ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862

The application of critical state soil mechanics to the mechanical

behaviour of porous sandstones
R.J. Cuss*,1, E.H. Rutter, R.F. Holloway
Rock Deformation Laboratory, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
Accepted 31 March 2003

Abstract

The mechanical properties of three cohesive sandstones of different porosities (f) and average grain diameters (R) have been
investigated. These were Tennessee sandstone (f 0:07), Darley Dale sandstone (f 0:12), and Penrith sandstone (f 0:25).
Unconned uniaxial compression, constant displacement rate triaxial, and hydrostatic experiments were conducted. Yield stress
data produced approximately circular envelopes that decreased in size with increasing porosity or grain size when plotted in the
differential stress versus effective mean stress (Q  P) space. Normalization of these data with respect to the hydrostatic grain
crushing pressure (P ) resulted in a unique yield envelope for sandstone. Extending these data into the Q2P2fR space allows the
principles of critical state soil mechanics to be applied. The critical state line for porous sandstone (the crestal line of the yield
surface) appears to correspond to the transition from dilatant behaviour with localized faulting at low effective mean pressures
(P=P o0:5), to pervasive cataclastic ow at high effective mean pressures (P=P > 0:5). Post-yield, deformation progresses towards
the critical state as observed by constant volume deformation. The critical state model developed for soil mechanics can be applied
to make generalizations about the deformation of cohesive, porous sandstones. The expected behaviour of any porous sand appears
to be predictable to a useful degree from a knowledge of P ; which can be estimated from the simple parameters of porosity and
mean grain size.
Sensitivity to the presence of water, attributed to sub-critical crack growth, was observed in hydrostatic and uniaxial compression
tests in all rock types tested. Considerable strength and elastic anisotropy was also observed.
r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction inherently complex and compaction of these materials

Many geotechnical problems require a full knowledge
of the mechanical behaviour of granular rocks in order
to ascertain viability in terms of economics and/or
safety, including borehole stability investigations [1].
Rocks are subjected to a heterogeneous stress-eld in
situ created by far-eld tectonic stresses, locally com-
plicated by pore-uid pressure and rock heterogeneities.
The lifecycle of a hydrocarbon reservoir can be highly
complex as cyclic ow and extraction alter the local
stress eld through pore pressure variations. It is
desirable accurately to predict deformation under such
variable conditions from parameters that are simple and
cheap to obtain. However, porous granular media are
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-115-936-3486; fax: +44-115-936-
3145.
E-mail address: rjcu@bgs.ac.uk (R.J. Cuss).
1
British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG,
UK.
still remains poorly understood.
The critical state theory of soils [2,3] potentially
provides a unied model of behaviour of porous rocks
where stress and volume states are interrelated. Soils
yield, i.e. pass from purely elastic to elastoplastic
behaviour, at a critical specic volume. Yielding or
shear failure is considered to occur as a combination of
effective stress and specic volume coinciding with a
state boundary surface. Deformation described in terms
of a yield envelope/surface has been shown to apply to
deformation in porous, cohesive geomaterials [4]. In the
triaxial test, the representation of yield within the
differential [Q s1  s3 ] versus mean effective
[P s1 2s3 =3] stress space describes the yield sur-
face for a given material. The Q  P diagram represents
a means to predict failure mode for given stress states
with brittle faulting and cataclastic ow restricted to
specic regions of the diagram assuming strain vector
normality for associated plasticity [4]. Plastic potentials
describe the dependence of plastic deformation on yield

1365-1609/03/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S1365-1609(03)00053-4
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
848 R.J. Cuss et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862

stress state rather than the route by which stress state is
attained. Normalizing yield envelopes with respect to
their grain crushing pressure (P ), which represents the
onset of yield under purely hydrostatic conditions, gives
rise to the unifying concept of a unique yield envelope
for porous materials [4].
In soil mechanics the yield surface concept can be
generalized further by plotting porosity or void ratio on
a third axis of the Q  P diagram. This provides a
unied model to describe complex deformation histories
and predict the condition corresponding to critical state
deformation (deformation at constant volume). Pre-
vious studies have shown a consistent deformation style
irrespective of sediment type and strength [5]. Critical
state soil mechanics has been used to describe deforma-
tion in a variety of weak rocks including chalk, bonded
mudrocks, carbonates, sandstones and sand [5,6].
Several studies have described the mechanical beha-
viour of various sandstone-types [4,7]. In this study, we
describe the mechanical behaviour of three sandstones
of widely varying initial porosities under uniaxial,
hydrostatic and triaxial conditions. These data are
viewed in terms of critical state soil mechanics to
validate the approach and the ndings of Zhang et al. [8]
and Wong et al. [4]. The observed mechanical behaviour
can aid the description of borehole stability [1] and
predict the effect of stress changes on reservoir stability.
Additional tests were conducted to investigate elastic
anisotropy and water weakening.
2. Experimental procedure
The mechanical behaviour of the three sandstone
varieties was investigated using several experimental
techniques; uniaxial compression, hydrostatic compres-
sion (constant pore-pressure volumometry, CPV, and
hydrostatic volumetric strain, HVS, methods) and
constant strain-rate triaxial compression. Three experi-
mental set-ups were utilized; an unconned compression
rig for uniaxial compression, a large specimen rig for
hydrostatic compression and a Heard-type triaxial
compression rig. Each experimental set-up and test
procedure is described in Appendix A.
2.1. Test material
Deformation was studied within three homogeneous
sandstone types that have been used for a number of
rock mechanics investigations in the past. They have
similar mineralogy, but vary in porosity (f), grain size
(R), and proportions of different mineral constituents.
These were Tennessee sandstone (Crab Orchard
quarry, Tennessee, USA), Darley Dale sandstone
(Darley Dale, Derbyshire, England), and Penrith
sandstone (Penrith, Cumbria, England). The rocks have
porosities (percentage) of 7.570.3, 13.570.5 and
2870.5 and average grain diameters (microns) of
75730, 170 750, and 130720, respectively. Initial
porosity was measured using three methods: (a)
comparing dry and saturated densities (giving effective
f), (b) comparing volume of intact sample with the
volume of crushed material determined using a specic
gravity bottle (giving total f), and (c) determining void
proportion using scanning electron microscopy (giving
total f). Average grain diameter (D) was determined
using the linear intercept method with optical micro-
scopy. Table 1 summarizes the main features of each
starting material.

