = 0
*****
41
3
LINEAR DEPENDANCE AND
INDEPENDANCE
OF VECTORS
UNIT STRUCTURE
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Definitions
3.4 The Inner Product
3.5 Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors
3.6 Summary
3.7 Unit End Exercise
3.1 Objectives
After going through this chapter you will able to
Find linearly independent & linearly dependent vector.
Inner product of two vector
Find characteristic equation of matrix
Find the of characteristic equation i.e
Find the corresponding .Eigen vector to Eigen value.
3.2 Introduction
Note : Any two or column matrix is called as a vector and numbers are
called as scalars.
3.3 Definitions
Let c1 x1 c2 x2 ........... cn xn 0
Where c1 , c2 , ...... are scalars.
If (i) c1 c2 .............. cn 0 then
x1 , x2 , ........xn are linearly independent
and (ii) if not all ci are zero then x1,x2 ,.......... xn
are linearly dependent
If x1 , x2 ,.........xn are linearly dependent then a relation exists
between them which can be found out
Solved examples:-
Solution: We have,
1 3
x1 2 , x 2 7
4 10
Let c1 x1 c2 x 0
1 3 0
i.e. c1 2 c2 7 0
4 10 0
c1 3c1 0
i.e. 2c1 7c2 0
4c1 10c2 0
c1 3c2 0
2c1 7c2 0
4c1 10c2 0
Consider first two equations in matrix form.
1 3 c1 0
2 7 c 0
2
A X 0
A 76
A 1
A 0
system has zero solution.
i.e. c1 c2 0
x1 , x 2 are linearly independent
43
Solution:
Step (1) We have
1 3 1
x1 2 , x 2 2 , x 3 6
3 1 5
Let c1 x1 c21 x2 c3 x3 0
1 3 1 0
c1 2 c2 2 c3 6 0
3 1 5 0
c1 3c2 c3 0
2c1 2c2 6c3 0
3c1 c2 5c3 0
c1 3c2 c3 0
2c1 2c2 6c3 0
3c1 c2 5c3 0
Step (ii) In matrix form,
1 3 1 c1 0
2 2 6 c 0
2
3 1 5 c3 0
A X 0
Consider
1 3 1 : 0
A:0 2 3 6 : 0
3 1 5 : 0
R2 R2 2 R1
R3 R3 3 R1
1 3 1 : 0
A:0 0 8 8 : 0
0 8 8 : 0
R3 R3 R2
1
R2 R2
8
1 3 1 : 0
A:0 0 1 1 : 0
0 0 0 : 0
e A 0 2
44
e A 2
e A:0 e A 2 Number of unknowns
system has non-zero solution
i.e. c1 , c2 , c3 are non zero
x1 , x 2 , x3 are linearly dependent
Step (iii):
Ans : Independent.
Solution: X , Y x1 y1 2 x2 y2 4 x3 y3
i) X , Y x1 y1 2 x2 y2 4 x3 y3
( x1 )2 2( x2 )2 4( x3 )2 0
X , Y 0
X , Y 0( x1 ) 2( x2 )2 4( x3 )2 0
2
x1 0, x2 0, orx3 0
X , X 0 x 0
ii) X , Y x1 y1 2 x2 y2 4 x3 y3
y1 x1 2 y2 x2 4 y3 x3
Y , X
iii) X , Y Z x1 ( y1 z1 ) 2 x2 ( y2 z2 ) 4 x3 ( y3 z3 )
x1 y1 x1 z1 2 x2 y2 2 x2 z2 4 x3 y3 4 x3 z3
x1 y1 2 x2 y2 4 x3 y3 x1 z1 2 x2 z2 4 x3 z3
X , Y X , Z
iv) X , Y x1 ( y1 ) 2 x2 ( y2 ) 4 x3 ( y3 )
x1 y1 2 x2 y2 4 x3 y3
( x1 y1 2 x2 y2 4 x3 y3 )
x, y
Here all properties are satisfied
X , Y is an inner product.
Check Your Progress:
iii. X , Y 3x1 y1 x2 y2 4 x3 y3
b
iv. f , g f (t ).g (t ).dt
a
Definition:-
AX X ..........(1)
Our aim is to find and x for given matrix A using equation (1)
is called as eigen value, latent roots of a matrix value, characteristic
value or root of a matrix A and x is called as eigen vector or characteristic
vector etc.
X is a column matrix
A I 0..........(3)
This equation is called the characteristic equation of
First we solve equation (3) to find eigen values or roots. Then we solve
equation (2) to find Eigen vectors.
Let
a1 b1 c1 x1
A a2 b2 c2 and x x2
a3 b3 c3 x3
a1 b1 c1 x1 0
i.e. a2 b2 c2 x 0 (2)
2
a3 b3 c3
x3 0
and equation (3) i.e. A- x 0 is
a1 b1 c1
a b2 c2 0 (3)
2
a3 b3 c3
Note :
1) Equation (2) is called as matrix equation of A in
2) Equation (3) is called as characteristic equation of A in
3) Usually given matrix A is of order 3X3 . Therefore it will have 3
eigen values and for every eigen value there will be corresponding eigen
vector which is a column matrix of order 3X1. There are 3 such column
matrices.
4) Eigen vectors are linearly independent.
5) Method of finding eigen values is same for any given matrix A.
Method of finding eigen vectors is slightly different and we study 3 types
of such problems.
Type (I) : When all eigen values are distinct and matrix A may be
symmetric or non- symmetric.
Type (II) : When eigen values are repeated and A is non-symmetric
Type (III) : When eigen values are repeated and A is symmetric.
Solved examples :-
Type (I) : All roots are non- repeated.
Example 4: Find eigen values and given vectors for
2 2 3
A 1 1 1
1 3 1
A- I 0
2- -2 3
i.e. 1 1- 1 0
1 3 -1-
-8-4 6
A 6
Characteristic equation is given by
3 2 2 4 5 4 - 6 0
3 2 2 -5 6 0
sin ce sum of coefficient 0
-1 is a factor.
Synthetic division:
1 1 -2 -5 6
1 -1 -6
1 -1 -6 0
-1 2 6 0
-1 -3 2 0
1, -2, 3
The roots are non- repeated
Step (ii) :- Now we find eigen vectors
Matrix equations is given by
A I X 0
2- -2 3 x1 0
i.e. 1 1- 1 x 2 0
1 3 1 x 3 0
Case (i) : When 1, matrix eq n becomes
1 -2 3 x1 0
1 0 1 x 0
2
1 3 2 x 3 0
x1 x2 x3
-2 2 2
x1 x2 x3
-1 1 1
49
1
x1 1
1
Case (ii) :- When 2 2
Matrix equation is given by
4 2 3 x1 0
1 3 1 x 0
2
1 3 1 x 3 0
x1 x 2 x 3
-11 1 14
x x x
1 2 3
-11 -1 14
11
x 2 1
14
Case (iii) : When 3 3 matrix equation is given by
1 2 3 x1 0
1 2 1 x 0
2
1 3 4 x 3 0
x -x x
1 2 3
4 4 4
1
x 3 1
x1 x 2 x 3
1 1 4
1
Type (II) :- Repeated eigen values and A is non- symmetric.
Example 5: Find eigen values and eigen vectors for
2 1 1
A 2 3 2
3 3 4
Solution:
Step (1) :- Characteristic equation of A in is
A I 0
i.e. 3 -9 2 6 5 4 -7 0
3 -9 2 15 -7 0
since sum of co-efficients 0
1 is a factor
synthetic division
50
1 1 9 15 7
1 8 7
1 8 7 0
2 -8 7
-7 1
3 -9 2 15 -7 0
-1 1 -7 0
7, 1, 1
Here two roots are repeated. First we find eigen vectors for non-repeated
root.
Step II :- Matrix equation of A in is
A I X 0
2 1 1 x1 0
2 3 2 x 0
2
3 3 4 x 3 0
Case (i) :- For 7
Matrix equation is
5 1 1 x1 0
2 4 2 x 0
2
3 3 3 x 3 0
x -x x
1 2 3
6 -12 18
x1 x 2 x 3
1 2 3
1
x1 2
3
Case (ii) :- Let 1
Matrix equation is
1 1 1 x1 0
2 2 2 x 0
2
3 3 3 x 3 0
By cramerss rule we get
x1 x2 x3
0 0 0
0
i.e. 0
0
But by definition we want non-zero x2
51
So we proceed as follows
Expanding by R1
x1 x2 x3 0
Assume any element to be zero say x1 and give any conventional value
say 1 to x2 and find x3
Let
x1 0, x 2 1
x3 1
0
x2 1
1
Case (iii) :- Let x=1
Again consider
x1 x 2 x 3 0
Let x2 0, x1 1
x3 1
0
x2 1
1
Type (iii) :- A is symmetric and eigen values are repeated
Example 6: Find eigen values and eigen vectors for .
6 2 2
A 2 3 1
2 1 3
Solution:
Step :- Characteristic equations of A in is
A I 0
6 2 2
2 3 1 0
2 1 3
A 32
i.e. 3 12 2 8 14 14 -32 0
3 12 2 36 -32 0
-2 is a factor
Synthetic division :-
2 1 12 36 32
2 20 32
1 10 16 0
52
2 10 6
8 2
3 12 2 36 32 0
2 2 8 0
8, 2, 2
l
Let, x 3 m
n
x1 , x3 are orthogonal
x11 , x 3 0
2l-m n 0..........(1)
x 2 , x3 are orthogonal
x 21 , x 3 0
ol m n 0..........(2)
solving (1) and (2) by cramer's rule
l m n
-2 2 2
l m n
1 1 1
1
x 3 1
1
Check your progress:
2 8 12
i) A 1 4 4
0 0 1
4 4 2
x 1 x 2 0 , x 3 1
0 1 0
3 1 1
(ii) A 1 5 1
1 1 3
1 1 1
x1 0 x 2 1 x 3 2
1 1 1
54
2 2 3
(iii) A 2 1 6
1 2 0
1 2 3
x1 2 x 2 1 x 3 0
1 0 1
3.6 SUMMARY
2 2 0
i) A 2 1 1
7 2 3
1 2 4
ii) A 0 2 4
0 0 3
1 0
iii) A
2 4
2 1
iv) A
8 4
1 1 1
v) A 1 2 1
3 2 3
1 3 0
vi) A 3 2 1
0 1 1
Cos0 Sin
vii) A
Sin Cos0
2 2 1
viii) A 1 3 1
1 2 1
*****
56
4
CAYLEY HAMILTON THEORY
UNIT STRUCTURE
4.1 Objective
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Cayley Hamilton Theorem
4.4 Similarity of Matrix
4.5 Characteristics Polynomial
4.6 Minimal Polynomial
4.7 Complex Matrices
4.8 Let Us Sum Up
4.9 Unit End Exercise
4.1 OBJECTIVE
4.2 INTRODUCTION
In previous chapter we learn about Eigen values & Eigen Vector. How
here we are going to discuss Cayley Hamilton Theory & its application
also we had study only Real matrix. We introduce here complex matrix
with type of complex matrix also minimal polynomial.
4.3 CAYLEY HAMILTON THEOREM
1
n
An
a1 An1 a2 An2 ........ an I 0
57
Example 1:
2 1 1
A 0 1 0
1 1 2
Solution:
The characteristic equation of the matrix A is A I 0
2 1 1
0 1 0 0
1 1 2
2 1 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
2 2 3 2 1 1 0
4 6 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 0
3 5 2 7 3 0
3 5 2 7 3 0
A3 5 A2 7 A 3I 0 ..(1)
Now, we have
2 1 1 2 1 1 5 4 4
A2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 2 1 1 2 4 4 5
2 1 1 5 4 4 14 13 13
A 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
3
1 1 2 4 4 5 13 13 14
A3 5 A2 7 A 3I
14 13 13 5 4 4 2 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 -5 0 1 0 +7 0 1 0 3 0 1 0
13 13 14 4 4 5 1 1 2 0 0 1
58
14 13 13 5 4 4 2 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 -5 0 1 0 +7 0 1 0 3 0 1 0
13 13 14 4 4 5 1 1 2 0 0 1
14 13 13 25 20 20 14 7 7 3 0 0
0 1 0 - 0 5 0 + 0 7 0 0 3 0
13 13 14 20 20 25 7 7 14 0 0 3
28 20 20 28 20 20
0 8 0 0 8 0
20 20 28 20 20 28
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0
A3 5 A2 7 A 3I 0
Example 2 :
3 6
Where A =
1 2
Solution :
A I 0
3 6
1 0
2
3 2 60
6 2 3 2 6 0
2 5 0
A2 5 A 0
i.e. A2 5 A
59
Now to calculate
A7 A5 . A2 A5 .5 A 5 A6
5 A4 . A2 25 A5
25 A3 . A2 125 A4
125 A2 . A2 125(5 A).(5 A)
3125 A2 3125(5 A)
15625A
3 6
A7 15625
1 2
46875 93750
15625 31250
46875 93750
The value of A7
15625 31250
Example 3:
1 1 1
A 1 1 2
1 2 1
Solution:
A I 0
1 1 1
1 1 2 0
1 2 1
1 1 2 2 4 1 1 2 12 1 0
2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 0
3 3 2 3 9 0
3 3 2 3 9 0
Multiply by A1
A3 A1 3 A2 A1 3 AA1 9IA1 0 A1
A2 3 A 3I 9 A1 0
1
A1 3 A 3I A2 .(1)
9
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 0 0
A 1 1 2 1 1 2 0 6 3
2
1 2 1 1 2 1 0 3 6
1 1 1 1 0 0 3 0 0
3 A 3I A 3 1 1 2 3 0 1 0 0 6 3
1 2 1 0 0 1 0 3 6
3 3 3 3 0 0 3 0 0
3 A 3I A 3 3 6 0 3 0 0 6 3
2
3 6 3 0 0 3 0 3 6
3 3 3
3 0 3
3 3 0
1
A1 3 A 3I A2
9
3 3 3
3 0 3
1
9
3 3 0
1 1 1
1 0 1
1
3
1 1 0
1 1 1
A 1 0 1
11
3
1 1 0
3 1 1
A 1 5 1 Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for this matrix.
1 1 3
61
Hence find A1
7 2 3
Ans: A1
1 1 4 1
20
2 2 8
2) Use Cayley-Hamilton theorem to find inverse of the matrix.
1 1 3 24 8 12
A 1 3 3
1
Ans:
10 2 6
8
2 4 4 2 2 2
1 2 4 3 8 6
A 1 0 3 Ans: A 1 7 14 7
1
7
3 1 2 1 5 2
2 2 1 1 0 2
A 1 3 1 A 0 2 1
1 2 2 2 0 3
1 0 2
i) A 2 2 4
0 0 2
3 1 1
ii) A 1 5 1
1 1 3
2 1 1
iii) A 1 2 1
1 1 2
3 1 1
Ans: A 1 3 1
1
1
4
1 1 3
62
Example 4:
Solutions:
Since A and B are similar, there exists a non-singular matrix P such that
B P1 AP
Consider B I P 1 AP I
B I P 1 AP P 1IP
P 1 A I P
P 1 A I P
A I P 1 P
A I P 1 . P 1
B I = A I
Example 5:
1 1 1 0
Show that A and B have same characteristics equations
0 1 0 1
but A and B not similar matrices.
Solutions:
1 1 1 0
Let A and B
0 1 0 1
63
Characteristics equation of A is A I 0
1 1
i.e. = 1 = 2 2 1 0 s equation
2
0 1
Characteristics equation of B is
B I 0
1 0
= 1 = 2 2 1 0
2
i.e.
0 1
1 0
Let C
0 2
1 0
C 2, C is non-singular as C 0
0 2
C 1 exists
2 0
adj C
0 1
1 0
1 1 2 0
adj C 1
1
C
C 2 0 1 0
2
1 0
C AC
1 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 2
2
1 0
1 0 1 2 B
0 1 0 2 0 1
2
2 2 3
Example 6: Let A 2 1 6 , Find similarity to a diagonal matrix.
1 2 0
Find the diagonal matrix.
64
2 0 0
Ans : A 0 2 0
0 0 8
2 1 1
For e.g. A 1 2 1
1 1 2
The characteristics polynomial is given by
2 1 1
A I 1 2 1
1 1 2
2 2 1 1 2 1 +1 1 2
2
2 2 4 3 2 2 3 6 2 3 4
3 6 2 9 4
Hence the degree of the equation is 2 and less than the order of the
polynomial.
Example 7:
2 2 3
i) A 1 1 1
1 3 1
Solution:
2 2 3
A I 1 1 1
1 3 1
3 sum of diagonal element of A 2
sum of minor of diagonal element of A A
2 2 3
2 1 1 1 2 3
2 1 1
3 2
1 1 1
1 1 3 1 1 1 1 3 1
3 2 2 4 4 5 6
66
3 2 2 5 6
2 1 3
2 1 1
ii) A 2 3 2
3 3 4
Solution:
2 1 1
A I 2 3 2
3 3 4
3 sum of diagonal element of A 2
sum of minor of diagonal element of A A
2 1 1
3 2 2 1 2 1
2 3 4
3 2
2 3 2
3 4 3 4 2 3 3 3 4
3 9 2 6 5 4 7
3 9 2 15 7
1 1 7
Example 8:
Show that the matrix A is derogatory also find its minimal polynomial.
1 6 4
A 0 4 2
0 6 3
Solution:
1 6 4
A I 0 4 2
0 6 3
3 sum of diagonal element of A 2
sum of minor of diagonal of matrix A A
1 6 4
4 2 1 4 1 6
1 4 3
3 2
0 4 2
6 3 0 3 0 4 0 6 3
3 2 2 0 3 4 0
3 2 2
( 2 2 1)
1 1
f 1 2 .
0 6 3 0 6 3
1 6 4
0 4 2
0 6 3
1 6 4 1 6 4
A A 0 4 2 0 4 2
2
0 6 3 0 6 3
A2 A 0
f A 0
The minimal of polynomial of A is f 2
68
Example 9:
2 2 1
Where, A 1 3 1
1 2 2
Solution:
2 2 1
A I 1 3 1
1 2 2
2 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 3
2 2 5 6 2 2 1 1
3 5 2 4 2 2 10 8 3 3
3 7 2 11 5
1 1 5
roots are.
f 1 5 2 6 5
6 12 7 1 2 2 0 0 1
69
7 12 6 12 12 6 5 0 0
6 13 6 6 18 6 0 5 0
6 12 7 6 12 12 0 0 5
f A 0
The minimal of polynomial of A is f 2 6 5
(1) Show that the following matrices are derogatory and hence find the
minimal polynomial.
