ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT OF PV CELL

To understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is useful to create a

model which is electrically equivalent, and is based on discrete electrical
components whose behavior is well known. An ideal solar cell may be modelled
by a current source in parallel with a diode; in practice no solar cell is ideal, so a
shunt resistance and a series resistance component are added to the model. The
resulting equivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown on the left. Also shown, on
the right, is the schematic representation of a solar cell for use in circuit
diagrams.

From the equivalent circuit it is evident that the current produced by the solar cell
is equal to that produced by the current source, minus that which flows through
the diode, minus that which flows through the shunt resistor:[4][5]

where

I = output current (ampere)

IL = photogenerated current (ampere)
ID = diode current (ampere)
ISH = shunt current (ampere).

The current through these elements is governed by the voltage across them:
where

Vj = voltage across both diode and resistor RSH (volt)

V = voltage across the output terminals (volt)
I = output current (ampere)
RS = series resistance ().

By the Shockley diode equation, the current diverted through the diode is:

[6]

where

I0 = reverse saturation current (ampere)

n = diode ideality factor (1 for an ideal diode)
q = elementary charge
k = Boltzmann's constant
T = absolute temperature
At 25C, volt.

By Ohm's law, the current diverted through the shunt resistor is:

where

RSH = shunt resistance ().

Substituting these into the first equation produces the characteristic equation of a
solar cell, which relates solar cell parameters to the output current and voltage:

An alternative derivation produces an equation similar in appearance, but with V

on the left-hand side. The two alternatives are identities; that is, they yield
precisely the same results.

In principle, given a particular operating voltage V the equation may be solved to

determine the operating current I at that voltage. However, because the equation
involves I on both sides in a transcendental function the equation has no general
analytical solution. However, even without a solution it is physically instructive.
Furthermore, it is easily solved using numerical methods. (A general analytical
solution to the equation is possible using Lambert's W function, but since
Lambert's W generally itself must be solved numerically this is a technicality.)

Since the parameters I0, n, RS, and RSH cannot be measured directly, the most
common application of the characteristic equation is nonlinear regression to
extract the values of these parameters on the basis of their combined effect on
solar cell behavior.

Open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current

When the cell is operated at open circuit, I = 0 and the voltage across the output
terminals is defined as the open-circuit voltage. Assuming the shunt resistance
is high enough to neglect the final term of the characteristic equation, the open-
circuit voltage VOC is:

Similarly, when the cell is operated at short circuit, V = 0 and the current I
through the terminals is defined as the short-circuit current. It can be shown
that for a high-quality solar cell (low RS and I0, and high RSH) the short-circuit
current ISC is:

It is not possible to extract any power from the device when operating at either
open circuit or short circuit conditions

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic and the Solar Cell I-V Curve
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves show the current and voltage ( I-V )
characteristics of a particular photovoltaic ( PV ) cell, module or array giving a
detailed description of its solar energy conversion ability and efficiency.
Knowing the electrical I-V characteristics (more importantly Pmax) of a solar cell,
or panel is critical in determining the devices output performance and solar
efficiency.

Photovoltaic solar cells convert the suns radiant light directly into electricity.
With increasing demand for a clean energy source and the suns potential as a
free energy source, has made solar energy conversion as part of a mixture of
renewable energy sources increasingly important. As a result, the demand for
efficient solar cells, which convert sunlight directly into electricity, is growing
faster than ever before.

s ( PV ) cells are made made almost entirely from silicon that has been processed
into an extremely pure crystalline form that absorbs the photons from sunlight
and then releases them as electrons, causing an electric current to flow when
the photoconductive cell is connected to an external load. There are a variety of
different measurements we can make to determine the solar cells performance,
such as its power output and its conversion efficiency.

The main electrical characteristics of a PV cell or module are summarized in the

relationship between the current and voltage produced on a typical solar cell I-
V characteristics curve. The intensity of the solar radiation (insolation) that hits
the cell controls the current ( I ), while the increases in the temperature of the
solar cell reduces its voltage ( V ).

Solar cells produce direct current ( DC ) electricity and current times voltage
equals power, so we can create solar cell I-V curves representing the current
versus the voltage for a photovoltaic device.