Table 1
Full description of the test materials

Penrith sandstone Darley Dale sandstone Tennessee sandstone

Porosity f 2870.5% 13.570.5% 7.570.3%

Grain diameter (R) 129.6730 mm 171750 mm 75720 mm
Sedimentary structure Not obvious Not obvious Clear cross-bedding
Colouration Red Yellow Red/orange
Competence Friable Non-friable Non-friable
Sorting Moderate-high Poor Moderate
Subrounded-angular Subrounded-subangular Subrounded-angular
Sphericity Low-moderate Low-high Low-moderate
Existing damage Microcracking at grain contacts Microcracking at grain contacts Few grain contact fractures
Mineralogy
Qtz 70% 70% 75%
Fsp 15% 20%
Clay 5% 6% 10%
+ 3% Hem 3% Detrital mica 3% Detrital mica
Trace mineralogy Chl, Cal Kln, Cal, Chl
Cement material Qtz, Cal, +other Qtz Lm, Qtz, mica

Cal = calcite, Chl = chlorite, Fsp = feldspar, Hem = Hematite, Kln = kaolinite, Lm = liminite, Qtz = quartz.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.J. Cuss et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862 849

3. Experimental results Fig. 1a shows the uniaxial response, these results are
consistent with previous studies [9]. Initially there is a
3.1. Unconfined uniaxial compression signicant difference between axial and diametral strain
as axial load is translated into the closure of pre-existing
A total of 17 tests were conducted on the three microcracks and simple poroelastic compaction. Dom-
sandstone materials in oven-dry, water saturated and inantly linear-elastic deformation of the granular frame-
alcohol-saturated states. Additional tests were conducted work follows. This region is rapidly superseded by the
in the three orthogonal directions for Tennessee sand- formation of new fractures above about one-third of
stone. Results are summarized in Fig. 1 and Table 2. the uniaxial strength (qu ), signied by the deviation of the
line and representing progressive elastic volume reduc-
tion with load in the direction of inelastic volume
increase. At stresses approximately 0.5qu the growth rate
100
Tennessee Sst C17 of dilatant microcracks dominates over elastic volume
90
reduction, resulting in progressive sample volume in-
80
Axial stress (MPa)

Volumetric crease. Circumferential deformation accelerates beyond

Diametral 70 strain v Axial
strain d strain a 0.66qu with the formation of new tensile microfractures.
60
Darley
The enhancement of diametral strain relative to axial
50
Dale Sst B14 strains indicates that most microcrack opening is in a
40
Penrith Sst A16 radial direction. Crack coalescence culminates in macro-
30
20
scopic failure along an inclined fault plane accompanied
10
by spalling along long, axially oriented extension
0
fractures. No signicant differences were observed
-0.008 -0.004 0 0.004 0.008 0.012 between rock types, indicating similar deformation
(A) Strain mechanisms under unconned conditions. Slight differ-
ences were observed between materials associated with
120
the cleanness of fracture. The signicantly weaker and
100 more friable Penrith sandstone tended to lose cohesion at
Axial stress (MPa)

the grainscale to a greater degree during ultimate failure.

80 Elastic and strength anisotropy in the three orthogo-
c nal directions with respect to a weakly dened bedding
Diametral 60 Vol
strain Axial feature was investigated for Tennessee sandstone. Fig.
strain strain
40 1b and Table 2 summarize results obtained in the
N-direction (C17) normal (Ncored perpendicular to bedding), refer-
20 P-diection (C41)
ence bedding-plane (R; cored parallel to the dip
R-direction (C44)
0 direction of foresets), and cored perpendicular to N
-0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 and RP directions. Signicant elastic anisotropy was
(B) Strain observed by variations in orthogonal stressstrain
responses. In terms of uniaxial strength, qP > qR > qN ;
100 Enhanced while for stiffness KR > KP > KN : The R direction is
90 failure rates
approximately 1.4 times stiffer than N; demonstrating
80
Axial stress (MPa)

signicant elastic anisotropy in Tennessee sandstone.

70 Onset of The choice of core directions was arbitrary, and there is
60 premature
failure no reason to believe that they include the directions of
50
40
Volc Axial greatest and least strength and stiffness.
Diametral strain strain
strain 30
The effect of the chemical nature of the pore uid on
Oven-dry (C17) the mechanical properties was investigated on all three
20
Ethanol saturated (C45) rocks, Fig. 1c illustrates the effect on Tennessee
10
Water saturated (C46)
0 sandstone. Water or ethanol saturation promotes both
-0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 axial and diametral strain after approximately 45 MPa
(C) Strain load, resulting in volumetric strain enhancement and
Fig. 1. Results from uniaxial compression experiments. Experiment failure at a much lower (by ca 30%) stress. Although
number as labelled. (A) Stress/strain results for the three sandstones overall strength is affected, the elastic characteristics
(oven dry). (B) Results for oven dry Tennessee sandstone for the three
(bulk and elastic moduli) remain mostly unaltered.
orthogonal directions displaying strength/elastic anisotropy [N=
normal to bedding, R= reference direction (dip direction of fore-set These observations suggest that water and ethanol only
features), P= perpendicular to R-direction]. (C) Tennessee sandstone accelerate failure once fracturing and microcracking has
tested using three different pore uids. been initiated.
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850 R.J. Cuss et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862

Table 2
Results from uniaxial compression tests

Rock type Test No. Dir. Pore uid Uniaxial strength (MPa) Youngs modulus E (GPa) Poissons ratio n Bulk modulus K (GPa)