1 2 3
(i) A 0 2 3 Ans: 2 3 2 0
0 0 3
2 1 1
(ii) A 0 3 2 Ans: 2 0
2 4 3
(2) Check whether the following matrix is derogatory or non-
derogatory also find the minimal polynomial.
1 3 0
(i) A 3 2 1 Ans: Non derogatory
0 1 1
2 1 0
(ii) A 0 2 0 Ans: Derogatory
0 0 2
Let A be a mxn matrix having complex numbers as its elements, then the
matrix is called a complex matrix.
Conjugate of a Matrix:
1 i i 1
For e.g. A
3 i 2 3i 2
1 i 3
1 i i 2
i 1
A then A i
3 i 2 3i 2
1 3i 2
A B
(2) A B
AB
(3) B . A
Hermitian matrix:
71
Example 10:
1 2 i 3 i
Show that the matrix A 2 i 3 i is Hermitian
3 i i 3
Solution:
1 2 i 3 i
Here A 2 i 3 i
3 i i 3
1 2 i 3 i
A 2 i 3 i
3 i i 3
1 2 i 3 i
A 2 i 3 i
3 i i 3
A A
Example 11:
2i 5 i 6 i
Show that the matrix A 5 i 0 i is called a Skew Hermitian
6 i i 0
Matrix.
Solution:
2i 5 i 6 i
Here A 5 i 0 i
6 i i 0
72
2i 5 i 6 i
A 5 i 0 i
6 i i 0
2i 5 i 6 i
A 5 i
0 i
6 i i 0
2i 5 i 6 i
A 5 i 0 i
6 i i 0
Hence A = -A
Note:
1 1
A A A i A A B iC
2 2i
B
1
2
A A and C A A
1
2i
Unitary Matrix:
Example 12:
1 1 3i 2 i
Show that the matrix A is Unitary matrix.
15 1 2i 3 i
Solution:
1 1 3i 2 i
Here A
15 1 2i 3 i
1 1 3i 1 2i
A
15 2 i 3 i
1 1 3i 2 i 1 3i 1 2i
AA
15 1 2i 3 i 2 i 3 i
73
1 15 0 1 0
I
15 0 15 0 1
AA I
Example 13:
2 i 1 3 3i
Express the matrix, A i 1 i 2 i As the Hermitian Matrix and
1 i 3 5
Skew Hermitian Matrix.
Solution:
2 i 1 3 3i
Let A i 1 i 2 i ......( I )
1 i 3 5
2 i 1 3 3i
A i 1 i 2 i
1 i 3 5
2i 1 1 i
A 1 1 i 3 ......( II )
3 3i 2 i 5
2 i 1 3 3i 2 i i 1 i
A A i 1 i 2 i 1 1 i 3
1 i 3 5 3 3i 2 i 5
4 1 i 4 4i
i 1 2 i 1
4 4i i 1 10
4 1 i 4 4i
B A A i 1
1 1
2 i 1 ......( III )
2 2
4 4i i 1 10
2 i 1 3 3i 2 i i 1 i
also A A i 1 i 2 i 1 1 i 3
1 i 3 5 3 3i 2 i 5
74
2i 1 i 2 2i
i 1 2 5i
2 2i 5 i 0
2i 1 i 2 2i
1
2
A A 2 i 1 2 5 i ......( IV )
1
2 2i 5 i 0
Now, A=B+iC
4 1 i 4 4i 2i 1 i 2 2i
1 1
A i 1 2 i 1 i 1 2 5i
2 2
4 4i i 1 10 2 2i 5 i 0
Example 14:
1 1 i
Prove that the matrix, A
2 i 1
Solution:
1 1 i
Let A
2 i 1
1 1 i
A
2 i 1
1 1 i 1 1 i
A A
2 i 1 2 i 1
1 1 i 2 i i
2 i i i 2 1
1 2 0 1 0
I
2 0 2 0 1
AA I
Hence A is Unitary.
2i 2 3 4i 1 i 2 2i
(i) A 2 4i 6
(ii) A i 1 i 5i
3 6 0 2 2i 5i 3i
(2) Show that the following matrices are Unitary matrices.
75
1 1 1 i
(i) A (ii)
3 i 1 1
1 1 i 1 i
A
2 i 1 1 i
(3) If A is Hermitian matrix, then show that iA is Skew- Hermitian
matrix.
2 4 3
ii) A 0 1 1
2 2 1
1 3 7
iii) A 4 2 3
1 2 1
2 1 1
i) A 1 2 1
1 1 2
1 1 3
ii)
A 1 3 3
2 4 4
76
1 4
3. Calculate A5 by Cayley Hamilton Theorem if A
2 3
2 2 3
4. Let A 2 1 6 . Find a similarity transformation that
1 2 0
diagonalises matrix A.
6 2 2
5. Let A 2 3 1 Find matrix P such that is diagonal matrix
2 1 3
.
1 0 1
6. Diagonalise the matrix 1 2 1
2 2 3
4 1 0
7. For the matrix A 1 4 1 .
0 1 4
2i 3 4
i) A 3 3i 5
4 5 4i
0 1 i 2 3i
ii) 1 i 0 6i
2 3i 6i 0
1 i 1 i
2 2
i) A
1 i 1 i
2 2
77
1 1 1
1
ii) A 1 w w2
3
1 w2 w
1 0 1
ii) A 1 2 1
2 2 3
1 2 3
iii) A 2 4 6
3 6 9
2 0 1
iv) A 0 3 0
1 0 2
1 1 3
v) A 1 5 1
3 1 1
5 0 1
vi) A 0 2 0
1 0 5
2 2 1
vii) A 1 3 1
1 2 2
9 4 4
viii) A 8 3 4
16 8 7
3 10 5
ix) A 2 3 4
3 5 7
78
13. Show that the following matrix is derogatory also find minimal
polynomial.
2 2 2
i) A 1 1 1
1 3 1
3 10 5
ii) A 2 3 4
3 5 7
2 2 3
iii) A 2 1 6
1 2 0
*****
79
5
VECTOR CALCULAS
UNIT STRUCTURE
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Vector differentiation
5.3 Vector operator
5.3.1 Gradient
5.3.2 Geometric meaning of gradient
5.3.3 Divergence
5.3.4 Solenoidal function
5.3.5 Curl
5.3.6 Irrational field
5.4 Properties of gradient, divergence and curl
5.5 Let Us Sum Up
5.6 Unit End Exercise
5.0 OBJECTIVES
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Vector:
Vector is a physical quantity which required magnitude and direction both.
Unit Vector:
80
Unit Vector is a vector which has magnitude 1. Unit vectors along co-
ordinate axis are i and j , k respectively.
i = j = k = 1
Scalar triple product of three vectors is defined as a. b c or a b c .
Geometrical meaning of a b c is volume of parallelepiped with cotter
minus edges a, b and c .
We have,
a b c = b c a = c a b
a b c = - b a c
Vector triple product of a b and c is cross product of a and b c i.e.
a b c or cross product of a b and c
a b c = a . c b a . b c
a b c = a . c b b . c a
Remark : Vector triple product is not associative in general
i.e. a b c a b c
Coplanar Vectors:
Three vectors a, b and c are coplanar if a b c = 0 for
a 0,b 0,c 0
Then,
81
v v t + t - v(t)
v v t + t - v(t)
=
t t
v v t + t - v(t)
lim = lim
t 0 t t 0 t
dv v v t + t - v(t)
= lim = lim
dt t 0 t t 0 t
dv v t + t - v(t)
= lim
dt t 0 t
d dv
(i) = k v = k k is a constant
dt dt
d du dv
(ii) u + v =
dt dt dt
d dv du
(iii) u . v = u . v.
dt dt dt
d dv du
(iv) u v = u v
dt dt dt
Note:
If r xi + yj + zk then r = r = x 2 y2 z 2
Example 1:
d2 r
t + 1 i + t 2 + t - 1 j + t 2 - t + 1 k
dr
If r find and
dt dt
82
Solution:
r t + 1
i + t 2 + t - 1 j + t 2 - t + 1 k
dr
i + 2t + 1 j + 2t - 1 k
dt
d2 r
2j + 2 k
dt 2
Example 2:
If r a cos wt + b sin wt where w is constant show that
r
dr
dt
d2 r
= w a b and 2 = -w r
dt
Solution:
r a cos wt + b sin wt------------ (i)
dr
a cos wt + b sin wt------------ (ii)
dt
a cos wt + b sin wt -aw sin wt + bw cos wt
dr
r
dt
a a=0
a b w cos 2 wt b a w sin 2 wt
b b=0
b a = 0
a b w cos 2 wt a b w sin 2 wt
= -a b
a b w cos 2 wt sin 2 wt
a b w 1
w a b
d2 r
-a w 2cos wt - b w 2sin wt
dt 2
= -w 2 a cos wt + b sin wt
-w 2 r from (i)
d d da d2 a
i) a b c ii) a
dt dt dt dt 2
83
d
Solution: i) a b c
dt
a . b c
d
=
dt
= a.
d
dt
b c + b c .
da
dt
db
c + b c .
dc da
= a . b +
dt dt dt
dc db
c + b c .
da
= a . b
+a.
dt dt dt
dc db da
= a b + a c + b c
dt dt dt
d da d2 a
Solution: ii) a
dt dt dt 2
da d3 a d2a d2a da d 2 a da
= a 3
+ a c 2 2
+
dt dt dt dt dt dt 2 dt
(From Result i)
da d 3 a
= a 3
+0+0
dt dt
da d 3 a
= a .
dt dt 3
= a b c
d
Example 4. Evaluate the following:
dt
= a
b c
d
Solution:
dt
= a b a b c
dc d
+
dt dt
= a b
dc db da
+a + b c
dt dt dt
db da
= a b
dc
+ a c + b c
dt dt dt
dr
r
dr dt , where r = r
Example 5. Show that r = 2
dt r r
84
r
Solution : We have r =
r
dr d r
dt dt r
dr dr
r -r
dt 2 dt
r
1 dr r dr
r dt r 2 dt
r
L.H.S. r =
r
r dr r dr
1
2
r r dt r dt
r 1 dr r r dr
r r dt r 2 dt
r dr
2 0 rr 0
r dt
dr
r
dt
r2
R.H.S
1 dr
Example 6. If r = t 3 i + 2t 3 - 2 j . Then show that r = k
5t dt
Solution:
1
r = t 3i + 2t 3 j
5t 2
dr 2
3t 2i + 6t 2 j
dt 5t 3
L.H.S.
i j k
dr 1
r t3 2t 3 0
dt 5t 2
2
3t 2 6t 2 3 0
5t
85
2 1
i 0 - j 0 + k t 3 6t 2 3 - 3t 2 2t 3 2
5t 5t
2 3
k 6t 5 6t 5
5 5
k
R. H. S.
mt mt d2 r
Example 7. If r =a e +be . Show that 2
= n2 r
dt
Solution:
r = a e mt + b e mt .......................................................(i)
dr
m a e mt - m b e mt
dt
d2 r
2
m 2 a e mt + m 2 b e mt
dt
m 2 a e mt + b e mt
m2 r (from (i))
2
d r
2
m2 r
dt
du dv
(1) If = w u and = wv
dt dt
d
Show that u v = w u v
dt
dr d 2 r
(2) If r = t i 3t - t
2 3 2
j + 7t + 1 k Find
,
dt dt 2
dr d 2 r dr d2 r
(3) If: r = t i t j + st - 1 k , Find
, , ,
dt dt 2 dt dt 2
d2 r
(4) If r = e t i 2cos 3t j + 7sin 3t j Find 2
at t =
dt 2
da da
(5) Show that: a. =a where a = a1i a 2 j a 3k and a is
dt dt
magnitude of a .
86
The vector differential operator is defined as = i j k .
x y z
5.3.1 Gradient:
dr
Solution: grad = i
+j
+k
2 3 z
x y e
x y z
= i
x
x
y3 e z + j
2
y
x 2 y3 e z + k z
x 2
y3 e z
= i 2xy3e z + j 3x 2 y 2 e z + k x 2 y3 e z
= x y 2 ez 2y i +3xj + xyk
Example 9: If r xi yj zk find grad r
Solution:
87
r = xi + yj + zk
r = x 2 + y2 + z 2
Grad r = i +j +k 2
x +y +z
2 2
x y z
= i x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + j x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + k x 2 + y2 + z2
x y z
1 1 1
= i
2 2 2
2x + j 2 2 2
. 2y + k 2z
2 x +y +z 2 x +y +z 2 x + y2 + z2
2
x y z
= i+ j+ k
r r r
xi yj+zk
=
r
r
grad r =
r
1
Example 10: If r xi yj zk find grad
r
Solution:
r = xi + yj + zk
r= x 2 + y2 + z2
r 2 = x 2 + y2 + z2
r
2r = 2x
x
2r x 2r y 2z z
, ,
2x r 2y r 2r r
1 1
grad = i +j +k
r x y z r
1 1 + k 1
= i + j
x r y r z r
1 r
= i 2 1 r 1 r
+ j 2 +k 2
r x r y r z
1 r r r
= 2 i + j
y
+k
r x y
88
1 x y z
= i + j + k
r2 r r r
1 1
= 2.
r r
xi + yj + zk
1
= 3 r
r
r
= 3
r
Solution:
grad = i +j +k 3
2x y - y z
2
x y z
= i
x
2x 3 y - y 2 z + j
y
2x 3 y - y 2 z + k
z
2x y - y z
3 2
= i 6x 2 y + j 2x 3 - 2yz + k - y 2
= i 6x 2 y + j 2x 3 - 2yz - k y2
grad
2
3
= 6 1 1 i + j 2 1 2 1 2 k 1
2
= 6 i + j 2 4 k
= -6 i + 6j k
Solution : Grad e r2 r2
= i
x
+j
y
+k e
z
= i
x
2
e r + j
y
e r + k
2
z
er
2
r r r
= i e r .r + j e r .r + k e r .r
2 2 2
x y z
x y z
= i e r .r. + j e r .r + k e r .r
2 2 2
r r r
= r e r xi + y j + z k
2
2
= r er r
89
Solution: grad r n = r n
n
= i +j +k r
x y z
n n n
= i r + j r + k r
x y z
r r r
= i n r n 1 + j n r n 1 + k n r n 1
x y z
x y z
= i n r n 1 + j n r n 1 + k n r n 1
r r r
n 2
= inr x + jnr y +knr z n 2 n 2
= n r n 2 xi + yj + zk
= n r n 2 r
Solution:
grad log x 2 y2 z 2 = grad log r 2 = grad (2log r) = 2 grad ( log r)
= 2 i +j +k ( log r)
x y z
= 2 i ( log r)+ j ( log r)+ k ( log r)
x y z
1 r 1 r 1 r
= 2 i +j +k
r x r y r z
1x 1y 1z
= 2 i +j +k
r r r r r r
2 1y
= 2 xi +y j +z k
r r r
2r
= 2
r
a. r a n a. r
Example 15: Show that grad n n n2 r where
r r r
r r i +yj + zk
90
Solution: let
a = a1 i + a 2 j + a 3 k
a .r = a1 x + a 2 y + a 3
a. r
grad n
r
a. r
n
r
a x + a 2 y + a3 z
i j k 1
x y z rn
a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z
now i
x rn
n r
r a1 - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z nr
n 1
i x
r 2n
n x
r a1 - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z nr
n 1
i r
r 2n
r n a1 - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z nx n 1 r n 2
i
r 2n
similarly
a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z
j
y rn
r n a 2 - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z ny r n 2
j
r 2n
and
a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z
k
z rn
r a 3 - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z nz r n 2
n
k
r 2n
a . r
grad n
r
r n a1 i + a 2 j + a 3 k - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z nz r n 2 xi + yj + zk
r 2n
91
ar n - n r n 2 r a .r
r 2n
ar n - n a .r r n 2 r
-
r 2n r 2n
ar n n a .r
- r
r 2n
r n 2
a n a .r
n - r
r r n2
(1) If r x i +y j + z k and r r
Show that:
r
a) grad log r
r2
b) grad r 3 3 r r
r
c) grad f r f 1 r
r
(2) If = 4x 2 yz + 3xyz2 5xyz
[Hint :- Unit vector normal to surface i.e. ]
5.3.1 Divergence:
= i j k . v1 i +v 2 j + v3 k
x y z
= v1 v 2 v3
x y z
Solution: div F = . F
= i
x
j
y
k
z
2
. x y i 2xyj + y 2xy k
2 2
2
=
x
x y2
y
2xy y2 2xy
z
= 2x 2x 0
= 4x
Solution: div r
=.F
= i
x
j
y
k
z
. xi + yj + zk
= x y z
x y z
= 111
=3
r r r
= 3r n + nr n 1 x + y +z
x y z
x y z
= 3r n + nr n 1 x. y. z.
r r r
n
= 3r + nr n 1 x 2
y2 z2
r
2
r
= 3r n + nr n 1
r
= 3r n + nr n
= 3 + n rn
= R.H.S.
=
3r 2 - x 2 + y 2 z 2
r3
94
3r 2 - r 2
=
r3
2
=
r
Solution: grad F
= F
= i
j
k
2
x y z
3 4
x y z
= 2xy z i + 3y z j + 4x 2 y 3z 3 k
3 4 2 4
div (grad F)
= . 2xy3 z 4 i + 3y 2 x 2 z 4 j + 4x 2 y3z 3 k
=
x
2xy3 z 4 +
y
3y 2 x 2 z 4 +
z
4 x 2 y3 z 3
= 2xy3 z 4 + 6x 2 y z 4 + 12 x 2 y3 z 2
Solution: div a r r n
= i
x
. a r rn
= i .