Solar Cell I-V Characteristics Curves are basically a graphical representation of

the operation of a solar cell or module summarising the relationship between
the current and voltage at the existing conditions of irradiance and temperature.
I-V curves provide the information required to configure a solar system so that
it can operate as close to its optimal peak power point (MPP) as possible.
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve

solar cell i-v characteristic curve

The above graph shows the current-voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a typical

silicon PV cell operating under normal conditions. The power delivered by a solar
cell is the product of current and voltage ( I x V ). If the multiplication is done,
point for point, for all voltages from short-circuit to open-circuit conditions, the
power curve above is obtained for a given radiation level.

With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not connected to any load, the current
will be at its minimum (zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum,
known as the solar cells open circuit voltage, or Voc. At the other extreme, when
the solar cell is short circuited, that is the positive and negative leads connected
together, the voltage across the cell is at its minimum (zero) but the current
flowing out of the cell reaches its maximum, known as the solar cells short circuit
current, or Isc.

Then the span of the solar cell I-V characteristics curve ranges from the short
circuit current ( Isc ) at zero output volts, to zero current at the full open circuit
voltage ( Voc ). In other words, the maximum voltage available from a cell is at
open circuit, and the maximum current at closed circuit. Of course, neither of
these two conditions generates any electrical power, but there must be a point
somewhere in between were the solar cell generates maximum power.

However, there is one particular combination of current and voltage for which
the power reaches its maximum value, at Imp and Vmp. In other words, the
point at which the cell generates maximum electrical power and this is shown at
the top right area of the green rectangle. This is the maximum power point or
MPP. Therefore the ideal operation of a photovoltaic cell (or panel) is defined to
be at the maximum power point.

The maximum power point (MPP) of a solar cell is positioned near the bend in
the I-V characteristics curve. The corresponding values of Vmp and Imp can be
estimated from the open circuit voltage and the short circuit current: Vmp
(0.80.90)Voc and Imp (0.850.95)Isc. Since solar cell output voltage and
current both depend on temperature, the actual output power will vary with
changes in ambient temperature.

Thus far we have looked at Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve for a single solar
cell or panel. But many photovoltaic arrays are made up of smaller PV panels
connected together. Then the I-V curve of a PV array is just a scaled up version
of the single solar cell I-V characteristic curve as shown.

Solar Panel I-V Characteristic Curves

Photovoltaic panels can be wired or connected together in either series or
parallel combinations, or both to increase the voltage or current capacity of the
solar array. If the array panels are connected together in a series combination,
then the voltage increases and if connected together in parallel then the current
increases. The electrical power in Watts, generated by these different
photovoltaic combinations will still be the product of the voltage times the
current, ( P = V x I ). However the solar panels are connected together, the upper
right hand corner will always be the maximum power point (MPP) of the array.

The Electrical Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Array

The electrical characteristics of a photovoltaic array are summarised in the

relationship between the output current and voltage. The amount and intensity
of solar insolation (solar irradiance) controls the amount of output current ( I ),
and the operating temperature of the solar cells affects the output voltage ( V )
of the PV array. Solar cell I-V characteristic curves that summarise the
relationship between the current and voltage are generally provided by the
panels manufacturer and are given as:

Solar Array Parameters

VOC = open-circuit voltage: This is the maximum voltage that the array
provides when the terminals are not connected to any load (an open circuit
condition). This value is much higher than Vmp which relates to the operation
of the PV array which is fixed by the load. This value depends upon the number
of PV panels connected together in series.
ISC = short-circuit current The maximum current provided by the PV array
when the output connectors are shorted together (a short circuit condition).
This value is much higher than Imp which relates to the normal operating circuit
current.
MPP = maximum power point This relates to the point where the power
supplied by the array that is connected to the load (batteries, inverters) is at its
maximum value, where MPP = Imp x Vmp. The maximum power point of a
photovoltaic array is measured in Watts (W) or peak Watts (Wp).
 FF = fill factor The fill factor is the relationship between the maximum power
that the array can actually provide under normal operating conditions and the
product of the open-circuit voltage times the short-circuit current, ( Voc x Isc )
This fill factor value gives an idea of the quality of the array and the closer the
fill factor is to 1 (unity), the more power the array can provide. Typical values
are between 0.7 and 0.8.
%eff = percent efficiency The efficiency of a photovoltaic array is the ratio
between the maximum electrical power that the array can produce compared
to the amount of solar irradiance hitting the array. The efficiency of a typical
solar array is normally low at around 10-12%, depending on the type of cells
(monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous or thin film) being used.
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves are graphs of output voltage versus current
for different levels of insolation and temperature and can tell you a lot about a
PV cell or panels ability to convert sunlight into electricity. The most important
values for calculating a particular panels power rating are the voltage and
current at maximum power.