Penrith A12u Oven dry 28.3 7 0.4 7.18 7 0.08 0.34 7 0.06 7.71 7 0.31
Sandstone A16u Oven dry 28.4 7 0.4 7.21 7 0.07 0.34 7 0.06 7.55 7 0.29
A36u Water 9.3770.1 0.2970.05
A37u Ethanol 9.09 7 0.1 0.28 7 0.05
N Oven dry 28.4 7 0.4 7.2 7 0.08 0.34 7 0.06 7.63 7 0.29
N Water 9.37 7 0.1 0.29 7 0.05
N Ethanol 9.09 7 0.1 0.28 7 0.05
Darley B14u Oven dry 48.1 7 0.7 14.2 7 0.1 0.27 7 0.05 10.2 7 0.4
Dale B15u Oven dry 47.9 7 0.7 14.2 7 0.1 0.28 7 0.05 10.8 7 0.4
Sandstone B28u Water 37.6 7 0.6 12 7 0.1 0.34 7 0.06 12.8 7 0.5
B29u Ethanol 38.7 7 0.6 11.67 0.6 0.32 7 0.06 10.9 7 0.9
N Oven dry 44.4 7 0.3 14.2 7 0.1 0.27 7 0.05 10.5 7 0.4
N Water 37.7 7 0.6 12 7 0.1 0.34 7 0.06 12.8 7 0.5
N Ethanol 38.7 7 0.6 11.6 7 0.6 0.32 7 0.06 10.9 7 0.9
Tennessee C17u N Oven dry 89.9 7 1.3 11.1 7 0.1 0.26 7 0.05 7.86 7 0.31
Sandstone C18u N Oven dry 88.4 7 1.3 10.9 7 0.2 0.28 7 0.05 8.35 7 0.4
C40u N Oven dry 91.2 7 1.4 10.4 7 0.2 0.21 7 0.04 5.93 7 0.26
C41u P Oven dry 106 7 1.6 15.6 7 0.3 0.25 7 0.04 10.5 7 0.5
C42u P Oven dry 107 7 1.6 14.4 7 0.2 0.23 7 0.04 8.87 7 0.41
C44u P Oven dry 98.6 7 1.5 15.6 7 0.4 0.25 7 0.04 10.3 7 0.5
C43u R Oven dry 86 7 1.3 14.6 7 0.3 0.26 7 0.05 10.2 7 0.5
C46u N Water 69.4 7 1 8.89 70.16 0.27 7 0.05 6.51 7 0.31
C45u N Ethanol 83.9 7 1.3 10.3 7 0.2 0.2 7 0.04 5.75 7 0.29
N Oven dry 89.9 7 1.4 10.8 7 0.2 0.25 7 0.04 7.38 7 0.32
N Water 69.4 7 1 8.89 7 0.16 0.27 7 0.05 6.51 7 0.31
N Ethanol 83.9 7 1.3 10.3 7 0.2 0.2 7 0.04 5.75 7 0.29
R Oven dry 92.3 7 8.1 14.6 7 0.3 0.26 7 0.05 10.2 7 0.5
R Water
R Ethanol
P Oven dry 107 7 0.7 15.2 7 0.3 0.24 7 0.04 9.91 7 0.48
P Water
P Ethanol

Italicized results are from averaged repeat experiments. Core orientation descriptors N, R and P are dened in the text.

3.2. Hydrostatic deformation compaction becomes progressively more difcult as

A total of 12 hydrostatic volumetric strain (HVS) tests
were conducted up to 250 MPa and 18 constant pore
pressure volumometry (CPV) experiments were con-
ducted up to 500 MPa on the three rock types. These
experiments demonstrate hydrostatic deformation for
oven-dry, water saturated and ethanol-saturated states.
Results are summarized in Table 3 and Fig. 2. As shown
in Fig. 2, a full hydrostat for Penrith sandstone to a
pressure exceeding the grain crushing pressure (P*) was
achieved, with all major regions of hydrostatic type II
[10] deformation, consistent with previously studies
[4,11].
Stage I was observed at low effective pressures
(o 65 MPa) and is characterized by non-linear compac-
tion. This is a product of rock properties and experi-
mental artifacts, the latter being difcult to quantify.
The real compaction component is created by the
closure of pre-existing microcracks. If they are free to
do so, grains also move by frictional sliding to a packing
arrangement that can support the load best. Further
grains pack tighter and microcracks close, until the
stressstrain response becomes linear (stage II). Repeat
cyclic loading indicates that some permanent damage
did occur during this phase.
Stage II was identied by a linear compaction rate,
indicating poroelastic deformation. The granular frame-
work elastically distorts, reducing pore space corre-
spondingly. Photoelasticity tests on glass beads [12] have
shown that stress distribution within grains is uneven,
with stress concentrating at grain-to-grain contacts.
New fractures form once this concentration is sufcient,
breaking grain contacts with no preferred orientation of
cracking [8]. Widespread fracture initiation represents
yield under hydrostatic conditions (grain crushing at P )
and signies the end of stage II.
Signicant compaction occurred during Stage III,
with approximately 7% sample volumetric strain
following P : Tensile grain fracture lowers the average
grain size and increases the spread of fragment sizes,
allowing a more efcient packing order to be achieved.
Stage III deformation displays time-dependence,
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.J. Cuss et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862 851

Table 3
Results from hydrostatic constant pore-pressure volumometry tests

Rock type Test No. ev @ (MPa) P (MPa) K (GPa) Pore uid Repeat cycles

100 200 300 400 500

Penrith P01 a
0.027 133 7 2.8 6.64 7 0.15 Ethanol 4
Sandstone P04a 0.022 0.034 165 7 5.5 7.65 7 0.16 Ethanol 4
P05a 0.041 0.058 170 7 5.1 7.86 7 0.16 Ethanol 5
P07 0.024 121 7 2.1 5.39 7 0.11 Water 1
P08 0.020 0.043 175 7 10 6.99 7 0.13 Ethanol 1
P09 0.019 0.039 136 7 6.3 7.05 7 0.15 Ethanol 1
P11 0.028 0.077 167 7 5.8 7.76 7 0.15 Ethanol 4
P16 0.034 0.094 0.119 0.129 0.137 139 7 3.5 7.19 7 0.15 Ethanol 4

Darley D01a 0.007 0.013 0.015 0.017 48.6 7 1.9 Ethanol 1

Dale D03 0.015 0.019 0.024 0.028 0.033 21.9 7 0.4 Ethanol 4
Sandstone D04 0.017 0.022 0.026 0.031 0.036 21.7 7 0.4 Ethanol 4
D15 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.036 19.5 7 0.4 Water 1

Tennessee T01 0.036 0.038 0.039 58 7 1.2 Ethanol 4

Sandstone T10 0.02 0.026 0.028 0.03 0.031 Ethanol 1
T11 0.014 0.017 32.2 7 0.6 Water 1
a
Test conducted at lower resolution using a manometer instead of the controlled pore pressure volumometer.