. a r r n a r
r
n
x x
r n n 1 r
= i . a r a r n r
x x
a
0
x
i . a
x
= i r n a r n r n 1
r
= i . a i r n nx r n 2 a r
= nr n 2 x i a r
i. a i = 0
nr n 2 a r x i
95
nr n 2 a r r
xi r
nr n 2 a r . r
nr n 2 0
0
curl F F
F
= i
x
j
y
k
F1i + F2 j +F3 k
z
i j k
=
x y z
F1 F2 F3
F3 F2 F3 F1 F2 F1
= i - j + k x y
y z x z
The curl of the linear velocity of any particle of rigid body is equal to
twice the angular velocity of body.
Hence curl v v
= w r
i j k
= w1 w2 w3
x y z
= i w 2 z -w 3 y j w1z -w 3 x k w1y -w 2 x
96
i j k
=
x y z
w 2 z -w 3 y w 3 x -w1z w1y -w 2 x
= i w1 + w1 j w 2 -w 2 k w 3 + w 3
= 2w1i 2w 2 j 2w 3k
= 2w
curl v = 2w
Solution: Curl F
i j k
=
x y z
x y 2xy 2yz
2
= 2z +2x i 2z -x 2 k
curl curl (F) = 2z + 2x i + 0j + 2z x 2 k
i j k
=
x y z
2z +2x 0 2z x 2
= i
2z x 2 0 j
2z x 2 2z 2x
y z x z
k 0 2z 2x
x y
= i 0 j 2x 2 k 0
= 2x 2 j
At (1, 0, 2)
97
curl F 2(1) + 2 j
4 j
Solution: Curl r
i j k
=
x y z
x y z
z y z x y x
i - j + k
y z x z x y
0i - 0j+
0k
0
r
Example 25 Evaluate curl where if r = xi + yj zk
r
Solution:
r
r = 2
r
r x y z
= 2 i 2 j 2 k
r r r r
98
r x y z
curl = 2 i 2 j 2 k
r r r r
i j k
x y z
x y z
r2 r2 r2
z y z x
i 2 2 - j 2 2
y r z r x r z r
y x
+ k 2 2
x r y r
2z 2r 2y 2r
i 3
r 2z
+ 3 + -------------+---------------
r 2y
2z y 2y z
i 3 + 3 + -------------+---------------
r r r r
2yz 2yz 2zx 2zx 2xy 2xy
i +j +k
r3 r3 r3
= 0i + 0j + 0k
0
Solution: curl F
i j k
x y z
x2y xz 2yz
i 2yz xz - j 2yz x z
2
y z x z
+ k x z
x2 z
x y
i 2z - x - j 0 - 0 + k z - x 2
2z - x i + z - x 2 k
div (curl F)
99
i j + k . 2z - x i z x 2 k
x y z
x
2z - x
z
z x2
= 1 + 1
0
Solution: F = grad xy + yz zx
xy + yz +zx
i j + k xy + yz +zx
x y z
i xy + yz +zx + j xy + yz +zx + k xy + yz +zx
x y z
i y + z + j x z + k y + x
(curl F)
i j k
x y z
yz x + z x + y
i x + y - x + z - j x x + y y + z
y z z
+ k x + z y + z
x y
i 1 - 1 - j 1 - 1 + k 1 - 1
0 i + 0 j + 0 k
0
(i) f g = f g
(ii) . A B = . A . B
(iii) A B = A . B
100
Proof:
(i) f g i +j +k f g
x y z
i f g j f g + k f g
x y z
i f + j f + k i g+ j g + g
x y z x y z
f g
B = B1i + B2 j +B3k
. A B
. A1 B1 i A B j A B k
2 2 3 3
x
A1 B1 + y
A 2 B2 +
z
A 3 B3
A1 + A2 + A3 B1 + B2 + B3
x y z x y z
. A . B
(ii) Let
A B
i j k
x y z
A1 B1 A 2 B2 A 3 B3
i y A 3 B3
z
A 2 B2
i
x
A B
A B
i
x x
A B
i
x
i x
A B
101
ds d2 s
1) If S represents displacement vector, represents velocity and 2
dt dt
represents acceleration.
ds
2) For i j k
dt x y z
grad f F
grad F . F
curl F F
*****
103
6
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
UNIT STRUCTURE
6.1 Objective
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Differential Equation
6.4 Formation of differential equation
6.5 Let Us Sum Up
6.6 Unit End Exercise
6.1 OBJECTIVE
6.2 INTRODUCTION
Definition:-
3 2
d 2y dy
2
dx dx
Squaring both sides
2
d 2 y dy
3
2
dx dx
Order=2, degree=2
Solved examples:
1
dx
i) e
d2y
dx 2
Solution:
3
d 2 y dy
2 2
e 2 1
dx dx
Squaring both sides
3
d 2 y dy
2 2
e 2 1
2
dx dx
order = 2, degree = 2
d
3
d2y
sin( xy ) e
x
ii) x
dx dx3
Solution:
3 2
d 3y d3 y d 4 y
3 x 3 3 4 sin( xy) e
x
dx dx dx
Order = 4, degree=1
dy 5
iii) y x
dx dy
dx
Solution:
2
dy dy
y x 5
dx dx
Order =1, degree=2
106
2
dy dy
iv) y x 5 1
dx dx
Solution:
2
dy dy
y x 5 1
dx dx
Squaring on both sides
dy
2
dy 2
y-x 25 1
dx dx
dy 2 dy
2
dy 2
y 2 xy x 25 1
2
dx dx dx
Order =1, degree=2
y ax2 1
Where y= independent variable
x = dependent variable
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to x
dy
we have 2ax (2)
dx
From equation (1) we have
y
a 2
x
Put value of a in equation (2), we have
dy y
2 2 x
dx x
dy 2 y
dx x
dy
x 2y
dx
dy
x 2y 0
dx
This is the required differential equation
Note:-
To eliminate two arbitrary constants, three equations are required. To
eliminate three arbitrary constants, four equations are required.
In general to eliminate n arbitrary constants. (n+1) equations are required.
In other words elimination of n arbitrary consonants will bring us to
differential equation of nth order.
Solved Examples:-
Example 2: Form the differential equations if y c1 cos x c2 sin x
Solution: We have
Y= c1 cos x + c 2 sinx -------------(1)
This equation contains two arbitrary constants, therefore we shall require
three equations to eliminate c1 and c 2 .
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to x
dy
= -c1 cos x c2 cos x.
dx
Again differentiate with respect to x
d2 y
= -c1 cos x c2 sin x
dx 2
108
d2 y
= (c1 cos x+c2 sin x)
dx 2
d2 y
= y from eq ----(1)
dx 2
d2 y
+y=0
dx 2
This is the required differential equation.
y 1 1
dy
2 3 0
dx
d2y
4 9
dx 2
In the determinant
1st column is LHS
Column 2nd column 2nd column contains coefficients a e2x
Expanding the determinant
2nd column contains coefficients of b e3x
dy d2y
y 18 12 9 4 2 3 2 0
dx dx
dy d 2 y
6y-5 2 0
dx dx
110
d2 y dy
2
-5 +6y 0
dx dx
This is the required differential equation.
Example 7: Find the differential equation of all circles
touching y axis at the origin and centers on x-axis
Solution:
i.e. x2 2ax a 2 y 2 a 2
x2 y 2 2ax 0 (1)
Where a is the only arbitrary contents
Differentiate equation (1) with respect to x We have
dy
2 x 2 y 2a 0
dx
dy
x2 y2 2x x y 0
dx
dy
x 2 y 2 2 x 2 2 xy 0
dx
dy
-x 2 y 2 2 xy 0
dx
111
dy
2 xy x2 y2 0
dx
Which is the require differential equation.
d2y dy
Ans 2
2 2y 0
dx dx
d3y d 2y dy
Ans 3
2 2
5 6 y 0
dx dx dx
d 2 s ds
Ans 2s 0
dt 2 dt
iii) y A cos 2t+ B sin 2t
d2 y
Ans 4y 0
dt 2
iv) y ax3 bx 2
d2y dy
Ans x2 2
4x 6 y o
dx dx
v) x A cos(nt
d2y
Ams 2
n2 x 0
dt
vi Y A Bx Cx2
d2y
Soln 0
dx 2
Vii Y sin x c
112
dy
Soln cos x
dx
Viii y (c1 c2 x)e x
d2y dy
Ans 2
2 y 0
dx dx
x. Y = ACos2x+ BSin2x
*****
7
SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATION
UNIT STRUCTURE
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Solution of Differential equation
7.4 Solution of Differential Equation of first order and first degree
7.5 Let Us Sum Up
7.6 Unit End Exercise
7.1 OBJECTIVES
7.2 INTRODUCTION
General Solutions:-
The general Solution of a differential equation is the most general
relation between the dependent and the independent variable occurring in
the equation which satisfies the given differential equation.
Particular Solutions:-
114
There are many methods that can be used to solve the differential
equations. Important one among those are listed below.
1) Variable seperable form.
2) Equations reducible to variable seperable form.
3) Homogeneous equations.
4) Exact differential equations.
5) linear differential equations.
6) Equations reducible to linear differential equation.( Bernoulliss
differential equation)
115
7) Methods of substitution.
We will explain all these methods one by one in detail.
Solved Examples:-
Example 1: Solve 3x tan y dx 1 e x Sec 2 y.dy 0
3e x sec2 y
x dx dy 0 1)
1-e tan y
This is in variable separable form
Integrate equation (1), we get
3e x Sec 2 y
1e x dx tan y dy constant
e Sec 2 y
-3 dx tan y dy c
ex 1
-3log ex 1 log tan y log c
tany
=c
e - 1
x 3
1 x y 2 1 x 2
y dy 2
Solution:
x dx
= 1+ x 2 1+ y 2
y dy
x dx
= 1+ x 2 1+ y 2
y dy
x dx
dy = x 1+ x 2 dx - - - - - - - - - -1
y
1+ y
2
f 1 x
\ dx = 2 f x + c
f x
f x f x dx
n
1
f x
n+1
=
n+1
1 2
2 1+ y 2 = 1+ x 2 2 +c
1 3
2 2 3
1
1+ x 2 2 +c
3
1+ y 2 =
3
This is in required general solution.
dy
Example 3: Solve 1 x 1 2e y
dx
Solution: The given equation is
1 x 2e y 1
dy
dx
1 1
-y dy = dx
2e - 1 x+1
ey 1 1
dy = dx
e 2e-y - 1
y
x+1
ey 1
dy dx
2e y
x 1
1 ey
0= dx dy
x+1 2 ey
117
1 ey
dx y 2 dy 0 (1)
x 1 e
This is in variable separable form,
Integrate equation (1), we get
1 ey
x 1 dx e y 2 dy =log c
log x 1 log e y 2 log c
x 1 e y 2 c
This is the required general solution.
3e x sec2 y
dx dy 0 (1)
1+e x tan y
This is in variable separable form,
Integrate equation (1) we get
3ex sec2 y
dx dy log c
1+ex tan y
ex sec2 y
3 1+ex dx tan y dy log c
3log 1 e x log tany=log c
1+1 tan c
3
4
c=8
Put value of c in equation (2)
1 e x tan y 8
3
x2 x2 x2
cos y y sin y cos y 2 log x c
2 2 2
y sin y x 2 log x x 2 x 2 c
y sin y x 2 log x c
This is required general solution
Check Your Progress:
1) solve:
dy
e x y x 2 e y
dx
x3
e ey c
x
3
dy 2 dy
2) solve: y x a y
dx dx
ans 1 ay x a cy
dy
3) solve: log ax by
dx
eax eby
ans c
a b
dy
4) solve: x cos x cos y sin y 0
dx
ans x sin x cos x log cos y c
119
a2
x= dt dt c
t 2 a2
1 t a
x=t+a 2 log c
2a ta
a t a
x=t+ log c
2 ta
t=x-y
a x ya
x=x-y+ log c
2 x ya
a x ya
y= log c
2 x ya
This is the required general solution
dy
Example 7: Solve cos x y
dx
dy
Solution: We have cos x y (1)
dx
Put x y t
Differentiating above with respect to x, we get
dy dt
1+
dx dx
dy dt
1
dx dx
Using equation (1)
dt
1 cos t
dx
dt
1 cos t
dx
1
dt dx
1 cos t
1
dt dx
2 cos 2 t
2
This is invariable separable form,
Integrating we get
1
dt dx cons tan t
2cos 2 t
2
1
sec2 t dt x c
2 2
121
1 2
tan t x c
2 1 2
tan t x c
2
t=x+y
x y
tan xc
2
This is the required general solution,
2 dx
Example 8: Solve 4x y 1
dy
dy
4 x y (1)
2
Solution: The given equation is
dx
Put 4x y t
Differentiating above with respect to x
dy dt
4
dx dx
dy dt
4
dx dx
Using equation (1), we have
dt
4 t2
dx
dt
t2 4
dx
1
2 dt dx
t 4
This is in variable separable form
Integrating we get,
1
2 dt dx cons tan t
t 4
1 t
2 tan
1
xc
2
t=x+y
1 x y
tan 1 xc
2 2
x y
tan 1 2 x c1 where c1 c
2
This is the required general solution
dy
Example 9: Solve x y y 0
dx
122
Solution:
dy
x y y 0 (1)
dx
Put x y t
Differentiating with respect to x, we get
dy dt
1+
dx dx
dy dt
1
dx dx
Using equation (1), we have
dt
t 1 t x 0
dx
dt x t
1
dx t
dt x
1 1
dx t
dt x
dx t
xdx tdt
This is in variable separable form
Integrating we get,
xdx= tdt+constant
x2 t 2
c
2 2
x 2 t 2 2c
t=x+y
x 2 x y 2c
2
x 2 x2 2 xy y 2 2c
2xy y 2 2c
y 2 2xy c1 where c1 2c
This is the required general solution
y y x y y
Example 10: Solve cos dx sin cos dy 0
x x y x x
Solution:
y y x y y
The equation is, cos dx sin cos dy 0
x x y x x
123
y
Substitute v
x
y=vx
Differentiating above with respect to x, we get
dy dv
v x
dx dx
But the above equation can be written as
y y x y y dy
cos sin cos 0
x x y x x dx
1 dy
v cosv- sin v cos v v x 0
v dx
By rearranging the terms, we have
1 sin v v cos v
dx dv
x v sin v
1 sin v v cos v
dx dv 0
x v sin v
This is in variable separable form
Integrating we get,
1 sin v v cos v
dx dv cons tan t
x v sin v
logx+log vsinv c
x vsinv log
log c
xv sinv=c
y
v=
x
y y
x sin c
x x
y
ysin c
x
This is the required general solution
y x e dy 0 Ans:y2 2 x 2e y x c
y y
3) 2x y e x x
dx
y y y y
tan x x sec dx sec2 dy 0
2
x x
y
Ans x tan c
x
7.4.3 Homogeneous Equations
Solution: We have
2
x
y 2 dx 2 xy dy 0
2xy dy=- x 2 y 2 dx
dy x2 y 2
(1)
dx 2 xy
put y=vx
dy dv
v x
dx dx
Using equation 1 we have
dv x 2 v 2 x 2
vx
dx 2 x vx
125
dv x 1 v
2 2
v x
dx 2v x 2
dv 1 2v 2
x 1
dx 2v
dv 1 3v 2
x
dx 2v
-2v 1
2
dv dx
1+3v x
This is in variable separable form
Integrating above expression we have
1 6v 1
- 2
dv= dx cons tan t
3 1+3v x
1
1+3v 2 3 3
cx
y
v
x
y2 1
1+3 2
3 3
x cx
1
x 3 3xy 2 3
c
1
x 3 3xy 2 k where k=
c3
This is the required general solution
dy dy
Example 12: Solve y 2 x 2 xy
dx dx
Solution:
dy dy
The given equation is y 2 x 2 xy
dx dx
dy dy
y 2 xy x 2
dx dx
y 2 xy x 2
dy
dx
126
dy y2
(1)
dx xy x 2
This is a homogeneous equation
Put y=vx
dy dv
v x
dx dx
Using equation (1),we have
dv v2 x2
v x
dx x vx x 2
dv v 2 x 2
v x 2
dx x v 1
dv v2
x v
dx v 1
dv v
x
dx v 1
v 1 1
dv dx
v x
1 1
1 dv dx
v x
This is in variable separable form
Integrating we get,
1 1
1 v dv = x dx cons tan t
vlogv=logx+logc
v=logv+logx+logc
v=log vxc
y
v=
x
y y
=log x c
x x
y
=log cy
x
y=xlog cy
This is the required general solution
Example 13: solve x 3
y 3 dx 3xy 2 dy 0
.
Solution:
127
x 3
y 3 dx 3xy 2 dy 0
This is a homogenous equation
x 3
y3 dx 3xy 2 dy
dy x3 y 3
(1)
dx 3xy 2
Put y vx
dy dv
v x
dx dx
Using equation 1 we have
dv x3 v3 x3
v x
dx 3x v 2 x 2
dv x 1 v
3 3
v x
dx 3v 2 x3
dv 1 v3
x v
dx 3v 2
dv 1 2v3
x
dx 3v 2
3v 2 1
dv dx
1 2v 3
x
This is in variable separable form
Integrating we have
1 6v 2 1
3 dv dx cons tan t
2 2v 1 x
2v 1 log
cx
2
log 3
2v3 1
1
2 2
c x
y
Put v=
x
y3 1
2 3
1 2 2
x c x
x
2y3 x3 2
c
128
1
2y3 x3 kx where k=
c2
This is the required general solution
y 2 y 2 y
Example 14: solve x tan y sec dx x sec dy 0
x x x
Solution:
The given equation is
y 2 y 2 y
x tan y sec dx x sec dy 0
x x x
y y
y sec 2 x tan
dy x x
dx 2 y
x sec
x
y
tan
dy y x (1)
dx x sec2 y
x
This is a homogeneous equation
Put y vx
dy dv
v x
dx dx
Using equation 1 we have
dv tan v
v+x
v 2
dx sec v
dv tan v
x
dx sec2 v
sec2 v 1
dv dx
tan v x
sec2 v 1
dv dx 0
tan v x
This is in variable separable form
Integrating we get,
sec2v 1
tan 2 v dv xdx cons tan t
log tanv + log x =log c
tanv x
log =log
c
x tanv = c
129
y
Put v =
x
y
x tan = c
x
This is the required general solution
Check Your Progress:
1) solve the following
i) xdy ydx x 2 y 2 dx
ans y x 2 y 2 cx 2
x
ii) x y cot dy ydx 0
y
x
ans y c sec
y
dy dy
iii) y 2 x2 xy
dx dx
y
ans cy e x
iv) x y dx 2xydy
2 2
ans x x 3y c
2 2
dy
v) x y x2 a2
dx
x2
ans y ce 3 y2
dy
vi) x y x y
dx
ans y 2 2 xy x 2 c
Definition:-
The equation Mdx+Ndy=0 is said to be an exact differential equation if
and only it.