Some solar panels are rated at slightly higher or lower voltages than others of
the same wattage value, and this affects the amount of current available and
therefore the panels MPP. Other parameters also important are the open circuit
voltage and short circuit current ratings from a safety point of view, especially
the voltage rating. An array of six panels in series, while having a nominal 72 volt
(6 x 12) rating, could potentially produce an open-circuit voltage of over 120
volts DC, which is more than enough to be dangerous.

Photovoltaic I-V characteristics curves provide the information needed for us to

configure a solar power array so that it can operate as close as possible to its
maximum peak power point. The peak power point is measured as the PV
module produces its maximum amount of power when exposed to solar
radiation equivalent to 1000 watts per square metre, 1000 W/m2 or 1kW/m2.

For more information about Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves and how they
are used to determine the maximum power point of a photovoltaic cell or panel,
or to explore the advantages and disadvantages of using solar panels as an
alternative energy source, then Click Here and order your copy from Amazon
today and learn more about the fun and easy way to get a grip on photovoltaic
design and installation.

What are Standard Test Conditions (STC)?

What are Standard Test Conditions (STC)?

STC stands for Standard Test Conditions and are the industry standard for the
conditions under which a solar panel are tested. By using a fixed set of
conditions, all solar panels can be more accurately compared and rated against
each other. There are three standard test conditions which are:

1. Temperature of the cell 25C. The temperature of the solar cell itself, not
the temperature of the surrounding.

2. Solar Irradiance 1000 Watts per square meter. This number refers to the
amount of light energy falling on a given area at a given time.

3. Mass of the air 1.5. This number is somewhat misleading as it refers to the
amount of light that has to pass through Earths atmosphere before it can hit
Earths surface, and has to do mostly with the angle of the sun relative to a
reference point on the earth. This number is minimized when the sun is directly
above as the light has to travel a minimum distance straight down, and increases
as the sun goes farther from the reference point and has to go at an angle to hit
the same spot.
Nominal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT)
To simulate field operation performance of the solar PV module a realistic test
is the Nominal Operating Cell Temperature, NOCT.
The nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT) is defined as the cell or
module temperature that is reached when the cells are mounted in their
normal way at a solar radiation level of 800 W/m2, a wind speed of 1 m/s, an
ambient temperature of 20C, and no-load operation (i.e., with c = 0). The
NOCT is usually given on the PV manufacturers module data sheet.
PV Module Efficiency and Power Output
The electrical efficiency of the PV cell or module is equal to its power output
divided by the incident solar irradiance.

= , where P is the power produced by the cell or module, is the area

of the cell or module and is the solar irradiance incident on the module.
Therefore the power output of the module can be written in terms of the
module efficiency and the received irradiance as:
=
The field operating efficiency is a function of cell temperature (it decreases
as cell temperature increases) and is related to the reference efficiency at STC
conditions as:
 = (1 ( ))
is the temperature coefficient for efficiency (given by manufacturer) and
is the cell temperature.
Since it is usually difficult to always measure the cell temperature under field
conditions, the cell temperature is related to the ambient temperature Ta a
meteorological variable, and the NOCT conditions. Approximately,

= + ( 20) .
800

Therefore the field operating power of the PV module can be modelled from
the module test characteristics ( , , , ) and the meteorological
variables ( and ).

=

DESCRIPTION AND SIZING OF A SOLAR PV SYSTEM

3.1. Components of a Solar PV plant

A typical solar PV system has the following components

a) Modules
b) Mounting structures
c) Inverters
d) Charge controllers
e) Batteries

Modules

Modules (more commonly known as solar panels) are groups of cells that convert light into
electricity. There are two kinds of modules:
Crystalline silicon: Crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar modules are currently the most commonly used,
primarily due to c-Si being stable and delivering efficiencies in the range of 13-19%.

Thin-film: Thin film modules are less efficient than c-Si based systems but enjoy a lower thermal
coefficient making them more suitable for warmer areas. While they enjoyed a significant cost
advantage a few years ago, thin film modules are now at par or in some cases even more expensive
than crystalline modules. Their thermal coefficient of conversion, however, is lower than crystalline
modules making them very suitable for more arid/hot regions.