14 Stage III passing into Stage IV represents the

Volume tricstrain: Porosity reduction ( %)

IV B
Experimental artifacts
progressive stiffening of the rock as further compaction
12
takes place. The extreme sensitivity of grain crushing
10 Secondary linear pressure to porosity means that Stage IV effectively
compaction represents the elastic response of a rock with a porosity
8 of about 15% and reducing, rather than the original
Significant
25%. This material is now twice as stiff as the original
III

compaction
6 P material, indicated by the near-linear hydrostat slope.
ction The slope of the linear stage II region gives the bulk
4 co mpa
II A Linear modulus of pore compressibility (KCPV ). Fig. 3a shows
2 that Tennessee sandstone is the stiffest of the test
I Non-linear compaction materials [KTen > KDyD > KPen ].
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Fig. 3b shows the hydrostat for Penrith sandstone
Effectiv epressure(MPa) with three different pore uids. The CPV method gives
Fig. 2. Complete hydrostat for Penrith sandstone to pressures greatly the results for water and ethanol-saturated states. The
in excess of the grain crushing pressure (P ), showing four distinct HVS method used in the triaxial testing rig gives the
regions (experiment P16, ethanol saturated). The labelled experimental oven-dry state but with a substantially lower number of
artifacts derive from leakages of the pore-pressure system of the testing data points. Dissimilar linear slopes are seen in region II
rig. Labels A and B show the position along the hydrostat of the
for the different test methods, in both of which we
photomicrographs shown in Fig. 6.
observed pore matrix compaction. However, the HVS
method also detects the deformation of the granular
constituents of the sample.
Behaviour differs according to the chemical nature of
compaction-rate reduces with time at a given effective the wetting uid. Ethanol-saturated samples displayed
pressure as the new granular material stabilizes and the strongest behaviour. Data for both air at room
packs. The grain crushing pressure (P ) is determined as relative humidity and complete water saturation dis-
the intercept between best-t linear stage II slope and played a similar P that is lower than for ethanol
the polynomial describing stage III. The grain crushing saturation. Time-dependent deformation is more pro-
pressure increases rapidly when initial porosity is nounced for water-saturated and air-dry samples, but is
smaller, and only Penrith sandstone unequivocally also present in ethanol-saturated samples. Volumetric
reached the grain crushing pressure within the strain was accelerated by the presence of water.
500 MPa limit of the testing machine in this series of Approximately 2% volumetric strain had developed by
experiments. 10 MPa above P compared to only 0.2% for ethanol
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
852 R.J. Cuss et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862

ne
5 to

Volumetric strain: Porosity reduction (%)

P16
P11
n ds
4.5 sa
h
Reduction
n rit
4
in P Pe D03
e
3.5
ston
le s and D04
3 e y Da
Darl
2.5

2
T01
1.5 T10
ndstone
Tennessee sa
1 Water saturated
0.5 No change in Ethanol saturated
stage I deformation
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
(A) Effective pressure (MPa)

8
Volumetric strain: Porosity reduction (%)

A15
7
More pronounced
6 time dependent
deformation
5
n dry Different
ove bulk modulii P16
id -
4
f lu P07
pore
3
No fluid
ore
rat ed p
2
t e r satu fluid P

Wa
t e d pore ethanol

1 atura P air/water
nol s
Etha
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
(B) Effective pressure (MPa)
Fig. 3. Hydrostatic deformation with different saturating pore uids. Experiment numbers are shown beside each curve. (A) Hydrostats for all three
rocks under water and ethanol saturated states determined from the constant pore pressure volumometry tests. (B) Results for Penrith sandstone
using three pore uids.

saturation. These observations show that pore uid Penrith sandstone is the weakest and most ductile of
chemistry affects the strength of the test material, with the test materials, accumulating up to 50% permanent
all test materials showing degrees of water-weakening, axial strain at high conning pressures. Penrith and
presumably according to the local concentration of Darley Dale sandstone in hand specimens show failure
OH ions at grain surfaces. by brittle faulting at low pressures, progressing to
ductile ow with barrelling at elevated pressures.
Tennessee sandstone is the strongest of the test materials
3.3. Constant displacement-rate experiments with 5% maximum axial strain at failure and fault
development at all test pressures.
A total of 39 constant displacement-rate tests were The strength parameters of yield, peak and residual
carried out on oven-dry samples at 25300 MPa conn- strength were determined, where applicable, for all tests
ing pressure at room temperature, with a nominal strain (Table 4). Peak strength is dened as the maximum
rate of 3  104 s1. An additional 15 tests were stress observed during the test. Residual strength only
conducted to progressively increasing strains to study occurs during brittle deformation and is dened as the
microstructure development. The results in terms of true lowest stress post-peak-strength, corresponding to fric-
stress versus conventional strain are summarized tional sliding on the fault plane produced. Yield strength
in Fig. 4. is more difcult to dene, as sandstones tend not to
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R.J. Cuss et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862 853

500 600 800 Peak strength

281MPa
Yield Residual strength
276MPa
241MPa 700 strength
500 261MPa
400 213MPa
233MPa 600 214MPa
173MPa 203MPa
240MPa

Stress
(MPa)
400
Stress
(MPa)

Stress
(MPa)
142MPa
173MPa 500
300
141MPa 173MPa
107MPa
300 400
109MPa 106MPa
200 79MPa 76MPa
300
71MPa 200
41MPa 70MPa
39MPa 200
44MPa
100 23MPa
100
100
Penrith Sandstone Darley Dale Sandstone Tennessee Sandstone
0 0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Strain  Strain  Strain 

Fig. 4. Stressstrain results for three oven-dry sandstones at different conning pressures indicated, determined from constant displacement rate
triaxial experiments.