Mdx+ Ndy=du
Where u is some function of x and y
e.g. xdy+ydx=0 is exact
u=xy
Where
xdy+ydy = du
130
Solved Examples:-
Example15: Solve 5x4 6 x 2 y 2 8xy dx 4 x3 y 12 x 2 y 2 5 y 4 dy 0
Solution: The given equation is:
5x 4
6 x 2 y 2 8xy3 dx 4 x3 y 12 x 2 y 2 5 y 4 dy 0 (1)
M= 5x4 6 x 2 y 2 8xy3
N= 4 x3 y 12 x 2 y 2 5 y 4
M
Y Y
5 x 4 6 x 2 y 2 8 xy 3
= 0+12 x2 y 24 xy 2
M
12 x 2 y 24 xy 2
Y
N
x x
4 x3 y 12 x2 y 2 5 y 4
12 x2 y 24 xy 2 0
N
12 x 2 y 24 xy 2
x
M N
y x
Hence differential equation (1) is exact
Its solution is given by
5x +6x 2 y2 -8xy3 dx 5 y 4 dy c
4
x5 x3 4 3 x 2 y5
5 6 y 8 y 5 c
2
5 3 2 5
x 5 2 x3 y 2 4 x 2 y 3 y 5 c
This is the required general solution
dy 4 x3 y 2 y cos xy
Example 16: Solve 4
dx 2 x y x cos xy
Solution:
The given equation is
dy 4 x3 y 3 y cos xy
4
dx 2 x y x cos xy
4 x3 y 2 y cos xy dx 2 x 4 y cos xy dy 0...........(1)
Comparing with Mdx+Ndy=0; we have
M 4 x3 y 2 y cos xy
N 2 x4 y x cos xy
M
y y
4 x3 y 2 y cos xy
M
8 x3 y 2 cos xy xy sin xy
y
N
2 x 4 y y cos xy
x x
N
8 x3 y cos xy xy sin xy
x
M N
y x
Hence differential equation (1) is exact
Its solution is given by
4 y2 x dx y cos xy c
3
x4 sin xy
4y 2 y c
4 y
x 4 y 2 sin xy c
This is the required general solution
Example 17: Solve x 2e dy y x sin x dx 0 .
y
132
Solution:
The equation given is
x 2e dy y x sin x dx 0
y
y+xsinx dx x 2e dy 0 (1)
y
N
1
x
M N
y x
Hence differential equation (1) is exact
Its solution is given by
xy x cos x sin x 2 e y c
This is the required general solution
Example 18: Solve
1
y 1 x cos y dx x log x x sin y dy 0
Solution: The given equation is
1
y 1 x cos y dx x log x x sin y dy 0 (1)
Comparing with Mdx+Ndy=0; we have
1
M y 1 cos y
x
N x log x x sin y
M 1
y 1 cos y
Y y x
133
M 1
1 sin y
Y x
N
x log x x sin y
x x
N 1
1 sin y
x x
M N
Y x
Hence the differential equation (1) is exact
Its solution is given by
dy
y cos x sin y y
dx sin x x cos y x
sin x x cos y x dy y cos x sin y y dx
y cos x sin y y dx+ sin x x cos y x dy 0 (1)
Comparing with Mdx+Ndy=0; we have
M=y cos x sin y y
N=sin x x cos y x
M
y cos x sin y y
y y
M
cos x cos y 1
y
N
sin x x cos y x
x x
N
cos x cos y 1
x
134
M N
y x
Hence the differential equation (1) is exact
Its solution is given by
M treat y constant dx N terms free from x dy c
y cos x sin y y dx ody c
y y cos x dx sin y dx y dx c
y sin x x sin y xy c
Which is the require general solution
y3
Ans. a 2 x x 2 y xy 2 c
3
1 e x y dx e x y 1 x
(2) dy 0
y
x
Ans. x y e y
c
(3) cos x tan y cos x y dx sin x sec2 y cos x y dy o
Ans. sin x tan y sin x y c
(4) y e
2 xy 2
4 x3 dx 2 xy e xy 3 y 2 dy 0
2
Ans. e xy x 4 y3 c
2
x
(5) 1 log xy dx 1 dy 0
y
Ans. y x log xy c
(6) 2xy e dx x
y 2
xe y dy 0
Ans. x 2 y xe y c
(7) y sin xy xy 2 cos xy dx x sin xy x 2 y cos xy dy 0
M N
Ans. sin xy xy cos( xy) 2 xy cos( xy) x 2 y 2 sin( xy)
y x
General solution is given by
xy sin xy c
135
dy x 2 +3y 2
xiv. + =0
dx 3x 2 + y 2
dy
xv. 4( x y ) = 3x - 4y
dx
*****
8
EQUATION REDUCIBLE TO EXACT
EQUATIONS
UNIT STRUCTURE
8.1 Objective
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Definition
8.4 Linear Equation And Equations Reducible To Linear Form
8.5 Equations reducible to linear form
8.6 Let Us Sum Up
8.7 Check your progress
8.8 Unit End Exercise
8.1OBJECTIVE
8.2 INTRODUCTION
In previous chapter we have learn about exact differential equation & its
solution. Now here we are going to discuss none exact differential
equation. To find the solution of non-exact differential equation we use
integrating factor which convert non-exact differential equation to exact
differential equation. Also we discuss about solution of linear differential
equation.
137
In some cases equations which are not exact can be converted to exact
differential equation by multiplying by some suitable factor called as
Integrating factor.
8.3 DEFINITION
Integrating Factor
If the equation leMdx +leNdy=0 is exact
then le is said to be an integrating factor of the equation Mdx+ Ndy = 0
Rule (1)
1
If the equation Mdx+Ndy=0 is homogeneous then is
Mx Ny
integrating factor
Solved Example:
Example 1: x 2 y 2 xy 2 dx- x 3 3x 2 y dy 0
Solution: The given equation is
x y 2xy dx- x
2 2 3
3x 2 y dy 0........(1)
This is a homogeneous equation.
x 2
y 2 xy 2
dx-
x 3
3x 2 y
dy 0 is exact
x2 y 2 x2 y 2
1 2 x 3
i.e. dx- 2 dy 0 is exact
y x y y
1 2 3
y x dx y dy c
1 1 1
y
dx-2 x dx 3 y d y c
x
2log x 3log y c
2
This is required general solution
Solve
i) 3xy 2
y3 dx xy2 2 x 2 y dy 0
1
Hint : I.F.
x y2 2
3
c x
x
ii) x 2
3xy 2 y 2 dx x 3x-2y dy 0
1
Hint: I.F.
x3
General solution is given by
x 2 log x 3xy y2 cx2
Solved Examples :-
N 2-2x y x 2 2
1
I. f .
Mx Ny
1
I.f.
xy x y 2 2 2x 2 y 2
2 2
1
I. f .
3x3 y 3
x y 2 2
2 y
dx
2-2x y x dy 0
2 2
3x3 y 3 3x3 y 3
1 2 1 2 2
i. e 3 2 dx 3 3 dy 0
3x 3 x y 3x y 3 y
which is a exact equation
Its General solution is given by
3 x dx 2 3 dx dy c
3y x 3 y
1 2 2
log x 2 2 log y c
3 6x y 3
1
log x- 2log y c1 where c1 2c
x y2
2
1
Hint: I.F.
2x 2 y2
G.S. is given by
1
xy log x- log y c
xy
2. y xy 2 x 2 y 2 x xy-x 2 y 2 dy 0
1
Ans x cy e
2 xy
140
M N
y x
If a function of x alone. Say f(x) then e f x dx is
N
integrated. factor.
Solved Examples :-
M
4y3 2
y
N
x x
xy3 2 y 4 4 x
N
y3 4
x
N M
x y
M
-3 y3 2
y y3 2
3
function of y alone
y
I.F. e
f y dy
1
-3 ydy
e
e-3 log y
141
1
log 3
e y
1
I .F .
y3
y 4
2y
dx
xy 3
2 y4 4x
dy 0
y3 y3
This is exact differential equation
Comparing with Mdx+ Ndy=0; we get
2
M y 2
y
x
N x 2y 4
y3
General solution is given by
2
y 2 xy c
2
y
This is required general solution.
y y
ii) x 2 y 3dx x3 y 2 dy 0
3
Ans 3x3 y 2 y 6 cy e y
Working Rule:
dx
Solution: The given equation is
dy
x 1 y e x x 1
2
dx
Dividing throughout by x 1 we have
dy 1
y e x x 1 .........(1)
dx x 1
This is of the type
dy
py Q
dx
Hence equation (1) is linear differential equation.
143
Where
1
P , Q e x x 1
x 1
I.F. e
pdx
1
e x 1
dx
-log x 1
e
1
log
I .F . e x 1
1
I .F .
x 1
Hence the solution of differential equation (1) is
y I.F. Q IF dx c
1 1
y e x x 1 dx c
x 1 x 1
y
e x dx c
x 1
y
ex c
x 1
y ex c x 1
This is the required solution.
1
1 y 2 dy
e
1
I .F . etan y
144
1
dy dz
1 Y 2
z ez dz
d
z e z dz z ez dz dz
dz
z e l e dz
z z
z ez e z
ez z 1
put z tan -1 y
tan y 1
1
1
etan y
solution is given by
tan y 1 c
1
1
x etan etan
-1
y y
1
x tan -1 y 1 c e tan y
Example 6: Solve
x 1 x 2 2 x 2 1 y x3
dy
dx
Solution: The given equation is
x 1 x 2 2 x 2 1 y x3
dy
dx
through out by x(1-x 2 ) we have
dy 2 x 1
2
x3
y ..........(1)
dx x 1 x 2 x 1-x 2
Hence equation (1) is linear in dependent variable y
This is of the type
145
dy
py Q
dx
where P
2 x 2 1
, Q
x3
x 1 x 2 x 1 x 2
I.F. e
pdx
2x2 1
Let P
x 1 x 1 x
1 1 1
P
x 2 1 x 2 1 x
( By partial fraction)
1 1 1
x 21 x 21 x dx
IF e
1 1
-logx log 1 x log 1 x
e 2 2
- logx 1-x 2
e
1
log x 1-x 2
e
1
IF
x 1 x2
Hence solution of differential equation (i) is
y IF Q IF dx c
1 x 2 1
y dx c
x 1-x 2 1 x x 1 x2
2
x
dx c
1 x
3
2 2
2 x 1 x 2 2 dx c
1 3
2
2 2
1 1 x
1
c
2 1
2
f n1
f n
f1
n 1
y 1
c
x 1 x 2
1 x2
y x cx 1 x 2
Example 7: Solve
146
e2 x y dx
1
x x dy
Solution: The given equation is
e2 x y dx
1
x x dy
dy y e2 x
........(1)
dx x x
Which is of the type
dy
py Q
dx
1 e-2 x
where P ,Q
x x
The equation (1) is linear in y
I.F. e
pdx
1
x dx
e
I .F . e2 x
Hence the solution of differential equation (1) is
y IF Q IF dx c
e2 x 2 x
y e 2 x
e dx c
x
1
dx c
x
y e2 x 2 x c
This is the required general solution.
1 y 2
dx
x-e tan
-1
y
dy
1
dx x e tan y
........(1)
dy 1 y 2 1 y 2
Which is of the type
dx
px Q
dy
147
1
1 e tan y
where p , Q
1 y2 1 y2
The equation (1) is linear differential equation
Hence
IF e
pdy
1
1 y 2 dy
e
1
IF etan y
Hence solution of differential equation (1) is given by
x IF Q (IF) dy c
1
e tan y tan 1 y
x e tan 1 y
e dy c
1 y2
1
e2tan y
x e tan 1 y
dy c..............(2)
1 y2
put tan -1 y t
1
dy dt
1 y2
equation (2) becomes
x etan e2t dt c
-1
y
e 2t
x e tan c
-1
y
2
put t tan -1 y
1
e2 tan y
tan 1 y
xe c
2
1 1
2 x etan y e2tan y c1 where c1 2c
This is the required general solution.
1) Solve
i) 2 y x2 dx xdy
Ans: y x 2 log cx
dy y
ii) x2 x
dx 1 x
Ans : 2y 1-x c 2 x 2
iii)
dy
dx
x 1
x 3 -2xy x
2
x4 x2
Ans : x 1 y
2
c
4 2
148
iv)
dy
x
y
x 1 1 x2
dx 1 x 2 3 2 1 x2
2
1
-
H int I.F. e 1 x 2
1
1
y cc 1 x 2
1 x2
v) dx xdy e y sec2 dy
H int : I.F. ey
x e y tan y c
dy
vi x cos x cos x x sin x y 1
dx
x
H int : I.F.
sec x
xy cos x x c
x2 1 dy 4 x x 2 1 y 1
3 2
vii
dx
H int : If x 2 1
2
x 1 y tan 1 x c
2 2
dy
viii x y 1 1
dx
H int : I.F. e-y
x y 2 c ey
ix x 2 y dy ydx
3
1
H int I.F.
y
x y3 cy
I) Bernoullis Equation :
The equation of the form
dy
py Q y n
dx
is called as Bernoulli's equations
throughout by yn , we get
dy
y n P y1n Q.........(1)
dx
149
Let y1-n u
dy du
1-n y n
dx dx
u sin g equation (1) we get
1 du
Pu Q
1-n dx
du
1-n pu 1 n Q
dx
This is Bernoullis differential equation and can be solved.
Note: The equation is also Bernoullis equation
We divide by xn and substitute u= x1-n and proceed.
Solved Examples:-
dy y
Example 9: Solve xe x y 2
dx x .
Solution:
dy y
xe x y 2 .............(1)
dx x
Which is of the type
dy
Py Q y n ........
dx
1
Where p , Q xe x , n 2
x
Equation (1) is Bernoulli's differential equation
throughtout by y2 , we get
dy 1
y-2 y 1 x e x .................(2)
dx x
Put y-1 u
Differentiating with respect to x
dy du
-1 y 2
dx dx
dy du
y-2
dx dx
u sin g equation 2 we get
du 1
- u x ex
dx x
du 1
u x ex
dx x
Which is linear differential equation.
1
where p , Q -x e x
x
I .F . e Pdx
150
1
e x
- dx
e log x
1
log
I .F . e x
1
I.F.
x
Hence, General solution is given by
u IF Q IF dx c
1 1
u -x e x dx c
x x
Put u y-1
1
y-1 e x dx c
x
1
e x c
xy
This is the required solution.
dx du
-x -2
1y dy
dx du
x2
dy dy
151
e ydy
y2
I .F . e 2
Hence general solution is given by
u IF Q IF dy c
y2 y2
u e 2
y e 3 2
dy c
y2
Let t
2
y dy dt
y2
u e 2
2t et dt c
y2
u e 2
2 t e et c
2
Put u x 1 , t y
2
1 y 2
y 2y2 y2
e 2
2 e 2 e 2 c
x 2
1 y2 2 y2 y2
e y2 e 2 2 e 2 c
x
1 y2 2 y2 y2
e y2 e 2 2 e 2 c
x
This is the required general solution.
Check your progress:
i) solve:-
dy
i) y tan x y 4 sec x
dx
Hint : If sec3 x
sec3 x
3tan x tan 3 x c
y3
dy x2
ii) xy y 2 e 2 log x
dx
x2
Hint : I.F. e 2
152
1 x2 2
e x log x x c
y
dy
xy y 3 e-x
2
iii)
dx
Hint : If ex
2
ex y2 2x c
2
dy 1
3 y x 4e x y 3
2
iv) x
dx
y 2 x 6 e x c 1
1
2
ans
v) 2 xdx y 2 y 3 x 2 dy 0
y3
H int : If e 3
3
y
x2 c e 3 y3 3
e x y e x e y
dy
vi)
dx
Hint : IF ee
x
e y c e e e x 1
x
dy
2 y 1 2 xy
dx
Hint :-I.F. e2x
1
2 x 1 c e2 x
y
8.5.1 (II) Equation of the type :
dy
The equation f 1 x p f y Q
dx
Where P and Q are functions of x can be reduced to linear by substituting
f(y) =u and equation becomes
du
pu Q
dx
Similarly the equation
dy
f 1 x p f ( x) Q
dx
Can be reduced to linear by substituting f (x)=u
Solved Examples:-
dy
Example 12: Solve sin y 1 x cos y cos y
dx
Solution:
The given equation is
dy
sin y 1 x cos y cos y
dx
153
dy
sin y cos y x cos 2 y
dx
throughout by cos2 y, we get
sin y dy cos y
x
cos 2 y dx cos 2 y
dy
secy tany sec y x.........(1)
dx
which is of the form
dy
f 1 y pf y Q
dx
where f(y) secy, p -1. Q -x
Let secy u
Differentiating with respect to x
dy du
secy tany
dx dx
equation (1) becomes
du
u x
dx
Which is a linear differential equation.
Where p -1, Q -x
I.F. e
pdx
e x
I .F e x
Hence General solution is given by
u IF Q IF dx c
u e x x e x dx c
- x e x dx c
u e x x e x 1 e x c
Put u sec y
sec y x 1 c ex
This is required general solution
1) Solve :
dy 1 1
I) tan y 2 tan y sin y
dx x x
H int throughout by tany sin y
1 1
2 c
x sin y 2 x
154
dy 3
ii) x cos 2 y x sin 2 y
dx
dy
H int x sin2y x 3 cos 2 y
dx
through out by cos 2 y
IF e x
2
2 tan y x 2 1 c1 e x
2
dy
xvii. + xy = x3 y 3
dx
dy xy
xviii. + = xy 1
dx 1 x 2 2
dy
xix. y - Cosx = y 2 (1- Sinx)Cosx
dx
xx. y dx+ x(1- 3x 2 y 2 )dy = 0
*****
9
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
UNIT STRUCTURE
9.1 Objective
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Geometrical
9.4 Physical Application
9.5 Simple Electric Circuits
9.6 Newtons Law of Cooling
9.7 Let Us Sum Up
9.8 Unit End Exercise
9.1 OBJECTIVE
9.2 INTRODUCTION
Cartesian Co-ordinates:
Let f ( x1 y1 ) = 0 be the equation of the curve Let p ( x1 y1 ) i.e. any point
on it.
y1
x1
dy
d x p
y x dx P
dy
y intercept of tangent = 1
1
dx 2
6) Length of tangent = PT = y 1
1
dy
2
dy
7) Length of Normal at P PN y1 1+
dx
y1
8) Length of Sub tangent
d y
dx
d y
9) Length of Sub normal y1
dx
3
d y 2 2
1
d x
e
d2 y
d x2
Solved Examples:
Example 1:
Find the curve which passes through the points [ 2, 1 ] and [ 8, 2 ]
for which sub tangent at any point varies as the abscissa of that point.