Parameters to be considered when selecting Solar Modules

1. Cost
2. Solar panel quality
3. Tolerance
4. Temperature Co-efficient
5. Conversion Efficiency
6. Durability/Warranty
7. System Sizing
8. Certifications

Mounting structures

Solar panels are mounted on iron fixtures so that they can withstand wind and weight of panels. The
panels are mounted to face south in the Northern Hemisphere and north in the Southern
Hemisphere for maximum power tracking. The tilt angle of panels is usually at an angle equal to
latitude of that location and the tracking angle is set according to the angle ranges of the solar
window.

Inverters

Solar panels generate direct current. An inverter converts the direct current into alternating current
that can be fed into the facilitys electric network. Inverters are a very important component of a
solar PV system and are the only major component of a solar plant that is replaced during the
lifetime of the plant

Kinds of inverters

a. Micro inverters Can also be called module inverters. These inverters are typically attached
directly to individual photovoltaic modules in order to extract the maximum power from each
module.
b. String Inverters Are designed to be wired to a single series string of 8-15 solar modules.
c. Central Inverters A type of string inverter used in large scale applications. They offer easier
installation and higher efficiency than smaller string inverters.

Inverters can further be classified as

a. Off Grid
b. Grid Tied
c. Hybrid
Off grid inverters are primarily used in small scale and remote installations where the grid is not
present.

Grid tied inverters work in conjunction with the utility grid with safety features that typically turnoff
the solar system in the event of a power outage.

Hybrid inverters (also known as Bidirectional or magical inverters) are a one system solution for a
complete solar PV system. They can automatically manage between 2 or more different sources of
power (grid, diesel, solar). They have inbuilt charge controllers, MPPT controller, Anti Islanding
solutions, DC and AC disconnects and other features like automatic on/off of the diesel generator,
automatic data logging, and various kinds of protection for the different components of the system,
making them ideally suited for solar plants that act as a diesel substitute .

There are many variables that can affect the efficiency of a solar energy inverter. With every
manufacturer developing inverters with different MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracker) ranges,
enclosures, temperature variances, monitoring abilities, etc., it becomes critical to choose the right
kind of inverter for your plant to maximise your returns.

Charge Controllers

The charge controller is required to regulate supply of charging current from the solar system to the
batteries. They improve battery performance by protecting the battery from overcharging. The
charge controller protects the battery from over-charging (which causes gassing) or over-discharging
(which permanently damages the battery). The charge controller can be a separate unit or
integrated with the inverter.

There are two kinds of charge controllers a) Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) b) Maximum Power
Point Tracking (MPPT)

Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) This type of charge controller operates by sending out pulses of
charge which helps in uniform distribution of the charges on the plates of battery. These are
modulating the pulse widths and slopes of the voltage and current levels and also their rate of
change. They operate in three phases:

i. Bulk phase: The voltage gradually rises to the bulk level (usually 14.4 to 14.6 volts) while
the batteries draw maximum current. When bulk level voltage is reached the absorption
stage begins
ii. Absorption phase: The voltage is maintained at bulk voltage level for specified times
(usually an hour) while the current gradually tapers off as the batteries charge up
iii. Float phase: After the absorption time passes the voltage is lowered to float level
(usually 13.4 to 13.7 volts) and the batteries draw a small maintenance current until the
next cycle

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

They constantly track and maintain the optimum voltage and current to charge the battery. They
match the output of the solar panels to the battery voltage to ensure maximum charge (amps).
A 100 watt solar panel rated at 6 amps at 15.5 volts will be able to charge a 12.4 volt battery at
75 watts (6 amps times 12.4 volts). The MPPT module extracts the full 100 watts from the panel
regardless of battery voltage by utilizing a DC-to-DC converter to charge the battery by
delivering 8 amps.

Batteries

Batteries are an optional component in solar power systems used to provide backup power
when the sun isnt shining or to augment the solar systems when the output is low (such as
when clouds pass by). Batteries come in several voltages, but the most common varieties are 6
Volt and 12 Volt. Solar PV systems typically use lead acid batteries which are of three types

a) Liquid vented or flooded

b) Sealed (VRLA Valve Regulated Lead Acid)

i. Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM)

ii. Gel Cell

 Liquid vetted or flooded

Flooded lead-acid (FLA) batteries are the most cost-effective variety. They require maintenance
that involves monitoring voltage and occasionally replenishing the water in the battery.
Additionally, FLA batteries vent hydrogen under heavy charging so they must be stored in a
ventilated enclosure.