Table 4
Strength parameters determined from oven-dry triaxial constant displacement experiments

Sandstone type Test number Effective Peak strength Residual Yield strength (MPa)
conning (MPa) strength (MPa)
pressure (MPa)
Y1 or Y2 Y3 Y4

Penrith A08 23.475.5 78.8 7 0.8 54.6 7 2.7 78.6 7 5.1 78.6 7 3.9
A09 28170.4 495 7 3.5 6.71 7 0.33 14.0 7 0.9 10.8 7 0.5
A10 213 7 0.3 418 7 3.3 33.8 7 1.7 54.3 7 3.5 44.4 7 2.2
A17 173 7 1.3 371 7 3.0 10.4 7 0.5 41.2 7 2.7 23.9 7 1.2
A18 142 7 0.4 319 7 2.8 24.3 7 1.2 66.6 7 4.3 40 7 2.1
A19 109 7 0.2 217 7 1.8 13.2 7 0.7 54.1 7 3.5 37.7 7 1.9
A20 71.1 7 0.2 184 7 1.6 26.0 7 1.3 79.5 7 5.2 67.7 7 3.4
A21 41.5 7 0.3 83.5 7 0.7 59.3 7 3.0 83.8 7 5.4 83.8 7 4.2
A22 241 7 0.6 445 7 3.1 21.1 7 1.1 92.3 7 6.0 48.7 7 2.4
PS7 94 7 1 121 7 1.3 43.5 7 1.2
PS8 146 7 1 218 7 1.9 22.3 7 1.3

Darley B04 78.5 7 0.3 239 7 2.1 200 7 11 238 7 18 240 7 12

Dale B05 141 7 0.8 353 7 3.1 190 7 9.7 352 7 27 352 7 18
B08 233 7 0.5 498 7 4.3 150 7 7.8
B09 172 7 0.3 393 7 3.8 185 7 9.3
B10 108 7 1.3 288 7 2.9 180 7 9.8 287 7 21 287 7 14
B11 39.0 7 0.4 180 7 1.7 146 7 7.3
B12 202 7 0.6 440 7 4.5 197 7 9.9
B13 276 7 0.3 538 7 5.8 167 7 8.4

Tennessee C05 132 7 0.7 514 7 5.0 417 7 8.1 359 7 14 512 7 5.0 500 7 20
C06 213 7 0.7 711 7 7.1 574 7 12 565 7 23 705 7 7.1 700 7 28
C08 261 7 1.0 751 7 7.5 625 7 13 523 7 21 737 7 7.5 740 7 30
C09 240 7 0.7 707 7 7.2 563 7 12 546 7 22 700 7 7.2 700 7 28
C10 173 7 1.1 606 7 6.1 434 7 9.1 389 7 16 600 7 6.1 600 7 24
C13 107 7 0.7 551 7 5.7 437 7 8.9 409 7 16 533 7 5.7 500 7 20
C14 44.5 7 0.6 317 7 2.9 185 7 3.7 250 7 10
C15 75.8 7 0.6 426 7 4.3 297 7 6.1 279 7 11

Yield strengths Y1 through Y4 are dened in the text. Y1 or Y2 is used as the best approximation of yield strength. Test PS7 and PS8 used oil as pore
uid, this should correspond with the oven-dry behaviour.