We know,
158
y
subtangent
dy
dx
From given condition-
y
x
dy
dx
y
kx.....[k constant]
dy
dx
dy
y kx
dx
1 k
dx dy
x y
dy 1
k dx
y x
which is in variable seperate form
integrate both side
1
k. dy constant
y
k. log y =log x + log c
y =log cx
k
log
y cx ....... 1
k
1 2c
1
c
2
put x = 8, y = 2, in eqn [1]
2 c x 8
k
1
k 4
2 x8
2
24
k
2 2
k 2
K 2
put Value of C and K in eqn [1]
159
1
y2 x
2
2
2y x
dz
= z
dy
d2 y dz
2
=z
dx dy
From eq n 1
dz
1 + z 2 = 25 z
dy
dz
2zy = 1 + z2
dy
2z 1
2
dz = dy
1+z y
which is in variable separable form
Integrate both side
2z 1
1 + z 2
dz dy constant
y
1+z2 = cy
z 2 = cy - 1
z = cy - 1
dy
Again put z =
dx
dy
= cy - 1
dx
1
dy = dx
cy - 1
This is in variable separable form
Integrate both sides
1 c 1
c cy 1
dy dx constant
1
2 cy 1 = x + c1
c
161
2 cy 1 = cx + cc1
2 cy 1 = cx + c2
Where c2 cc1
Ans : x + 2y x + y = c
2
Rectilinear Motion:
It is a Motion of a body of Mass in start moving from a fixed point O
along a straight line OX under the action of a force F. Let p be the position
of the body at any instant
Where OP = X , then
dx
1) velocity v
dt
dv
2) The acceleration =
dt
2
d x
= 2
dt
dv
=v
dx
By chain rule -
dv dv dx
dt dx dt
dv
v
dx
dv
v
dx
3) Newtons second law of motion is given by
162
f = ma
dv
= m
dt
d2x
= m 2
dt
dv
f = mv
dx
where f = effective force
D Alemberts principle:-
Algebraic sum of the forces acting on a body along the given direction is
equal to the product of mass and acceleration in that direction.
d2 x
ie m F
dt 2
d2 x
F - m O
dt 2
Solved examples:
Example 3:
A moving body is opposed by a force per unit mass of a value CX and
resistant per unit mass value bv, where X and V are the displacement and
velocity of the particle at that instant. Show that the velocity of the
particle. If it starts from rest, is given by.
2
1 e2bx
c cx
v2
2b b
Solution: Consider the motion
Step 1) :
Let m be the mass of the particle moving to right. Now the opposing
forces mcx and mbv2 will act to the left.
dv
mcx
mv
dx
mbv2
ie mcx and mbv2 are forces to the right
By D Alemberts principle
dv
mv mcx mbv2
dx
step[2]
dv
v bv2 cx
[1]
dx
163
Let v2 z
dv dz
2v
dx dx
eq n [1] becomes
1 dz
bz cx
2 dx
dz
2bz 2cx
dx
which is a linear equation in z
p = 2b. Q = -2cx.
I.F. = e
pdx
2bdx
=e
2bx
I.F. = e
Its general solution is given by
z [ IF ] = Q IF dx constant
ze -2cx e dx c1
2bx 2bx
-2c x e dx c1
2bx
2bx d
-2c x e dx- x e dx c1
2bx
dn
2bx 2bx
e e
-2c x 2b c1
1 dx
2 b
x 2bx 2bx
ze
2bx
= 2c e
1
e +
2b 2b 2b c1
-cx e
2bx
c
ve
2 2bx 2bx
2 e
+ c1
b 2b
cx c
v = 2 c1 e [3]
2 -2bx
b 2b
[III] to find c1 , we impose initial conditions
c
o=0+ + c1
2b2
c
g =-
1 2b2
put values of g 1
in eq n [3]
cx c c
v2 = + 2
2
e2bx
b 2b 2b
2
1 e2bx
c cx
v2 =
2b b
Example 4: A body of mass m. Falling from rest, is subject to the force
of gravity and an air resistance proportional to the square of the velocity
[ie kv2 ]. If it falls through a distance x and possesses a velocity v at that
instant show that
2k x a2
log 2 2
, where mg = ka 2
m a v
Solution:
Step
Let the body of mass m fall from O
The forces acting on the body are
1) Its weight mg acting vertically downwards.
2) The resistance kv2 of the air acting vertically upwards.
The net forces acting on the body vertically downwards
= mg kv2 . . . . [ mg ka2 given]
= ka2 kv2
= k [ a2 v2 ] . . . . . .[ 1 ]
Step [ 2 ] By DAlemberts Principle
k a 2 v2
dv
mv
dx
v k
dv dx
a v
2 2
m
This is in variable separable form
Integrating both sides
1 2v k
2 2 dv dx c1 . . . c1 constant
2 a v m
log a 2 v 2 x c1
1 k
2
2 m
165
log a 2 v2 x log a 2
1 k 1
2 m 2
log a 2 v2 x log a 2
1 k 1
2 m 2
log a 2 v2
2kx
log a 2
m
log a 2 log a 2 v2
2kx
m
2kx a2
log 2 2
m a v
Check your progress:
1) A particle of Unit mass is projected upward with velocity u and the
resistance of air produces a retardation kv2 and v is the velocity at any
instant show that the velocity v with which the particle will return to the
point of projection is given by
1 1 k
2
= 2
v u g
2) Determine the least velocity with which a particle must be
projected vertically upwards so that it does not return to the Earth. Assume
that it is acted upon by the gravitational attraction of the earth only.
Ans : Least Velocity vo 2 gR
R Radius of earth
3) A paratrooper and his parachute weigh 50 kg. At the instant
parachute opens. He is Travelling vertically downward at the speed of 20
m/s. If the Air resistance varies directly as the instantaneous velocity and
its 20 Newtons. When the velocity is 10 m/s Find the limiting velocity, the
position and the velocity of the paratrooper at any time t.
v 5 s e . . . = 25 m/s
-gt/25
25 -gt/25
x =5 st+ e c1
g
125
x =25t 1 e
-gt/25
g
166
The following Notations are frequently used. Units are given in Brackets .
t seconds
Time
q coulombs
Ch arg e on capacitor
i ampere
Current
e volts
voltage
R ohms
Re sis tan ce
L Hentries
Indua tan ce
C Farads
capaci tan ce
Current is the rate of electricity
dq
i=
dt
[ II ] Current at each point of a network is got from Kirchhoffs laws :
1) The algebraic sum of the currents into any point is zero.
2) Around any closed path the algebraic sum of the voltage drops in
any specific direction is zero.
3) Voltage drops as current i flows through a resistance R is Ri ;
di q
through an induction L is L and through a capacitor C is .
dt c
Solved examples:
Example 5: A constant emf E volts is applied to a ckt. containing a
constant resistance. R ohms in
series and a constant inductance L henries. It the initial current is zero,
show that the current builds upto half its theoretical maximum
L log 2
in seconds.
R
Solution:
Step (1) R
di
E L Ri
dt
di
L Ri E
dt
di R E
i (1)
dt L L
Which is a linear equation in i .
R E
P= Q
L L
I.F. = e
pdt
R
= e L
dt
R
t
L
I.F. = e
The general solution is given by
i .( IF ) = Q .( IF ) dt + constant
R
t E RL t
i. e L e dt c
L
E L RL t
e c
L R
R
t E R t
i. e L e L c
R
-R
E t
i= c e L (2)
R
To find c , we impose initial conditions
i.e. at t = o , i = o
E
O= C
R
E
C=
R
Equation (2) becomes
R
E E t
i= e L
R R
E
R
t
i= 1 e
L
(3)
R
This is the expression for i at any time t.
R
t
L
Now as t increases decreases e increases and its maximum
E
value is
R
Step ( 2 )
Let the current in the circuit be half its theoretical maximum after a
time T seconds then.
168
1 E E t
R
From eqn ( 3 ) 1 e
L
=
2 R R
R
1 t
=1 e L
2
R
t 1
e L = 1
2
R 1
t = log
L 2
1
= log
2
= log 1 log 2
= O log 2
R
t = log 2
L
L log 2
t=
R
Check Your Progress:
1) The equation of the eml in terms of current i for an electrical
circuit having resistance R and a condenser of capacity C, in series is.
i
E Ri dt
c
Find the current i at any time t , when
E = Eo sin wt
t
WcEo
Ans : i= cos wt o + c1 e RC
1+R 2C 2W 2
-1
where o = tan (RCW)
2) An electrical circuit contains an inductance of 5 henries and on
resistance of 120 in series with an emf 120 sin (20t) Volts. Find current if
it is zero when
t = o ; at t = 0.01
20 -3
Ans : 12 sin (0.2) 100 cos (0.2) + 100.e
10144 125
The law states that the rate at which the temp of a body changes is
proportional to the difference between the instantaneous temp of the body
and the temp of the surrounding medium.
If Q is the instantaneous temp of the body an Qo the temp of the
surrounding then.
169
dQ
Q Qo
dt
dQ
k Q Qo
dt
dQ
Where k is a constant and Q decreases as t increases i.e. is negative
dt
hence negative sign is added.
Solved Examples:
Example 6: The temperature of the air is 300C.and the substance cools
from 1000C to 700C in 15 minutes, find when the temperature will be
400C.
Solution:
Initially at t 0, T 100
log 100 20 0 c1
c1 log 80
Put value of c1 in eq n 1
log T 20 kt log 80
kt log80 log T 20
2
When t 1 , T 60 c0
from 2
k log 80 log 40 (3)
n
Divide eq (2) by (3) we have
log80 log(T 20)
t (4)
log80 log 40
when t 2min ute, T ?
from eq n (4) we have
80
log
T 20
2
280
log
40
80
4
T 20
80
4=
T 20
4T 80 80
4T 160
40
160
T 1
4
T 400 c
170
The temp of the body at the end of second minute will be 400c
Ans :- 46.40 c.
d 2 d2
L 2
+ R + = 0 Solve the equation with initial conditions that 0
dt dt c
d2
, 0 when t 01 and CR2 < 4L .
dt
vi. A radioactive substance decomposes at the rate proportional to the
amount present at the time. How much mass will be left if initially a
substance 2mg is supplied.
vii. The Newtons Law of Cooling states that the rate of cooling of a
substance is proportional to the difference in the temperature of the body
and that of the surrounding is 20. If water cools down to 60 in first
20minutes, during what time will it cool to 30 ?
di
viii. If L = 30 Sin 10t find i in terms of t given that L=2 and i=0, at
dt
t=0.
*****
172
10
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION
UNIT STRUCTURE
10.1 Objective
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Some standard results
10.4 Type III: Using Complex Numbers
10.5 Problems
10.6 Let Us Sum Up
10.7 Unit End Exercise
10.1 OBJECTIVE
10.2 INTRODUCTION
y, y, y, (Due to Newton)
f x , f x ,..... f n x (Due to langravge)
(1) Let
y eax
y1 aeax y2 a 2eax ..... yn a neax
(2) Let
y a mx
y1 ma mx loga , y2 m2 a mx log a 2 .......
yn mn a mx log a
n
3) y sin ax b
y1 a cos ax+b a sin ax b
2
y2 a 2 sin ax+b a 2 sin 2 ax b .......
2
n
yn a n sin ax b
2
If a=l then
n
y sin x b and yn sin x b
2
n
Also if b=0 then y= sin x and yn sin x .
2
y ax b m>n
m
y1 ma ax b m is integer
m 1
y2 m m 1 a 2 ax b
m 2
:
yn m m 1 m-2 ....... m-n+1 a n ax b
m n
yn n n 1 n-2 ......1.a n ax b n !a n
0
If m=n then
If a=1, b=0, then y=xn
yn n !
6) y ax b m is positive integer
-m
y1 m a ax b
m 1
y2 m m 1 a 2 ax b
m2
............
yn m m 1 ...... -m-n+1 a n ax b
m n
1
7) y
ax b
a
a ax b
2
y1
ax b
2
1 a 2 2!.......
2
y2 a a 2 ax b
3
ax b
3
: : :
1 n !a n
n
1
yn if a=1 then y= .....
ax b
n 1
x b3
1
n
n
yn
x b
n 1
8) y log ax b
a
y1
ax b
175
1 a 2 1 a 2
1 2 1
a 2
y2
ax b ax b ax b
2 2 2
1 a n
n 1
yn
ax b
n
9) y eax sin bx c
y1 eax a sin bx c b cos bx c
Let a = r cos , b = r sin ,
b
And r= a 2 b2 =tan -1
a
y1 eax r cos sin bx c r sin cos bx c
reax sin bx c
b
y1 a 2 b2
1
eax sin bx+c+tan -1
2
a
similarly it can be proved that
b
y2 a 2 b 2
2
2
eax sin bx+c+tan -1 ........
a
b
yn a 2 b2
n
2
eax sin bx+c+tan -1
a
If a=1,b=1, c=0
y eax sin x
n n
yn 2 2
ex sin x+
4
y eax cos bx c
b
yn a 2 b 2
n
2
eax cos bx c n tan 1
a
Type I
Solution:
1
i) 3sin x sin 3x
Let y sin 3 x sin3x=3sinx-4sin 3 x
4
4sin3 x 3sin x sin 3x
1
sin3 x= 3sin x sin 3x
4
Using the result for nth derivative of y=sin (ax+b) and nothing that
nth derivative of sum or difference is sum or difference of nth derivatives,
we get
1 n
yn 3sin x n 3n sin 3x
4 2 2
ii) Let
1
y cos x cos 2 x cos3x cos 2 x cos 4 x cos 2 x
2
1 1 1
cos 2 x cos 4 x cos 2 x cos 2 x c Ac B cA B cA B
2 2 2
1 1 1 1
cos 6 x cos 2 x cos 4 x cos 0
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
cos x cos 2 x 1 cos 4 x cos 6 x cos 2 x 1 cos 4 x
4 4 4 4
1
cos 6 x cos 4 x cos 2 x 1
4
1 n n n n n
yn 6n cos 6 x 4 cos 4 x 2 cos 2 x
4 2 2 2
ex
iii) y ex cos x cos 2 x cos3x+cosx
2
1 x
e cos3x+e x cosx
2
[Using the result for nth derivative of y=eax cos (bx+c)
1 n
yn 10 2 e x cos 3x tan 1 3 2 2 e x cos x
n n
iv)
2 4
ye x cos
cos x sin
Here note a=cos , b=sin , c=0
yn cos2 sin 2 2 e x cos cos x sin n tan 1 tan
n
Example2
1
If y sin px cos pxt , thanshow that : yn p n 1 1 sin 2 px
n 2
Solution: y sin px cos px
n n
y n p n sin px p cos px
n
Results:3,4
2 2
n n
p n sin px cos px
2 2
1
n n
2 2
p n sin px cos px
2 2
1
n n 2
p 1 2sin px
n
cos px
2 2
p n 1 sin 2 px n 2SACA S2 A
1
2
1
p n 1 1 sin 2 px
n 2
SA+B S ACB C A S B
sin n 0
and
cos nx 1
n
y2 y3 y
Example 3: If y x 1 than show that y y1 ..... n x n
n
2! 3! n! .
Solution:
y x 1
n
yn x 1
n 1
y1 n x 1
n 1
y2 n n 1 x 1
n2
:
yn n !
y y y
y y1 2 3 ..... n
2! 3! n!
n n 1 n!
x 1 x 1 1 x 1 ......
n n 1 n2
2! n!
n n 1
x-1 n x 1 1 x 1 1 ...... 1
n n 1 n2 2 n
2!
x-1 1
n
x
n
178
Type II
1 1 n ! 1 n ! 3 n !
n n
yn 2
2 x-1 n 1
x-2
n 1
2 x-3n 1
1
Example 5: Find nth derivative of y
x a2
2
Solution.:
1
We have y
x ai x ai
By partial fractions,
179
1 1
y
2ai x ia 2ai x ia
1 1 n !
n
1 1
Using result (7) yn
2ai x ia n 1
2ai x ia n 1
1 n!
n
1 1
2ia x ia n 1 x ia n 1
To eliminate, we substitute
x ia r ei x-ia r ei
1 Becomes,
1 n!
n
i 1
2ia re n 1 re i n 1
1 n!
n
ei n 1 ei n1
2ia r n 1
1 n ! ei n 1 ei n 1 ei n 1 ei n 1
n
sin
ar n 1 2i 2i
1 n!
n
yn n 1
sin n 1
ar
a
1
r a 2 x 2 , tan x
x
Example 6: Find nth derivative of y
x a2
2
Solution.:
x
We have y
x ia x ia
ia ia
x ia 2ai x ia 2ai
1 1 1
y
2 x ia x ia
1 1 n ! 1 n !
n n
yn
2 x ia n 1 x ia n 1
4
1
r x a , tan
2 2 x
1 n!
n
1 1
From yn n 1 i n 1
n 1 i n 1
2 r e r e
1 n ! ei n 1 ei n 1
n
r n 1 2
1 n!
n
cos n 1
yn
r n 1
r x 2 a 2 , tan
x
-1 a
1 1 1
is n-1 derivatives of y1 , we have
th
2i x i x i
1 1 n 1! 1 n 1!
n 1 n 1
yn
2i X i n X i
n
1 n 1! 1
n 1
1
n
X i X i
n
2i
1 n 1!
n 1
1 1
yn
2i rei n re
i n
1 n 1 ! ein ein
n 1
2 !
yn
rn
1 n 1! sin n
n 1
where n
r
1
r x2 1 tan 1
x
181
x x 1
1
cos 1
Example 8: Find nth derivative of : xx
Solution. :
x x 1
cos 1 1
xx
x x 1
y cos 1 1
xx
x2 1
cos 1 2
x 1
x tan
y cos1 cos 2
cos 1 cos 2
2
2 tan 1 x, from previous result.