Sealed (VRLA Valve Regulated Lead Acid)

Being sealed, they do not require watering, nor do they typically vent any gasses. As the
electrolyte cannot be refilled, controlling the rate of charge is very important.
Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM)

Absorbed Glass Mat batteries use a fiberglass-like separator to hold the electrolyte in place.
These are more expensive and more sensitive to overcharging than FLAs and offer the best
vibration and impact resistance.

Gel Cell Gel cell batteries use a thickening agent to immobilize the electrolyte. The cell will
continue to function even if the container is cracked. These are the most expensive of the three
types.

SOLAR PLANT CONFIGURATIONS

Designing the right kind of solar power plant for your application is critical as cost, reliability, and
flexibility are determined by the design.
Solar power plants have three primary configurations
a) Stand-alone PV system
b) Grid-tied PV system, i. Grid-Interactive Without Battery Backup ii. Grid-Interactive With Battery
Backup
c) Hybrid Solar PV system

Stand-alone PV system
Stand-alone PV systems operate independent of the electric utility grid, and are generally designed
and sized to supply specific DC and/or AC electrical loads. This can be:
i. Without Batteries The DC output of the module or array is connected directly to a DC load. As
there is no battery the load only operates during sunlight. An MPPT Charge Controller may be used
to maximise the output from the array in some applications like positive-displacement water pumps.
ii. With batteries This system uses a hybrid inverter with charge controller to charge the batteries
during daytime and power the load. The batteries supply the inverter when sunlight is not available.
Priority is given to charging over fulfilling the load demand beyond a level of battery consumption.

Grid-tied Captive Power Plant A grid-tied solar power system (also referred to as grid-intertied, or
on-grid or utility-interactive) produces solar power that is fed to the load interactively with the utility
grid, hence the term grid-tied, as the system is tied, literally, to the grid. The critical component in a
grid-tied plant is the inverter or power conditioning unit (PCU) which disconnects from the grid in
the event of utility outage to prevent power generated by the solar panels from flowing back into
the grid. This feature, known as anti-islanding function, is required in all grid-tied systems to protect
utility personnel working on the grid during an outage.
i. With batteries
These systems are usually smaller in capacity, typically under 20 kW, due to the high cost of
batteries. The battery is used to keep critical load circuits operating during a utility outage.
When an outage occurs, the unit disconnects from the utility and powers the critical load circuits
which are wired from a subpanel that is separate from the rest of the electrical circuits.
ii. Without batteries This system is much simpler and primarily consists of the solar array and a
grid-tied inverter. It is simple to install and achieves the highest efficiency as the introduction of
batteries lead to efficiency losses but excess power generated cannot be fed to batteries. If net-
metering is not available in the region the surplus power cannot be monetized.
Hybrid Solar PV system
Systems with more than one source of power are called hybrid systems. Having multiple sources of
power ensures availability of power even when the sun isnt shining, or greater availability of power
than from the solar panels. There are different kinds of hybrids, such as solar-wind hybrid, solar-
biomass hybrid, etc. Solar PV systems are often coupled with diesel generators due to the
intermittent nature of solar power, limited solar plant capacity, or because the load might require
heavy inrush current. The diesel generator supplies the excess load during daylight hours and the
entire load as well as charges the battery when the sun isnt available. This system strikes an
optimum balance between solar capacity utilization, battery discharge levels, and diesel
consumption.

SIZING A SOLAR PV-BATTERY STANDALONE SYSTEM

1. ESTIMATING THE ELECTRICAL LOAD

The power consumption should be known; either from name plate data if the electrical appliances
are already installed, or from literature. Ideally the times of use and the length of times of use for
these appliances should also be known. An example of the load information is shown in Table 1,
2 and 3 below.