behave as perfectly elastic materials. Four methods were deviates from the linear by a dened amount. For strain
devised to describe yield strength (Y ). The elastic limit hardening and plastic tests Y3 is the stress at the
describes Y1 : If this is not obvious then Y2 describes resumption of linear compaction and Y4 is the intersec-
yield as the point at which the stressstrain curve tion of the linear elastic and strain hardening/plastic
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
854 R.J. Cuss et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862
regions. In brittle tests, peak strength can also be used as
an approximation for yield strength.
4. Microstructural observations
In order to study fully the microstructural evolution
of the three test materials, a total of 63 thin-sections
were made and analysed. These demonstrate the
microstructural evolution with strain at 100 MPa con-
ning pressure, variations in microstructure observed
with increasing conning pressure, and compactive
deformation along the complete hydrostat. Two clearly
distinct deformation modes were observed; shear-fault
localization and pervasive cataclasis, respectively, at
low- and high-conning pressures.
4.1. Shear-localization in the brittle faulting field
Shear localization was observed within the brittle
regime of deformation (P=P o 0.45), as shown in Fig.
5a, and was observed in all three sandstones. The most
complete record of this deformation mode came from
Tennessee sandstone, although similar features were
noted in the other sandstone types. Tennessee sandstone
has 7% porosity and displays little pre-existing damage.
The application of hydrostatic conning pressure
reduced porosity and some new microfractures formed
randomly. As axial load was applied, porosity closed
and caused the formation of axially oriented impinge-
ment fractures between point contacts. Damage con-
centrated progressively within a 200300 mm wide band
angled 30 to the axial load. A ne-grained gouge
formed as deformation localized and shear movements
occurred along this zone. The larger clasts in the gouge
zone were reduced to about half their original size, and
these appeared to oat within the much ner gouge
material. The shear zone was not homogeneous and
broadened in places where it consisted of coalescing
smaller-offset shear-zones, suggesting that a few shear-
zones formed before one tract became preferred.
Further strain became concentrated into the shear band
and the gouge material became much ner as the zone
broadened (up to 500 mm or 6 grain diameters wide).
Material well away from this zone remained unaltered.
Damage by axial cracking was restricted to within 2 mm
of the shear band.
Different conning pressures only altered the nature
of the shear zone. Singular or multiple parallel shear
bands were observed at low pressures. At elevated
pressures anastomosing shear bands prevailed. In-
creasing conning pressure tended to broaden the
sheared zone and decrease the grain size of the gouge
material.
(A)
Fine grained gouge
Axial cracking
Sh
ea
rm
ove
me
nt
0 mm 0.5
mm
0 1 (B)
 = 0.1 0.2i
Shear movements
Highly fractured
PPL Axial direction
Fig. 5. Photomicrographs of deformation features observed during
triaxial deformation (plane polarized light). Compression direction
horizontal. (A) At low effective pressures (P=P o 0.45), shear
localization is observed as deformation concentrates into a shear-band
consisting of ne-grained gouge (oven dry Tennessee sandstone sample
C13). (B) At higher effective pressures (P=P > 0:5) pervasive cataclasis
is observed. Damage is homogeneously distributed throughout the
bulk-rock with many transgranular cracks showing preferred orienta-
tion parallel to the maximum compression direction (oven dry Penrith
sandstone sample A19).
4.2. Pervasive cataclasis in the ductile regime
Within the ductile regime of deformation (P=P > 0:5)
pervasive cataclasis was observed in Penrith and Darley
Dale sandstones (Fig. 5b). Grain boundary sliding and
intragranular microfracturing initiated at the yield point
as axial strain increased, ultimately resulting in hetero-
geneously distributed axially impingement fracturing
and causing porosity collapse. Porosity collapse cannot
occur to the same degree at the lower conning
pressures of the brittle faulting regime, hence the
dilatational effects of microcrack formation dominated
deformation. Some grains fractured considerably with
localized clustering, whilst others remained intact.
Increased strain produced shear movements along the
fractures, further reducing porosity. This caused the
distribution of damage to spread from its initially
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.J. Cuss et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862
heterogeneous distribution to being homogeneous
throughout the bulk sample. Increased strain was
accommodated by more localized shear fractures once
strain could no longer be absorbed by pore closure.
Spalled grain fragments began to ll the remaining pore
space. A cataclasite was formed, with grain fragments
oating and owing within a ne-grained matrix of ued to grow with increased pressure (PbP ), until a
damaged material. Cataclasite development increased
with conning pressure.
4.3. Hydrostatic deformation
Only Penrith sandstone clearly surpassed the grain
crushing pressure (P ) within the pressure range of the
apparatus and this was conrmed by microstructural
analysis. Only slight permanent damage was observed
within the elastic region II of hydrostatic deformation,
as shown in Fig. 6a. The transgranular fracture
Some new
(A)
fractures
Porosity closure
Pore parallel
fracturing
Hertzian fracture
(B)
Smashed
grains
Intact
grain
Fine grained
matrix
0 mm 0.5
Fig. 6. Photomicrographs of Penrith sandstone at different stages of
hydrostatic loading (plane polarized light). (A) During the elastic stage
II deformation, some damage is incurred, with porosity closure
initiating new fractures (oven-dry sample A23). (B) A well-developed
cataclasite of fragmented grains within a very ne-grained gouge is
formed after grain crushing. Fracture initiation occurs from highly
stressed grain contacts, resulting in random fracture orientation
(ethanol saturated sample P16). See Fig. 2 for the position along the
hydrostat for these photomicrographs.
855
population signicantly increased at the grain crushing
pressure (P ). Hertzian impingement fractures initiated
in random orientations between critically stressed grain
point-contacts. Damage tended initially to be locally
clustered, but clusters were homogeneously distributed
on the bulk-sample scale. Fracture population contin-
cataclasite was formed by stage IV of hydrostatic
deformation and the rock was effectively reduced to
incohesive sand (Fig. 6b). Deformation to produce
poorly sorted angular grains was homogeneous on the
bulk scale, but consisted of large grains or fragments
thereof within a owing matrix of very ne-grained,
shattered host-material. All subsequent deformation
was concentrated within the ne-grained matrix. No
substantial differences were noted between samples
deformed with the different saturating pore uids.
5. Discussion
5.1. Scale effects
Scale can inuence uniaxial mechanical behaviour
[13]. Although tests were conducted using different sized
samples (50 and 25 mm diameter cores for Penrith
Sandstone, 36 and 25 mm diameter cores for Darley
Dale and Tennessee sandstones, all samples with length
two to three times diameter), no signicant differences in
mechanical response or strength were noted, suggesting
scale was not signicant in these tests. Some inuence of
the experimental conguration was noted. Conical
features comprising relatively undeformed volumes were
created at the sample ends due to the elastic mismatch
between the sample and loading platen. This may result
in premature failure by forcing shear localization but
should not signicantly alter elastic behaviour.
5.2. Hydrostatic deformation
In terms of the Wawesik classication quoted by
Brace [10], Tennessee and Darley Dale sandstones show
type II behaviour. Penrith sandstone displayed similar
behaviour at pressures below P but type III behaviour
after grain crushing. All four distinct regions of
deformation were observed (Fig. 2) in Penrith sand-
stone, with P* being established to lie in the range 130
170 MPa, according to wetting uid. This behaviour is
consistent with published observations on other similar
sandstone types [8,11].
Previous studies [5] have shown that a Darley Dale
sandstone sample reached P at 450 MPa and 360 MPa
under nominally dry and water saturated conditions,
respectively. Unambiguous grain crushing had not
initiated in the ethanol-saturated samples used in this
study by 500 MPa, but some pore collapse was detected
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
856 R.J. Cuss et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862
under water saturation at 443 MPa. Similar discrepan-
cies have been noted between results published on
Kayenta sandstone [8,14]. Differences arise from varia-
tions of mechanical properties within sandstone groups
used by different workers, highlighting problems in
comparing results. The grain crushing pressure (P) for
Tennessee sandstone lies well outside the range of
conning pressures accessible in this study.
Hertzian fracture mechanics can predict the critical
pressure for grain crushing (P ) from the product of
porosity (f) and grain radius (R) [8]. A power-law
relationship was established between P and fR for
consolidated rock, unconsolidated sand, other granular
material and glass beads, with a slope on a loglog plot
of 23 [4,8]. The behaviour of air dry (equivalent to water
saturated) Penrith sandstone corresponds closely to this
model prediction, which also predicts P for Darley
Dale and Tennessee sandstones to be 450 MPa and
1.4 GPa, respectively. An experimental uncertainty of at
least 50 MPa exists for Darley Dale sandstone as
experimental results showed P* to be not less than
500 MPa for the sandstone sample used in this study.
Considerable experimental spread is observed in rocks
with fR products close to unity or p0:01: Unconso-
lidated sand with fR 700 mm has P 1 MPa with
the model predicting 3 MPa, a three-fold error. There-
fore, critical pressure predicted from this generalized
relationship can only be used as a rst approximation.
As porosity progressively decreases at pressures
greater than P ; Penrith sandstone hardens and stiffens,
inhibiting further compaction. Berea and Boise sand-
stones behave similarly [8]. Continued impingement
fracturing rapidly becomes increasingly difcult as
grain-size and porosity decrease, so that a secondary
near-elastic region of deformation is approached with
progressive pressure increases.
5.3. Triaxial deformation and critical state soil mechanics
5.3.1. Deformation at yield
Fig. 7 shows yield-point data in the differential
[Q s1  s3 ] versus mean effective [P s1 2s3 ) /3]
stress space, dening a yield envelope. A least-squares,
best-t polynomial envelope can be used to describe the
yield surface for each rock type, which are similar in
form and increase in size with decreasing porosity/
increasing strength. Penrith sandstone displays the only
fully developed yield envelope. Wong et al. [5] showed
that normalization of both Q and P in the Q  P space
with respect to the grain crushing pressure (P ) results in
a unique envelope for the sandstones that they tested.
The Hertzian contact model [8] developed for hydro-
static grain crushing under air-dry conditions states P
scales with grain radius (R) and porosity (f). Thus,
P  pfRn where nE  32:
700
600
Differential stress Q (MPa)
500
400 Critical state based on
yield curve peaks
300
200
Penrith sandstone
Darley Dale sandstone
Tennessee sandstone
100
Yield envelope
Critical state line
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Effective mean stress P (MPa)
Fig. 7. Plot of yield envelopes for each of the rock types tested under
oven-dry conditions. Yield values Y1 or Y2 are used. Note: the yield
envelopes shown for each rock type are from the unique yield envelope
for porous material (see Fig. 9) and not the individual least-squares
best t.
This gives a theoretical P for each sandstone under air-
dry conditions of:
Tennessee sandstone P 1400 MPa;
Darley Dale sandstone P 450 MPa;
Penrith sandstone P 250 MPa.
The predicted P for Penrith sandstone of 250 MPa is
high compared to the measured 140170 MPa, although
these measurements correspond to ethanol-saturated
states and not true air-dry conditions. The prediction of
450 MPa for Darley Dale sandstone is low, as clear grain
crushing had not been observed to initiate by 500 MPa.
Examination of the yield data in the Q  P space
(Fig. 7) suggests yield envelope closure at 450 MPa.
Fig. 8 compares data from the current study with
previously published results [8].
Despite the above mentioned discrepancy, data for
Penrith sandstone corresponds fairly well with the
Hertzian model on the logarithmically scaled coordinate
frame, bearing in mind the considerable spread seen
around the best-t line. This is probably because the
theoretical model neglects important differences in
cement character and grain-size distribution between
different rock types. The small mean grain-size and low
porosity of Tennessee sandstone means that extrapo-
lated P could lie between 1.2 and 4 GPa.
Plotting the yield data in Q  P space, normalized
1 with respect to P; from the present study together with
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.J. Cuss et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862 857