1 n 1! sin n
n 1
yn 2
rn
Where r 1 x 2 tan
x
1 1
d2y dy
Example 9: If y=sinx (sinx), Show that 2
tan x y cos 2 x 0
dx dx
Solution: y sin sin x
dy
cos sin x cos x
dx
d2 y
2
sin sin x cos 2 x sin x cos sin x
dx
d2 y dy
2
+tanx +ycos 2 x
dx dx
sin sin x cos2 x sin x cos sin x
tan x.cos x.cos sin x cos2 x sin sin x 0
d 2 p a 2b 2
Example 10: If p2 a 2 cos2 b2 sin 2 , Prove that p+ 3
d 2 p
Solution.:
Diff. given relation twice,
dp
2p -a 2 2cos sin +2b 2 sin cos
d
182
d d
2
d 2 p b -a sin cos
2 2 2 2
p b2 -a 2 cos 2 sin 2
d 2 p2
d2 p
p3 p 2 b2 -a 2 cos 2 sin 2 b2 -a 2 sin 2 cos 2
d 2
b2 -a 2 a 2cos4 b2sin 4
a 2b2 a 2cos2 b2sin 2
a 2b 2 p 4
d2 p
p3 a 2b 2 p 4
d 2
d 2 p a 2b 2
p+ 3
d 2 p
1 2sin x dy 3
Example 11: If y sin 1 then show that
2 sin x dx 2 sin x
Solution.:
We have
1 2sin x 2sin x 4 3 3
siny 2
2 sin x 2 sin x 2 sin x
dy 3cos x
cosy
dx 2 sin x 2
cosy 1 sin y
1
2
Now
1
1+2sinx 2 2
1- 2
2+sinx
183
1
2+sinx 2 1+2sinx 2 2
2+sinx
2
3 cos x
2 sin x
dy 3cos x 1
dx 2 sin x cos y
2
3cos x
2 sin x
2 sin x
2
3 cos x
3
2 sin x
d2y
1 x2 dx 2
dy
x 20
dx
dy 1
H int : 2sin 1 x
dx 1 x2
2
dy
1 x 4 y, differentiate again
2
dx
4) If y xe y , then show that:
2
dy
2
d y
1 y 2 y
dx
2
dx
H int : Take log
5) If my sin x y
show that y2 y 1 y1 , m is constant
3
10.5 PROBLEMS
Type (I) :
In this type of problem we have to chosen one function as u and the other
as v. If there is a polynomial in x then that is to be chosen as u and then
apply Leibnitz theorem.
Example 12: Find nth derivative of x 2e x cos x
Solution:
Let y x 2 e x cos x
u x2 , v e x cos x.
Using standard result number
n n
yn 2 2 e x cos x .
4
Here y u v
By Leibnitz theorem
yn uvn nc1u1vn1 nc2u2vn2 ........
rn n 1
x 2 2n 2 e x cos x x n 2 x 2 2 e x cos x
n 1
4 4
n(n 1) n2 n 2
2 2 2 e x cos x
2! 4
Example 12:If f(x)=tan x then show that
n
f n 0 n c2 f n2 0 n c4 f n4 0 ...... sin
n
2
Solution: cos x f x sin x
Taking nth derivatives both sides to the left side we apply Leibnitz
theorem and to the right we use standard formula for nth derivative of
sinx, we get,
n
cos x. f n x n C1 sin x f n1 x n C2 cos x f n2 x ...... sin
2
putting x=0 on both sides, we get,
n
f n 0 nC2 f n2 x nC4 f n 4 0 ...... sin
2
log x
Example 14: If y then show that :
x
185
1 n!
n
1 1 1
yn n 1 log x 1 .....
x 2 3 n
Solution:
1 n 1 n
n 1
vn n 1
x
We have y=u. v
By Leibnitz theorem
yn uvn n C1u1vn1 n C2u2vn2 ....... unv
1 1 1 n 1 n n n 1
n n 1
.n !
log x n
x n 1 x xn 2!
1 1 1 n 1 n n n 1
n n 1
.n !
log x n
x n 1 x xn 2!
1 1 1 1
n 1 n 1 n
1
n
.n ! 1 1 1
yn n 1 logx- 1+ ....
x 2 3 n
dn n
Example 15: If I n n x log x then show that
dx
(i) I n n 1n1 n 1! and
1 1
(ii) In n ! log x 1 .....
2 n
Solution:
dn n d n1 d n
n
(i) We have In x log x n 1
x log x
dx dx dx
d n1
nx n 1 log x x n 1
n 1
dx
d n1 n 1 d n1 n 1
n x log x
dx n1 x
dx n1
In n1n1 n 1!
if n th derivative of x n is n! therefore n-1th derivative of x n 1is n-1!
ii dividing (1) on both sides by n!
In nI n1 n 1!
n! n! n!
186
In I I
i.e. n1
n! n 1! n
Re placing n by n-1 n 2 ............3, 2,1 we get
1 n-1 1n 2 1
n-1! n 2 ! n 1
1 n-2 1I n 3 1
n-2 ! n 3 ! n 2
12 11 1
2! 1 2
11 10
1
1! 0!
Adding all the results columnwise we get,
1n 1 1 1 1
n1 n2 ....... 2 1
n! n 1! n 2 ! 2! 1!
1n1 1 1 1
n2 ....... 1 0
n 1! n 2 ! 2! 0!
1 1 1 1
....... 1
n n 1 n 2 2
cancelling common terms on both sides and noting that
I0 0th derivative of x 0 log x
log x
and 0! 1 we get
1 1 1
In n ! log x 1 .......
2 3 n
Example 16: By forming in two different ways the nth derivative of x2n
show that :
n 2 n n 1 n n 1 n 2 2 !
2 2 2
2 2
1 2 2 .... n 2
1 1 2 2 2 2
1 , 2 ,3 2
n !
Solution:
Step 1: We have
y x2n Standard formula
yn 2n 2n 1 ........ 2n n 1 x 2nn
2n 2n 1 ........ n 1 n n 1 ......3, 2,1 x n
n n 1 ......3, 2,1
187
2n ! x n
n!
Step 2: Again y x2n x n .x n
We apply Leibtnitz theorem to find yn
u x n ,v x n
u n n!, v n n!
yn x n n! n C1 nx n1 n! x
n2 x2
n n 1 x n ! .......... x .n ! see note below
n
2
n 2
n 2 n 1 n 2 n 1 n 2
2 2 2
yn x .n ! 1 2
n
....
2 2
1 2! 3
n 2
n 2 n 1 n 2 n 1 n 2
2 2 2
x .n ! 1 2 2 2
n
....
1 1 .2 12. 22. 32
From 1 and 2
2n ! n 2 n n 1
2 2
x x .n ! 1 2 2 2
n n
....
n! 1 1 .2
n 2 n n 1 n n 1 n 2 2 !
2 2 2
2 2
1 2 2 2 .... n 2
1 1 .2 2 2 2
1 .2 .3 n !
Note :
The nth derivative of xn is n! but (n-1)th derivative of xn is not (n-1)! but
n! .x.
To prove that this use the formula No.5 and put m = (n-1).
Type (II)
Then apply Leibnitz theorem term by term and simplify to get the result.
1 1
Example 17: If ym y m
2 x Show that
x 2
1 ym2 2n 1 xyn1 n2 m2 yn 0
Solution:
1 1
y m
y m
2x
1 1
y m
1
2x
m
y
2 1
1
y m
2 xy m 1 0
1
m
is a quadratic equation in y
1 2 x 4 x2 4
y m
2
neglecting negative sign
1
y m
x x2 1
x2 1
m
y x
m 1
y1 m x x 2
1 1
2x
2
x 1
2
y m x x 1
x x 1
2
m 1
2
x 1
1
2
x 1
m
x 1 y1 m x
2 2
m y
x 2 1 y 21 m2 y 2
Differentiating both the sides with respect to x, we get,
2 x 2 1 y1 y2 2 xy 21 2m2 yy1 0
x 2 1 y2 xy1 m2 y 0
Applying Leibnitz term by term to find n th derivative we get,
2 n n 1
x 1 yn 2 n 2 x yn 1 2 yn xyn1 n 1 yn m2 yn 0
2!
x 2 1 yn2 x 2n 1 yn1 n2 m2 yn 0
189
n
y x 1
Example 18: If we cos log then Show that
b n
x2 yn2 2n 1 xyn1 2n2 yn 0
Solution:
We have
y
cos 1 n log log x log n
n
b
y b cos n log x n log n
n
y1 bsin n log x n log n
x
xy1 nbsin n log x n log n
differentiating both the sides with respect to x
n
xy2 +y1 nbcos n log x n log n
x
x 2 y2 xy1 n2 b cos n log x n log n
n 2 y
x 2 y2 xy1 n2 y 0
Applying Leibnitz theorem term by term to differentiate n times, we get,
2 n n 1
x yn 2 n2 xyn 1 2 yn xyn1 n 1 yn n2 yn 0
2!
x2 yn2 x 2n 1 yn1 2n2 yn 0
sin 1 x
If y then show that
Example 19: 1 x2
1 x y
2
n2 2n 3 xyn1 n 1 yn 0
2
Solution:
We have
sin 1 x
y
1 x2
1 x y sin x 1 2
2 2
1 x y xy 1
2
1
1 x y 3xy xy y 0
2
2 1 1
2!
3 xyn 1 n 1 yn yn 0
1 x y 2
n2 x 2n 3 yn1 n 1 yn 0
2
x x 2 1 yn2 2 3n x 2 n 1 yn 1 n 3n 1 xyn n2 n 1 yn 1 0
Solution:
y sec1 x
Differentiating with respect to x
1
y1
x x2 1
x 2 x 2 1 y 21 1
i.e. x 4
x 2 y 21 1
Differentiating with respect to x
4x 2x y x x 2 y y
3 2
1
4 2
1 2 0
i.e. 2x 1 y x x y 0
2
1
3
2
i.e. x x y 2x 1 y 0
3
2
2
1
2!
n n 1 n 2
+3 6 yn1
3!
n n 1
2 x 2 1 yn 1 n 4 x yn 4 yn1 0
2!
191
i.e.x x 2 1 yn 2 2 3n x 2 n 1 yn1
n 3n 1 xyn n2 n 1 yn1 0
Example 21: If y = tan-1 x,then show that.
x 2
1 yn1 2nxyn n n 1 yn1 0 and also show that
Putting y2 0 0
n 2,3,4,5,6 in 1
y3 2 2 !
y4 0
y5 4!
y6 0
y7 6!
:
y n 0 0n 2r
yn 0 n 1 f ifn=4r+1
and yn 0 n 1! if n=4r+3
192
1-x y2
n2 2n 1 xyn1 n2 m2 yn 0
1 x y
2
1
2
m2 1 y 2 and again differentiate and apply L. theorem
-1
2. If y=easin x
then show that
1 x y 2
n2 2n 1 xyn1 n2 a 2 yn 0
3. If y=acos logx b sin log x
then show that
x 2 yn 2 2n 1 xyn1 n2 1 yn 0
1 x y 2n 1 xy
2
n2 n 1 n2 yn 0
5. If x tan(log y) then show that:
1 x y 2
n2 2 n 1 x 1 yn1 n(n 1) yn 0
6. If y=sin log x 2 x 1 , prove that
x 1 y 2
n2 2n 1 x 1 yn1 (n2 4) yn 0
a n 1 n 1!
n 1
ii) y log ax b yn
ax b
n
193
n
iv) y sin ax b yn a n cos ax b
2
v) y eax sin bx c yn r neax cos bx c n
v) y eax sin bx c yn r neax cos bx c n
where r a 2 b2
and tan 1 b a
Leibnatz's theorem
____________________________________________________________
10.7 Unit End Exercise
___________________________________________________
1. Find nth order derivative of the following functions:
i) (8x - 7)9
ii) Sin( 9x+3) + cos(2x+5)
iii) Cos62x
iv) Sin4xsin3x
v) 2sinxcosx
x 20 5 x19 7
2. If y , find y20.
x5
3x35 7 x34 12
3. If y , find y35.
x7
Find 5th order derivative of y x e .
4 x
4.
Find 4th order derivative of y x sin x .
3
5.
n!
If y x log x , then show that yn 1
n
6. .
x
1
7. If log y tan x, then show that
(i) (1 x 2 ) y1 y
(ii) (1 x2 ) yn [1 2(n 1) x] yn1 (n 1)(n 2) yn2
*****
194
11
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
UNIT STRUCTURE
11.1 Objective
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Partial Differential Coefficients
11.4 Total differentiation
11.5 Some additional results
11.6 TYPE - III Variable to be treated as constant
11.7 Let Us Sum Up
11.8 Unit End Exercise
11.1 OBJECTIVE
11.2 INTRODUCTION
v u
(2) uv u +v
x x x
v
kv k
x x
u v
u v x u x
x v v2
196
k k v
2
xv v x
3) If u f ( x, y, z ), x=1 r,s ,
y=2 r,s ,
z=3 r,s ,
then the flow diagram becomes,
i.e. u x,y,z r,s
u
If we want then it is given by
s
u u x u y u z
s x s y s z s
e.g. u=x 2 y2 z2 , x r s t , y s 2 t 2 , z t 3
197
u
then 2x 1+2y 2s 2 z 0 6 x 4 ys
s
(1) Let
u f ( x, y, z ) and x=1 (t), y 2 (t) ,z 3 (t )
[i.e. u is function of x,y,z and x,y,z each is a function of only one variable
t.]
Thus,
u x,y,z t
du u dx u dy u dz
dt x dt y dt z dt
u is a function of only one variable t,
du u
t
We write total derivative and not
dt
e.g. If u= x 2 + y2 + z2 , y=t 2 , z= t3
then u x, y, z t
198
du
2x 1 + 2y 2t 2z 3t 2
dt
(2) Let u= f(x, y) and (x, y) = 0
(x, y) = 0, y can be regarded as
a function of x and hence flow-diagram is
u x, y x
du u u dy
= 1+
dx x y dx
e.g. if u= x 2 + y2
du
and x3 + y3 + 3xy = 4 then to find
dx
x3 + y3 + 3xy = 4
Differentiate with respect to x,
dy dy
3x 2 + 3y2 + 3y + 3x =0
dx dx
dy
=
x2 + y
dx x + y2
du u u dy x2 + y
and = + = 2x +2y x + y2
dx x y dx
2x x + y2 2y x 2 + y 2 x - y xy 2 - x 2 y
2 2
= 3)
x + y
2
x+y2
dy
If f x,y = 0 then to find \
dx
This result is a special case of result (4) .
Let u = f x, y and f x, y = 0
u x, y
and f x, y = 0
y x
u x, y x
du u u dy
then = +
dx x y dx
du
u=0 =0
dx
u
= x
dy
dx u
y
dy f x
or , =
dx f y
199
If u = f x, y, z
where y and z are all functions of x, then we have
u x, y, z x and
du u u dy u dz
= + + ,
dx x y dx z dx
Also note that if f x, y, z = 0
u u dy u dz
then + + =0
x y dx z dx
d2 y
4) If f x, y = 0 then to find ,
d x2
We use the following notations :
f f 2 f 2 f 2 f
p= , q= , r= , s= , t=
x y x2 x y y2
f x, y = 0
d2 y f x p
=- =- Result 5
dx 2
f y q
dp dq
q -p
d x ..................(i)
2
d y dx
2
=- 2
dx q
p, q x, y x
dp p p dy
and = + =
dx x y dx
f f p
x x y x q
+
2 f 2 f p p rq -sp
= - = r-s =
x 2
x x q q q
dq q q dy f f p
dx x y dx x y y y q
2 f 2 f p
2
x y y q
p
s t
q
sq pt
q
200
d2 y 1 rp - sp sq - pt
from (i), = - q - p =
d x2 q2 q q
1
- 3 q 2 r - 2pqs + p 2 t
q
EXAMPLES
201
TYPE I
NOTE :
Problem in this type are based on direct differentiation
(1) First find dependent and independent variables.
(2) Use the necessary formulae.
Examples 1 :
2 z 2 z
If z = x y + yx then show that =
x y y x.