Table 1: Appliance power matrix (matrix M1)

Power Total
# Appliance Type Number Rating Power
A1 Televisions 3 150 450
 A2 Radios 2 20 40
A3 Fridges 1 400 400
A4 Freezer 1 400 400
A5 Computers 8 150 1200
A6 Lights 20 10 200
A7 Overhead Projector 1 250 250
A8 Hoover 1 700 700
A9 Washing Machine 1 500 500
A10 Security Light 2 18 36

Table 2: Appliance time-of-use matrix (matrix M2)

Time A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11

1 0 0.3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
2 0 0.3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
3 0 0.3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
4 0 0.3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
5 0 0.3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
6 0 0.5 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
7 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
8 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
9 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
10 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
11 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0.5 1 1
12 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0.5 1 1
13 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0.5 0 1
14 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0.5 0 1
15 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0.5 0 1
16 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0.5 0 1
17 1 0.5 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
18 1 0.5 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
19 1 0.3 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
20 1 0.3 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
21 1 0.3 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
22 1 0.3 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
23 0 0.3 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
24 0 0.3 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

Table 3: Hourly Power Demand Profile M1 x M2

Time Power
1 848
2 848
3 848
 4 848
5 848
6 856
7 756
8 1140
9 1340
10 1340
11 1626
12 1626
13 1590
14 1590
15 1590
16 1590
17 2620
18 2420
19 3912
20 3912
21 3912
22 3912
23 1512
24 1512
Total [watt-hour] 42996

4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Once the demand profile or the daily energy demanded is known the design of the solar system may
begin. This can be done in either of the following two ways.

1. Simple Daily Energy Balance

2. Computer Simulation- Hourly Energy Balance
2. SOLAR RADIATION INCIDENT ON THE COLLECTOR

For sizing the solar system, you need solar radiation data for the location for which the system is
being designed. The shortest time-step resolution of solar data that is sometimes available is
hourly. However, at most locations, only monthly average daily radiation data is available. If hourly
data of solar irradiation on a horizontal plane is available, a more accurate sizing procedure is to
use Hourly Energy Balance over a Typical Meteorological Year, aided by computer simulation, and
after resolving this data to plane of the solar collector using a suitable tilted-plane model, e.g.
by Liu and Jordan, 1966. However, if only monthly solar radiation on a horizontal plane data is
available, a rough sizing can be done either by using a model that resolves the daily data to hourly
data (Coralles-Pereira and Rabl, 1979) or by simple using the horizontal solar data modified by
daily tilt factors for the location. Normally the month with the least radiation available on the
tilted plane of the collector is selected as the Design Month and the data used for sizing the solar
system. Figure 1 shows a map of the monthly average total solar radiation on a horizontal plane
for the month of June in Zimbabwe. Figure 2 shows the map of tilt factors for the month of June
for Zimbabwe. To get the average solar radiation incident on the collector surface the horizontal
radiation is multiplied by the tilt factor, i.e.

=
The daily average solar irradiation available in kWh/m2 on the tilted surface is numerical
equivalent to the number of Peak Sunshine Hours (PSH). This an important number in sizing the
solar PV array required for the solar power system. 1 PSH = 1000W/m2.
 Figure 1: Monthly average June total radiation on a horizontal plane (kWh/m2) for Zimbabwe

3. SIZING THE PV ARRAY

The required PV array power is determined from the daily electrical demand and the number of peak
sunshine hours, after factoring in system losses.

Required PV array power is given by:

=

System efficiency depends on the efficiencies of the various system components in delivering energy
e.g. battery, charge controller, inverter, wiring etc. Further, the efficiency of the PV module reduces
with temperature of the cells- the higher the temperature, the lower is the efficiency. Typical losses
due to these effects are shown on Table 1.

Table 1: Typical PV system losses

Loss Agent Percent Energy Loss

Temperature effect 10 to 15%
Battery 10 to 15%
Inverter 5%
Wiring 3%

Therefore a total of 30% loss is possible. An overall efficiency of 75% is usually assumed.
Figure 2: June tilt factor for Zimbabwe for a collector tilt angle equal to the absolute value of the latitude of
the location.

Example: Sizing PV Array

Daily Electrical Load = 15 kWh
Location: latitude 19.5 South, longitude 30 East
Month with minimum irradiation: June
Tilt angle = latitude of location

Solution

Monthly irradiation for June = 5 kWh/m2/day

Tilt factor = 1.23
Peak Sunshine Hours = 1.23 x 5 = 6.15 hours/day
System Efficiency = 0.75 (assumed)

Therefore:
15
= 6.150.75

= 3.25 kW (3,250 kW)