that reported for 5 other porous sandstones by Wong failure envelope for peak strength [4] of the form
et al. [4], supports the notion of a unique yield envelope  
Q P
for such rocks (Fig. 9), insofar as porosity and mean  q0 m   p0 2
P P
grain size can be considered to be adequate parameters
to dene the microstructural features that describe Yield strength data from [5] and from the present study
mechanical behaviour. Thus foreknowledge of only also adequately t the form of Eq. (2) with a peak at
porosity, grain size and P provides a basis for at least (p0 ; q0 ) = (0.49, 0.62).
a rule of thumb prediction of the strength and mode of At normalized effective stresses greater than P=P 
failure of porous rocks. Data within the brittle faulting >0:45; shear-enhanced compaction occurs, with spread
regime (P=P o 0.45) can be described by an empirical of data tending to be greater. Two elliptical arcs (dashed
curves in Fig. 9), described by Eq. (3), enclose the
available data in this region:
10000 Consolidated rock P=P  g2 Q=P
Porosity () grain radius (R) (mm)

1 3
Unconsolidated sand 1  g2 d2
Spheres
with peaks at (g; d) = (0.5, 0.5) and (0.5, 0.7).
This study
1000 Plotting the yield envelopes for rocks initially of
Slope of -2/3 different porosity and/or grain size in the Q  P  fR
space gives the yield-surface for porous materials (Fig.
10). The third axis is chosen as fR; rather than simply
100
porosity alone or void ratio, because P scales with this
product. The results of the present experiments on rocks
of different grain sizes and porosities map fairly well
10 onto a yield surface of this shape (Fig. 10). Only Penrith
sandstone shows the complete yield curve, delimited by
the observed value of P : Darley Dale and Tennessee
sandstones show only partial yield curves, and P values
1 have, respectively, been assumed to be 500 MPa
1 10 100 1000 10000 (although the form of the incomplete yield envelope
Critical effective pressure P (MPa) suggests P is 450 MPa) and 1 GPa, respectively. Thus,
Fig. 8. Grain crushing pressure versus the product of porosity and
the critical state unied model can predict usefully the
grain radius. Data approximate a slope of 23: Data from this study complex yield behaviour of porous sedimentary rocks.
(open symbols) t well with the previously reported results of Zhang We observe from mechanical stressstrain data, from
et al. [8]. mode of failure of deformed samples, and from
Normalized differentia mean stress Q/P (MPa)