Solution: z = x y + yx z x, y
z
= yx y-1 + y x log x .........(i)
y
z
and = x y log x + x y x-1 ..........(ii)
y
Differentiating (i) partially with respect to y,
2 z
= y x y-1 log x + x y-1 y x + log y xy x-1
1
x y y
= y x y-1 log x + x y-1 + yx-1 + xy x-1 log y..........(iii)
Differentiating (i) partially with respect to x,
2 z 1
= x y + yx y-1 log x + 1 y x-1 + xy x-1 log y........(iv)
x y x
From (iii) and (iv)
2 z 2 z
=
x y y x
Examples 2: If u = log (x3 + y3 +z3 3xyz ) then show that
2
-9
+ + u=
x y z x + y + z
2
Solution:
Note that u is a function of x, y, z
i.e. u x, y, z
u = log (x3 + y3 +z3 3xyz )
u 1
= 3 (3x 2 3 yz )
x (x + y +z3 3xyz )
3
u 1
= 3 (3z2 3xy )
x (x + y +z3 3xyz )
3
u u u 3 (x 2 + y2 +z 2 xy -yz - zx)
+ + =
x y z x 3 + y3 +z3 3xyz
3 (x 2 + y2 +z 2 xy -yz - zx) 3
= =
(x + y + z ) (x + y +z xy - yz - zx)
2 2 2
x+y+z
Note that :
2
u u u
y z
y z x y z
+ + u= + + + +
x x
3
=
y z x + y + z
+ +
x
3 3 3
x x + y + z y x + y + z z x + y + z
+ +
=
-3 -3 -3 -9
= + + =
x + y + z x + y + z x + y + z x + y + z
2 2 2 2
If v= 1- 2xy + y2
1 2
then show that
Example 3:
v v
(i) x -y = y 2 v3 and
x y
v 2 v
1 - x
2
(ii) + y =0
x x y y
Solution: (i) v x, y
We write v2 = 1 - 2xy + y2
Differentiate partially with respect to x and y,
see the rule of Partial Differentiation applied to Brackets .
v
-2 v-3 = -2y
x
v
= v3 y ......1
x
v
and -2v3 = -2x + 2y
y
v
= v3 x - y .......... 2
y
from 1 and 2
v v
x -y = xy v3 - yv3 x-y = y2 v3
x y
203
v
(ii) 1 - x 2
x
= 1 - x 2 yv3 from (1)
v
x
1 - x2
y =y
x
1 - x2 v3
y is constant, and v is a function of x, y
v
= y 2xv3 + 1 - x 2 3v2
x
= y 2xv3 + 3 1 - x 2 v2 y v3 from (1)
2 v
Again, y =
y y y
y 2
v3 x-y
v
= 3 v2 x x y 2 - y 3 + v 3 (2xy -3y2 ) v x,y
y
= 3 v2 v3 x - y xy2 - y3 + v3 (2xy -3y2 )
= v3 y 3 v2 x - y xy - y2 + (2x -3y)
x
1-x 2
+
y y y
y
= y v3 3y 1 - x 2 + x 2 -2xy + y2 v2 - 3 y
= y v3 3y v-2 v2 - 3y
=0 v2 = 1 - 2 xy + y2
Example 4 : If u = log tan x + tan y + tan z then show that
u u u
sin 2x + sin 2y + sin 2z =2
x y z
Solution: Here u x, y, z
Using the rule of partial diff. applied to log function we have,
u 1
= sec2 x
x tan x + tan y + tan z
u 1
= sec2 y
y tan x + tan y + tan z
204
u 1
= sec2 z
x tan x + tan y + tan z
u u u
sin 2x + sin 2y + sin 2z
x y z
sin 2x . sec2 x + sin2y . sec2 y + sin2z. sec2 z
=
tan x + tany + tan z
2 tan x + tan y + tan z
= =2
tan x + tan y + tan z
1
sin 2x. sec2 x = 2 sin x . cos x . = 2 tan x
cos 2 x
Examples 5 : If = t n , e-r
2 4t
then find the value of n show that
1 2
r
r t
=
r2 r
Solution: We have r, t
To simplify the expression, we take log .
r2
We have, log = n log t -
rt
Diff. partially with respect to r,
1 -2 r
=
r 4t
r
=-
r 2
r2
r2 =-
r 2t
Diff. partially with respect to r,
2 1 2
r =- 3 r + r3 =
r r 2 r
1 2 rr
3r -
2 t 2 t
- ...... from (1)
1 2 1 r2
r 2 2 t
r = - 3 - ........ (2)
r2 r
Again diff. given relation with respect to t partially ,
1 n r2 1
= + 2
t t 4 t
n r2
= +
t t 4 t 2
205
1 2
r = ,
r r
2
r t
From (2) and (3) we get,
n r2 3 r2 3
+ = - + n= -
t 4 t2 2 t 4 t2 2
Example 6 : If u (x, t ) = A e-gx sin nt-gx
u 2 u n
and if =u then show that g =
x x2 2u
Solution: u x, t
u
We have, = Ae-gx cos n t - g x n
t
= An e cos n t - g x x is to be kept constant ........(1)
-gx
x3 xy 2 x
2 y tan 1
x y
2 2
y
x
= x - 2y tan -1
y
2 u u x
= = 2 - 2y tan -1
x y x y x y
1 1 2y 2 x 2 - y2
= 1 - 2y = 1 - =
x2 y x 2 + y2 x 2 + y2
1+ 2
y
Check your progress:
v 2v
(Find and , apply the rule of P.D. applied to log function)
t x2
2u 4 yz
(5) Find where u = log (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) Ans. 2
y z (x + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
2u 2u
(6) Verify = Where (i) u = log (y sin x + x sin y )
x y y
207
3u 3u
(7) If u = x m yn then show that =
x y z y x2
2u 2u
(8) If u=log y sin x+ x sin x then show that
x y y y
(9) If u=log x 2 y 2 z 2 then show that
2u 2u 2u
x 2
y2 z2 1
x y z2
2 2
10) If u =r m , r= x2 y2 z2
2u 2u 2u
then find the value of
x 2 y2 z 2
u 2u
Hint : u= x y z
2 m2
2 2
u x,y,z find , .......
x x 2
Ans : m m+1 r m
TYPE II
Note :- Here we deal with the the problems of the type u = f (x, y, z )
where x, y functions of x, y, z
i.e. u X, Y, Z x, y, z.
We shall be frequently using the Chain- Rules can be develop drawing the
flow- diagram.
u u u
Example 8 : If u=f x-y, y-z, z-x then show that + + =0
x y z
Solution: Let X=x-y, Y=y-z, Z=z-x
so that u=f X,Y,Z
u X,Y,Z x,y,z
208
u u X u Y u Z
= + +
x X x Y x Z x
u u u u u
= 1 + 0 + -1=
X Y Z X Z
u u X u Y u Z
and +
Y X y Y y Z y
u u u u
1 1 + 0
Y X Y Z
u u
=
Y X
u u X u Y u Z
Similarly +
Z X z Y z Z z
u u u u u
= 0 1 + 1 + ............. 3
X Y Z Y Z
From (1), (2), (3)
u u u
+ 0
X Y Z
x2
Example 9 : If u=f then prove that
y
u u 2
2
u 2 u 2
2
u
(i) x + 2y =0 (ii) x + 3xy +2y =0
x y x 2
x y y2
Solution:
x2
Let t= so that u=f t
y2
x2
Note that u is a function of only one variable =t, which in turn is a
y
function of x and y
u t x,y ( see chain rule 2)
u d u t d u 2x
= =
x dt x dt y
u d u t d u -x 2
and , = =
y d t y d t y2
u u 2 x 2 d u 2x 2 d u
x +2y 0
x y y dt y dt
u u
i.e.x +2y 0.........................(1)
x y
Diff (1) partially with repect to y we get,
209
2u u 2u
x +1 2 y 0................(2)
x2 x x y
2u 2u u
and x +2 y 2 0................(3)
x x y 2
y
Taking (2) x+ 3 x y, we get
2 2 u 2u u 2u u 2
2
u
x +2xy x +xy +2y 2 y 0
x x y x x y y y2
2
u u
x +2y =0 from (1)
y y
2u 2u 2
2
u
x2 +3xy 2y =0
x 2
x y y2
dy
cos x sin y then find
y x
Example 10: If
dx
Solution:
Taking logs, we get,
y log cos x = x log sin y
Let f (x,y) =y log cos x -xlog sin y=0
dy df dx
=-
dx df dy
f 1
Now, =y -sin x - log sin y
x cos x
= -y tan x-log sin y
f 1
and =log cos x- x cos y=log cos x-x cot y
y sin y
dy y tan x log sin y
From (1)
dx log cos x x cot y
dy
Example 11: If y x +x y x y
x y
then find
dx
Solution:
Let f x+y x y
x y
yx xy o
dy f x
..................(1)
dx f y
f x+y
Now, = x+y 1+log (x+y) -y x logy-y x y-1
x
f x+y
and = x+y 1+log (x+y) -xyx-1 x y logx
y
210
From (1),
d y x+y x+y
1+log (x+y) -y x logy-yx y-1
=
x+y 1+log (x+y) -xy x-1 - x y logx
x+y
dx
=
1 log y z
z 1 log z x
2
1 log x
2
2
z 1
At x=y=z,
dx dy x 1 log x
3
x 1+log x
1 1
= =
x log e+log x x log e x
1
= x log ex
(1) If z=f x,y,u,v where u,v are functions of x,y then prove that
211
z f f u f v
= + + and write corresponding formulae for
x x u x v x
z z
y
. Hint : z x,y,u,v x, y x =.............
u
To find we must have an equation in u, x and y only.
x y
Example 13: If x=r cos , y=r sin then show that
2
x y
y x y ,
2 2
x
r r
Where surffixes denote variables kept constant
Solution:
x=r cos , y=r sin
x y
cos , sin .
r r
2
x y
x cos y sin
2
x y r cos 2 r sin 2
2
r r
r 2 = x 2 +y2
u x 2
(i) and
x y u v m
2 2
y v 2
(ii)
v x y u m
2 2
Solution: We have
u=l x+my
v=mx-l y
(i) u=l x+my
u
l ....................(1)
x y
x
(ii) To find we must have relation between x,u and v
u v
Eliminating y from the given relations, we get,
lu+mv= l 2 m2 x
lu mv
x=
l 2 m2
x 1
2 ............(2)
u v l m
2
y v l m
2 2
=
v x y u l2
z 1
Example 15: If f x,y,z 0 then show that x
x y
z y
Solution:
Here we use the result that if f x,y 0
f
y
then x
xy f
y
(i) Here f x,y,z =0. When y is kept constant,
z f x
We have, =-
x y f z
x f z
(ii) And =-
z y f x
z 1
From (1) and (2) x
x y
z y
cos sin
Example 16: If x= , y= , evaluate
u u
x u u u
u x y x y x
Solution
cos
(i) x=
u
x cos
= - ................(1)
u u2
sin 2
(ii) y =-
u2
y sin 2
= .....................(2)
u u
u
(iii) To find , we eliminate from given relations,
u
214
1
i.e. x2 y2
u2
1
or u2 ............................( A)
x y2
2
u 2 x
2u
x y x y2
2 2
u x
...................(3)
x y u x2 y2
2
1
(iv) and again u2
x y2
2
u 2 y
2u
y x x y2
2 2
u y
......................(4)
y y u x2 y2
2
x cos + y sin
=
u3 x 2 y 2
2
cos2 sin 2 1
but x cos y sin
u u
1
Re quired expression =
u4 x2 y2
2
1
= 4
u4 1 (from A)
u
Solution:
u
To find we have to eliminate v from the given equations and as this
x y,z
process will have to be repeated four times, we proceed in the following way.
Let x+y+z+u+v=a ..................(1)
x 2 +y2 +z2 +u 2 +v2 =b2 ..............(2)
differentiating with respect to x partially keeping y,z as constants, we get,
u v
1+ 0 .........(3)
x y,z x y,z
u v
and 2x+2u 2y 0 ..........(4)
x y,z x y,z
u
Solving the equations (3), (4) for by Cramer's Rule we get
x y,z
u v-x
..........(5)
x y,z u-v
Similarly differentiating (1), (2) partially with respect to y keeping x, z as
constants, we have
u v v
1+ 2v 0..............(7)
y x,z y x, z y x,z
u v
ey+ex 2v 0
y x,z y x, z
v
Solving (6), (7) for we get
y x,z
v y-u
.........(8)
y x,z u-v
Similarly differentiating (1), (2) partially with respect to u treating v,z as constant
we get,
x u
1 0 ............(9)
u u,z u v , z
x y
and 2x 2y 2u 0 .............(10)
u v,z u v , z
x
solving (9), (10) for we get,
u v,z
x y u
....................(11)
u v,z x y
216
Similarly differentiating (1), (2) partially with respect to v where u,z, are kept
constants, we get,
x y
1 0 ..... (12)
v u , z v u , z
x y
2x 2y 2v 0.........(13)
v u , z v u , z
y
Solving equations (12), (13) for we get,
v u , z
y v-x
....................(14)
v u , z x- y
From (5), (11) and from (8), (14) we get,
u x v - x y -u v y
x y , z u v , z u -v x- y y x , z v u , z
2u
Example 18: If u x 2 y 2 and x s 3t , y 2s - t. Find .
t2
Solution: We have u x2 y 2
u u
2 x, 2y
x y
Now, u x, y s, t
u u x u y
s x s y s
(2x) (1) (2 y) (2)
2x 4 y
u u
2
Now, (2 x 4 y )
s 2
s s s
x y
=2 +4
s s
=2 1+4 2=10
u u x u y
And = + .............(i)
t x t y t
= 2x 3 +2y (-1)
= 6x-2y
u2
u
(6 x 2 y )
t t t
And = =
t 2
x y
=6 - x
t t 2
217
= 6(3)-2(-1)=20 ......................(ii)
u u x y
2. Find x +y if u sin 1 tan 1 .
x y y x
1 u u
3. If u (1 2 xy y 2 ) 2 then prove that x y y 2u 3.
x y
1 2 u 2 u
4. If u (1 2 xy y 2 ) 2 then prove that (1 x ) y 0.
x x y y
y1 1 x 2u x 2 y 2
5. If u x tan y tan then prove that
2 2
.
x y yx x 2 y 2
2
9
6. If u log( x y +z xyz ), then prove that u
3 3 3
.
x y z ( x y z ) 2
218
1
x3 y 3
7. If u tan
x y
, then show that
u u
(i) x y sin 2u.
x y
2u 2u 2 u
2
(ii) x 2
2 xy y 2cos3u sin u.
x 2 xy y 2
x4 y 4 u u
8. If u log , then show that x y 3.
x y x y
*****
219
12.0 OBJECTIVES:
12.1 INTRODUCTION:
The Mean Value Theorem is one of the most important theoretical tools in
Calculus. Let us consider the following real life event to understand the concept
of this theorem: If a train travels 120 km in one hour, then its average speed
during is 120 km/hr. The car definitely either has to go at a constant speed of 120
km/hr during that whole journey, or, if it goes slower
(at a speed less than 120 km/hr) at a moment, it has to
go faster (at a speed more than 120 km/hr) at another
moment, in order to end up with an average speed of
120 km/hr. Thus, the Mean Value Theorem tells us
that at some point during the journey, the train must
have been traveling at exactly 120 km/hr. This
theorem form one of the most important results in
Calculus. Geometrically we can say that MVT states
that given a continuous and differentiable curve in an
interval [a, b], there exists a point c [a, b] such that
the tangent at c is parallel to the secant joining (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)).
12.1.1 Rolles Theorem:
If f is a real valued function such that (i) f is continuous on [a, b], (ii) f is
differentiable in (a, b) and (iii)f(a) = f(b) then there exists a point c (a, b) such
that f c 0
220
Fig 12.1
We know that f (c) is the slope of the tangent to the graph of f at x = c. Thus the
theorem simply states that between two end points with equal ordinates on the
graph of f, there exists at least one point where the tangent is parallel to the X
axis, as shown in the
Fig 12.1. After the geometrical interpretation, we now give you the algebraic
interpretation of the theorem.
Algebraic Interpretation of Rolle's Theorem:
We have seen that the third condition of the hypothesis of Rolle's theorem is that
f(a) = f(b). If for a function f, both f(a) and f(b) are zero that is a and b are the
roots of the equation f(x) = 0, then by the theorem there is a point c of (a, b),
where f (c) = 0, which means that c is a root of the equation f (x ) = 0.
Thus Rolle's theorem implies that between two roots a and b of f(x) = 0 there
always exists at least one root c of f (x ) = 0 where a < c < b. This is the
algebraic interpretation of the theorem.
Example 1: Verify Rolles Theorem for the following:
(1) x in [1,1] (2) x in 1, 3
2 2
f c 0 2c 0 c 0 and lies in [1,1]
Rolles Theorem is verified.
2)
Let f x x 2 , x 1, 3
f x is polynomial in x. f(x) is continuous and differentiable everywhere on
its domain. i.e. (i) f is continuous on [1, 3] and (ii) f is differentiable in (1, 3).
But we have f 1 1 and f 3 9 which are not equal.
The values of f at the end points are not equal i.e. f 1 f 3
The function x 2 in (1, 3) do not satisfy all the conditions of Rolles Theorem.
221
a, b > 0
Solution: f x is continuous in (a, b) and
f x =
log x 2 ab log x log a b
2x 1 x 2 ab
f x
exists, since it is not indeterminate or
x 2 ab x x x 2 ab
infinite.
Also f a f b 0 All conditions of Rolles Theorem are satisfied.
There exists c a, b such that f c 0
c 2 ab
0 (i.e.) c2 ab 0 c ab , which lies in (a, b).
c c ab2
Example 4: Verify Rolles Theorem for f x
= e x sin x cos x in
[ / 4, 5 / 4].
x
Solution: Since e , sinx, cosx are continuous and differentiable functions, the
5 5
given functions is also continuous in , and differentiable in ,
4 4 4 4
Also, f / 4 e /4 sin / 4 cos / 4 0
222
f 5 / 4 e 5 /4 sin 5 / 4 cos 5 / 4 0
f / 4 = f 5 / 4 = 0
Hence, Rolles Theorem is applicable.
Now, f x e x sin x cos x e x cos x sin x = 2e x cos x
5
f ' c 2e c cos c 0 c / 2 , which lies in ,
4 4
Example 5: Verify Rolles theorem for f(x) = sin2 x , 0 x .
Solution: We have f(x) = sin2 x , 0 x
Since sin x is continuous and differentiable on [0, ], sin2 x is also continuous
and differentiable in the given domain. Now f 0 = f = 0
all the conditions of Rolles Theorem are satisfied.
The derivative of f x should vanish for at least one point c 0, such
that f ' c 0 Now, f x 2 sin x cos x sin 2x .
f ' c sin 2c.
f ' c 0 sin 2c 0 2c 0, , 2 , 3 ,...
c 0, , ,...
2
Since c = lies in 0, , it is the required value. Hence Rolles theorem is
2
verified.
Example 6:
If f x , x , x are differentiable in (a, b) , show that there
f (a ) (a ) (a )
exists a value c in (a, b) such that f (b) (b) (b) = 0
f (c) (c) (c)
f (a ) (a ) (a )
Solution: Consider the function F x defined by, F(x) = f (b) (b) (b)
f (x ) (x ) (x )
Since f x , x , x are differentiable in (a, b) , F x is also differentiable in
a, b . Further,
F a 0 and F b 0 since in each case, two rows of the
above determinant becomes identical.
F a F b
Hence by Rolles Theorem, there is a value c a, b such that F c 0
f (a ) (a ) (a )
i.e f (b) (b) (b) = 0
f (c) (c) (c)
Example 7: If f x
= x x 1 x 2 x 3 then show that f x has
three real roots in [ 3, 0].
223
Example 8: Prove that between any two real roots of the equation,
e sin x 1 there is at least one roots of ex cos x 1 0 .
x
Now, f x = e x cos x
f c e c cos c
f ' c 0 e c cos c 0
e c cos c 0
ec cos c 1 0
c is a root of ex cos x 1 0 lying between a and b.
a b
Example 9: Us Rolles Theorem to prove that the equation ax 2 bx
3 2
has a root between 0 and 1.
ax 3 bx 2 a b
Solution: Let f x = x which is obtained by integrating
3 2 3 2
the given equation.
Here f x is continuous in 0,1
and differentiable in (0, 1) and
f 0 f 1 0
By Rolles Theorem there is a value c 0,1 such that f c 0
a b
Now, f x ax 2 bx and this is zero at x = c which means the
3 2
a b
equation, ax 2 bx has a root between 0 and 1.
3 2
224
f 0 1 0 and f 1 1 0
Since f x is a polynomial, it is continuous.
Thus, using Intermediate value theorem, we get, there is a number c between 0
and 1 such that f c 0
Thus the given equation has a root.
Now, let if possible f x have two roots, say a and b. Then f a = f b 0 .
Since f x represents a polynomial, it is differentiable on (a, b) and continuous
on a, b
Thus by Rolles Theorem there exists a member c between a and b such that
f c 0
But f x 3x 2 1, x
f x 1, x
Hence f x 0 for any x, which is a contradiction.
Thus, the equation f x = 0 cannot have two real roots.
e)
x 2 1 x 2 on 0,1
f) x 1x 3 e x in 1, 3
in 0,
sin x
4. Verify Rolls Theorem for the function f x =
ex
Show that x 4 x 1 0 has exactly one real solution.
3
5.
225
1
Ans:(1) c 3 / 2 (2) c / 4 (3) c (4) c (5) c 3 2 2
2
f b f a
f c
b a
12.1.3 Another form of Lagranges Mean value Theorem:
If (i) f x is continuous in the closed interval a, a h , (ii) f x is
differentiable in the open interval (a, a + h) then there exists at least one number
in (0, 1) such that, f a h f a hf a h
curve y f x . The slope m of the line AB is given by, m
f b f a
=
b a
Also, f c is the slope of the tangent at the point C
Physical Significance:
We note that f b f a is the change in the function f x as x changes from
f b f a
a to b, so that
b a
is the change rate of change of the function f x
over a, b . Also f c is the actual rate of change of the function for x c .
Thus the theorem states that the average rate of change of a function over an
interval is also the actual rate of change of the function at some point of the
interval.
write, f a f x f b for all x a, b . f a is its maximum value and
f b is its minimum value.
(iii)
Let f x be differentiable in an interval (a, b). Let x1, x 2 a, b and
x1 x2 then applying Lagranges Mean Value Theorem to x1, x 2 , we get
f x2 f x1
f c
x2 x1
or f x 2 f x1 x2 x1 f c (*)
Hence f x is a decreasing function of x.
We have thus proved: A function whose derivative is negative for every value of
x in an interval is a monotonically decreasing function to x in that interval.
log e log 1
e 1
f c
1 1 1
Since loge = 1, log1 = 0 and f x we get
x e 1 c
c e 1 which lies in the interval (1, 2) and hence in (1, e), since 2 < e < 3.
f x 6x 2 30x 36
(i)
f x is an increasing function if f x 0
i.e. 6x 2 30x 36 0. i.e. x 2 5x 6 0
2
But x 5x 6 (x 3)(x 2)
x 2 5x 6 0 if ( x 3 0 and x 2 0 ) or ( x 3 0 and
x 2 0)
i.e. if ( x 3 and x 2 ) or ( x 3 and x 2 )
i.e. if x 3 or x < 2
Hence f x is an increasing function if x lies in , 2 or 3,
(ii)
f x is a decreasing function if f x 0.
i.e. 6x 2 30x 36 0
i.e.if x 2 5x 6 0
But x 2 5x 6 (x 3)(x 2)
x 2 5x 6 0 if ( x 3 0 and x 2 0 ) or ( x 3 0 and x 2 0 )
i.e. if ( x 3 and x 2 ) or ( x 3 and x 2 )
i.e. if x 3 and x 2 since x 3 and x 2 is impossible.
i.e.
if 2 x 3 f x is decreasing in (2, 3)
Thus f x is increasing in , 2 and 3, and f x is decreasing in (2, 3).
1
Example 13: Find the interval in which f x x is increasing or
x
decreasing.
1 1
Solution: We have f x x f x 1
x x2
x2 1
f x
x2
(i)
f x is an increasing function if f x 0
x2 1
i.e. if 0.
x2
i.e. if x 1 0.
2
i.e. if x 1 x 1 or x 1
2
228
Hence f x is increasing in the interval ,1 and 1,
(ii)
f x is a decreasing function if f x 0.
x2 1
i.e. 2
0 x2 1 0 i.e if x 2 < 1.
x
i.e. if x 1 1 x 1
Hence f x is decreasing in (-1, 1).
x2 x2
Example 14: Show that if x 0, x log 1 x x for
2 2 1 x
x 0.
x2
Solution: Let us assume, f x log 1 x x
2
1 x2
f x
1x
1x
1x
.
f x 0 for all x 0 except at x 0. and f (0) 0.
f x is an increasing function in 0,
f x increasing from 0 and hence f x 0 .
x2
log(1 x ) x , for x 0
2
(i)
Consider,
x2
f x x
log 1 x
2 1x
2x x 2 1 x2
f' x 1
1x 2 1x
2 2
2 1x
f x 0 for x 0 except at x 0 when it is zero.
f x is an increasing function in 0,
x2
x
log 1 x for x 0.
2
2 1x
(ii)
x2 x2
From (i) and (ii), x
log 1 x x for x 0.
2 2
2 1x
229
Solution:
Let f x tan1 x
By Lagranges Theorem,
f b f a
f ' c
ba
tan 1 x tan 1 y 1
for x c y
x y 1c 2 2 2
1
But, 1 ( c 2 is positive)
2
1c
tan 1 x tan 1 y
1
x y
tan1 x tan 1 y x y
x log10 e
Example 16: Show that
log10 x 1 1 x
where x 0 and
0 1
Solution:
Let f x = log10 x 1
By second form of Lagranges MVT
For 0, x we have,
f a h f a hf a h
putting, a = 0 and h = x.
f x f 0 xf x
= 0 xf x xf x
1
But,
f x
x 1 loge 10
1 log10 e
f x
1 x loge 10 1 x
But, f x xf x
f x f' log e
x
x 1 10 x
x log10 e
log x 1 1 x
Now, f a h f a hf ' a h
ea h ea he
a h
ea eh 1 hea .e h
eh 1
e h
h
eh 1
h log
h
1 eh 1
log
h h
1 eh 1
But, 0 1 0 log 1
h h
Now by substituting h = x in the above equation, we get,
1 ex 1
0 log 1
x x
b a b a
Example 18: Show that, tan 1 b tan 1 a
1 b2 1 a2
3 4 1
Hence show that tan 1
4 25 3 4 6
Solution:
Let f x tan1 x in a, b
1
f x
1 x2
By Lagranges M. V. T.
f b f a
f c
b a
where c a, b
1 tan 1 b tan 1 a
(1)
1 c2 b a
Since a c b, a 2 c2 b2
1 a 2 1 c2 1 b2
1 1 1
(2)
2 2
1a 1c 1 b2
From (1) and (2)
1 tan 1 b tan 1 a 1
1 b2 b a 1 a2
ba ba
tan 1 b tan 1 a (3)
1 b 2
1 a2
For the second part;
4
Since tan 1 we put a = 1 and b in (3)
4 3
231
41 4 1
3 tan 1 4
tan 1 3
1
1 16
9 3 11
3 1
tan 1 4 .
25 4 3 6 4
Example 19:
b a
Prove that,
b
log b
a
b a
a
for 0 a b
1 1
Hence deduce that log 4
4 3 3
Solution:
Let f x log x in a, b
Since f x is (i) continuous in a, b and (ii) differentiable in (a, b)
f b f a
by Lagranges M. V. T. c a, b such that f c
b a
But f x log x
1 1
f x
x
f c
c
log b log a 1
b a c
(1)
1 1 1
But a c b, (2)
a c b
From (1) and (2) we get,
1 log b log a 1 b a b a
log b log a
b b a a b a
b a
b
log b
a
b a
a
For the second part a = 3, b = 4.
1 1
log 4
4 3 3
(ii) x 2 4 on 2, 3 Ans : c 5
1 Ans : c 3 2
(iii) x in 1 , 3
x 2
1 Ans:Not applicable
(iv) on 1,1
x
232
(i)
b 15
3
sin 1 3
5 b 8
1
(ii)
b 2 3
1
sin1 1
4 b
1
15
5. Separate the intervals in which the following polynomials are increasing or
decreasing. (i) x 3 3x 2 24x 31 (ii) x 3 6x 2 36x + 7
[ Ans : (i)Increasing , 2 , 4, ; Decreasing 2, 4
(ii)Increasing , 2 and 6, ; Decreasing 2, 6 ]
x 1
6. Show that, x 1 log x for 1 x.
x
7. If f x x sin x cos x cos2 x then show that, 2 f x
2
12.2 Cauchys Mean Value Theorem:
If functions f and g are (i) continuous in a closed interval [a, b], (ii) differentiable
in the open interval (a, b) and (iii) f x 0 for any point of the open interval
(a, b) then for some c a, b , f c g b g a g c f b f a
g c g b g a
i.e. a c b.
f c f b f a
12.2.1 Another form of Cauchys Mean Value Theorem:
If two function f x and g x are derivable in a closed interval [a, a + h] and
f x 0 for any x in (a, a + h) then there exists at least one number 0,1
g a h g a g a h
such that, , 0 1
f a h f a f a h
The equivalence of the two statements can be shown as in case of Lagranges
mean value theorem.
Remark:
233
(i)
Taking f x x , we can derive Lagranges mean value theorem. In
other words, we may easily see that Lagranges theorem is only a particular case
of Cauchy mean value theorem.
(ii) Usefulness of this theorem depends on the fact that f and g are
considered at the same point c. If we apply LMVT to f and g separately then
f (b) f (a) (b a)f (c1 ), g(b) g(a ) (b a )g c2 for some c1, c2 a, b
12.2.2 Geometrical Application of Cauchys Mean Value Theorem:
Geometrically, we consider a curve whose paramedic equations are x g t ,
dy f t
y f t , a t b . Then, slope of the curve at any point is,
dx g t
Also the slope of the chord joining the end points Ag a , f a and
f b f a
Bg b, f b is given by,
g b g a
Thus under the assumption of Cauchy mean value theorem. If x 0 (a, b) such
that the tangent to the curve at [g(x 0 ), f (x 0 )] is parallel to the chord AB.
Example 20: Verify Cauchys MVT for the function x 2and x3in the interval [1,
2].
Solution:
Let f x x 2 and let g x x 3 .
As f x and g x are polynomials (i) they are continuous on [1, 2], (ii) they are
differentiable on (1, 2) and (iii) g x 0 for any value in (1, 2)
f c f 2 f 1
g c g 2 g 1
2c 2 22 12 4 1 3 2 3
3c 2 23 13 8 1 7 3c 7
14
9c 14 c 1, 2
9
Cauchy mean value theorem is verified.
sin b sin a
Example 21: Using CMVT show that cot c, a c b,
cos a cos b
a 0, b 0
Solution:
Let f x sin x and g x cos x .
Here, f x and g x are continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) and
for any c in (a, b), thus CMVT can be applied.
f c f b f a
c a, b such that,
g c g b g a
234
Example 22:
If in CMVT we write f x e x and g x e x show that c is
the arithmetic mean between a and b.
Solution: Now f x e x and g x e x
If can be proved that function f x and g x are continuous on any closed
interval [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b). Also g x 0 and x a, b
f c f b f a
Then CMVT can be applied.
c a, b such that,
g c g b g a
Now
f c ec
e 2c and
eb ea
f b f a
ea b where
g c e c
g b g a e b e a
c a, b
e 2c e ab a b 2c
a b
c
2
a, b
Thus, c is the arithmetic mean between a and b.
Example 23: Using CMVT prove that there exists a number c such that
1
0 a c b and f b f a cf c log b
a
. By putting f x x n
deduce that
lim n b n 1 log b.
1
n
Solution: Let f x be a continuous and differentiable function and
g x log x .
Then f x and g x satisfy the condition of continuity and differentiability
f c f b f a
of CMVT. Hence c a, b such that,
g c g b g a
f c f b f a
f b f (a ) cf c log b
1c log b log a a
If f x x
1
n
and g x log x then by putting a = 1 we get in the interval (1,
b)
1
1 1
b n
1 (1 n )c n
where 1 c b
log b log1 1c
1 1
n b n 1 log b c n .
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1 1
lim n b 1 log b [ c n 1 as n ]
n
n
Example 24: If 1 a b , show that there exists c satisfying a c b such
that
b2 a 2
log b
a 2c 2
log b log a 1
Solution: We have to prove that,
2 2
b a 2c 2
This suggests us to take f x log x and g x x 2 Now, f x and g x are
continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) and g x 0 for any c in (a,
b).
CMVT can be applied. c a, b such that,
f c f b f a 1
log b log a
c
g c g b g a 2c b2 a 2
1 log b log a b2 a 2
log b
2c 2 b2 a 2 a 2c 2
Check Your Progress
1. Find c of Cauchys mean value theorem for:
g x
1
(i) f x x , , x [a, b], a 0 (ii) f x sin x,
x
g x cos x on [0, ]
2
(iii) f x 3x 2, g x x 2 1 on 1 x 4. (iv) f x e x ,
g x e x on [0, 1]
x2
(v) f x e x , g x , x [1,1]
x2 1
[Ans :- (i) ab (ii) 4 (iii) 5 2 (iv) 1 2 (v) 0.]
12.3 Summary
In this chapter we have learnt about the mean value theorems. The
Rolles theorem which is the fundamental theorem in analysis has been proved.
The Lagranges MVT and the Cauchys MVT have also been proved. Problems
based on these theorems have been done in order to understand the Mean Value
theorems. In the next chapter we are going to learn about Taylors theorem and
its applications.
iv) f ( x) 4 x 2 in [-2, 2]
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***********
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13.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units we have seen how we can successively differentiate a
function, partial differentiation of a function and also various mean value
theorems. Differential Calculus has various applications. Some of the physical
and geometrical applications we have seen before. Derivatives can also be used
to find maximum and minimum values of a function in an interval. The
maximum and minimum values are called extreme values of a function. The
extreme values can be absolute or can be local. The first derivative test and the
second derivative tests are used to determine the points of local extrema. In this
chapter we are going to use the differential calculus concept to answer questions
like:
(1) What is the approximate value of sin1 ?
(2) What is the error in calculating the area of a square, if the error in
calculating the side length was 1%?
(3) What are the maximum and minimum values of a function in a given
interval?
13.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to:
compute the approximate value of a function at a given point.
compute error, relative error and percentage error
compute maxima and minima for a function in a given interval.
In this section, we shall study how we can use the derivative to solve
problems of finding the maximum and minimum values of a function on
an interval. We begin by looking at the definition of the minimum and the
maximum values of a function on an interval.
Fig. 13.3
Fig 13.4
Definition :
If f is defined at c, then c is called a critical number if f if f ' (c) = 0 or f is
not defined at c. The following theorem which we state without proof tells
us that relative extreme can occur only at critical points.
Fig 13.7
Fig 13.8
Example 3: Find the local (relative) extrema of the following functions :
1
(i) f (x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 12x +7 (ii) f (x) = 2 (iii) f (x) = x.e x
x 2
Solution
(i) f is continuous and differentiable on R, the set of real numbers.
Therefore, the only critical values of f will be the solutions of the equation
f(x) = 0.
Now, f(x) = 6 x2 6 x 12 = 6( x 2)( x 1)
Setting f(x) = 0 we obtain x = 2, 1
Thus, x = 2 and x = 1 are the only critical numbers of f. Figure 13.9
shows the sign of derivative f in three intervals. From Figure 13.9 it is
clear that if x < 2, f(x) > 0; if
2 < x < 1, f(x) < 0 and if x > 1, f(x) > 0.
Fig 13.9
Using the first derivative test we conclude that f (x) has a local maximum
at x = 2 and f (x) has local minimum at x = 1.
Now, f (2) 2 = 2( 2) 3 +3( 2) 2 12(2) + 7 = 16 + 12 + 24 + 7 = 27
is the value of local maximum at x = 2 and f (1) = 2 + 3 12+ 7 = 0 is
the value of local minimum at x = 1.
Fig. 13.10
From Figure 13.10 it is clear that f '(x) > 0 if x < 0 and f '(x) < 0 if x > 0.
Using the first derivative test, we conclude that f(x) has a local maximum
at x = 0.
1 1
Now since f (0) 2 the value of the local maximum at x = 0 is
0 2 2
1/2.
(iii) Since x and e x are continuous and differentiable on R, f ( x) xe x is
continuous and differentiable on R.
Therefore, the only critical values of f will be solutions of f (x) = 0.
Now, f ( x) xe x 1e x ( x 1)e x
Since e x 0, x , f(x) = 0 gives x = 1. Thus, x = 1 is the only
critical number of f.
The figure below shows the sign of derivative f in two intervals :
Remark : If f(c) = 0 and f(c) = 0, then the second derivative test fails. In
this case, we use the first derivative test to determine whether c is a point
of local maximum or a point of a local minimum.
We summarize the second derivative test for local maxima and minima
in the following table.
Second Derivative Test for Local Maxima and Minima
f (c) f (c) f (c )
0 + Local Minimum
0 - Local Maximum
0 0 Test Fails
We shall adopt the following step to determine local maxima and minima.
Example 4: Find the points of local maxima and minima, if any, of each
of the following functions. Find also the local maximum values and local
minimum values.
(i) f (x) = x3 6 x2 9 x 1 , x
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2. Using first derivative test find the local maxima and minima of the
following functions.
x 2
(i) f ( x) x3 12 x (ii) f ( x) , x 0
2 x
3. Use second derivative test to find the local maxima and minima of the
following functions.
(i) f ( x) x3 2 x 2 x 1, x (ii) f ( x) x 2 1 x , x 1
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