0.8
Tension Compression Arcs delimiting
0.7 ductile deformation
e

0.6
n lin
nsio

0.5
o te

0.4
Zer

0.3
Sandstone types
Berea Boise II
Darley Dale Penrith
0.2 Kayenta Darley Dale
Brittle Rothbach Tennessee
0.1 parabolic Adamswiller Yield
envelope envelope
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1
Normalized effective mean stress P/P (MPa)
Fig. 9. Yield data plotted in the normalized differential versus effective mean stress space. Data from this study (open symbols) are displayed with
previously published results of Wong et al. [4]. Data approximate to a unique arcuate envelope, which can be described in the brittle eld
(P=P o0:45) by a parabolic envelope, and are delimited in the ductile region (P=P > 0:5) by a pair of elliptical curves.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
858 R.J. Cuss et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862
Fig. 10. The yield surface for soils and porous rocks. The yield surface
is delimited by the requirement for non-tensional stresses, and
comprises a positively sloping region of brittle shear faulting and a
negatively sloping region of ductile deformation with compaction. The
crestal line is the critical state line. The post-yield stress path for one
Darley Dale sandstone sample is illustrated.
microstructural study, that the transition between brittle
faulting and ductile deformation also corresponds to the
critical state line (the crestal line of the yield surface).
The implication is that macroscopically ductile defor-
mation in siliceous rocks by cataclastic ow is only
possible when there is collapsible porosity available, and
this is supported by several previous studies [4,1518].
5.3.2. Post-yield behaviour
Critical state theory predicts that material will yield
and deformation will tend to migrate towards critical
state (the peak on the yield surface) by means of a
change in the shape and size of the yield surface as
hardening or softening occurs during post-yield defor-
mation. The yield envelope will either enlarge or
contract depending on whether deformation is initially
compactive or dilatant, respectively, until deformation
can proceed at constant volume.
In the brittle regime (P=P o0:45) the plastic strain-
rate vector e will be negative in sign (reckoning
volumetric expansion as negative) and normal to the
yield surface assuming associated ow can be attributed
to these rocks (although it should be borne in mind that
250
200
Stress (MPa)
150 Steady state flow
100
50
Yield Strain
0
reduction (%)
0.5 0.1 1.5 0.2 2.5 0.3 3.5 0.4 4.5
Porosity
5
10
15
Isovolumetric strain =
critical state deformation
Fig. 11. Porosity change during axial loading of Penrith sandstone.
These data demonstrate that little porosity change occurs prior to yield
and that porosity reduction ceases as steady-state ow is attained. This
clearly demonstrates that critical state deformation occurs post-yield.
Note: Reolube DOSTM oil was used as saturating pore-uid.
this has not in fact been demonstrated to apply). The
components of the plastic strain rate vector resolved
parallel to the abscissa and ordinate, respectively, are
proportional to the volumetric and distortional strain
rates. The yield surface contracts during the dilatant
deformation. Thus, s: ep o0 leading to instability (ac-
cording to the Hill criterion) with strain softening and
shear localization.
In the ductile regime (P=P > 0:5) the plastic strain-
rate vector will be positive and s: ep > 0; resulting in
stability and strain hardening with compactive cataclas-
tic ow [19]. After the onset of permanent strain the
yield envelope progressively enlarges as porosity and
grain size decrease as a result of grain fracturing. This
corresponds, for example, to the rapid rate of post-yield
strain hardening observed extending up to 25% short-
ening on most stressstrain curves in Fig. 4 (Penrith
sandstone). This strain hardening is followed by near
steady-state ow. Fault localization usually supervenes
shortly afterwards, but this is likely to be forced by
geometric constraints on an already heavily and hetero-
geneously deformed specimen. The strain hardening
observed represents the increase in yield stress, or
enlargement of the yield curve, as progressive pore
collapse occurs. The attening of the stressstrain curve
at the end of the strain-hardening period is believed to
represent the attainment of steady ow at constant
volume, or the critical state. Using a test performed with
oil as pore uid for pore volumometry (in order to
correspond to samples tested oven dry) Fig. 11
demonstrates that constant volume (critical state)
deformation is indeed attained at a strain corresponding
to the attening of the stress/strain curve at high strains.
The steady-ow stress attained should represent a series

R.J. Cuss et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862
700
Critical state based on
steady flow stresses
600
Differential stress Q (MPa)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400
Effective mean stress P (MPa)
Fig. 12. Post-yield behaviour of oven-dry sandstone showing that
deformation progresses towards the critical state. The open symbols
show the steady-state ow stress values established at high strains
for Penrith and Darley Dale sandstones. These are linked to their
corresponding yield points by bold lines with a slope of 3, which
corresponds to the axisymmetric compression stress path under
drained conditions. During this interval strain hardening occurs,
expanding the yield envelope until critical state (steady ow stress) is
attained. A common critical state line can be drawn through all the
points, which is comparable with a line that passes through the
maxima of the yield envelopes.
of points on the critical state line for progressively less
porous material. Fig. 12 shows the progression of
deformation post-yield of Penrith and Darley Dale
sandstones in the Q  P space. As shown, deformation
migrates to a maximum for each test, which is followed
by a stress reduction as the sample softens during
steady-state ow. The best-t of these data, forced to
past through the intercept, represents the critical state
line, which can be seen to approximate to the crest of the
yield envelopes. Discrepancies between these state lines
can be explained by experimental uncertainty as high
strains are being induced (leading to uncertainty in
differential stress measurement), especially in the ductile
and brittleductile transition regions (P=P > 0:45).
These data suggest that sandstone deformation does
progress to the critical state at elevated strain and that
critical state concepts do apply. The progression of one
of the Darley Dale sandstone tests post-yield is
illustrated in Fig. 10.
5.4. Water weakening and time-dependency
The presence of water has a specic weakening effect
on brittle rocks relative to absolutely dry tests [20] and
ARTICLE IN PRESS
859
was displayed by all three sandstone types. This effect
has extensively been reported in uniaxial compression,
triaxial compression and hydrostatic compression
[9,21,22]. Water weakening is especially evident in
quartz-rich rocks and has been reported for both
quartzitic and feldspathic sandstone types; including
Berea and Darley Dale [22], Navajo, Punchbowl and
Pennant sandstones. The effect is to reduce the uniaxial
Critical state based compressive strength (or cohesive strength) by up to
on yield curve peaks
50%, but not to affect the frictional characteristics.
Thus, water-weakening as a fraction of total strength
becomes less signicant at higher conning pressures.
The cause of water weakening has been extensively
Penrith sandstone
discussed in the literature [23,24] and is generally
Darley Dale sandstone attributed to sub-critical, time-dependent crack growth.
Tennessee sandstone Cracks grow at stress intensities less than the fracture
Yield envelope
toughness, aided by hydrolysis reactions at crack tips.
Critical state line
Post yield deformation When the rate of crack growth becomes dependent on
the rate of a chemical reaction, the overall rate of
500 600
deformation becomes sensitive to temperature varia-
tions and the local availability and concentration of the
mobile reactant, in this case OH. This gives rise to the
phenomenon of brittle creep.
Ethanol as a pore uid was utilized in this study to
simulate drier conditions than water-wet. Alcohols,
carboxylic acids and hydrocarbon uids promote
stability by lowering the chemical activity of water in
the pore spaces [25]. However, ethanol does ionize to
some degree to yield OH ions, so water-weakening was
not expected to be entirely absent with ethanol as a pore
uid. Rocks tested under air-dry conditions (relative
humidity ca 60%) tend to show strength little different
from water saturated, suggesting that only a monolayer
of adsorbed water on grain boundaries is sufcient to
produce complete weakening.
Several features of water weakening were observed in
all three rocks. For uniaxial compression, elastic
deformation was unaltered but signicantly lower
ultimate and yield strengths were noted for water
saturation compared with ethanol saturation. Post-yield
deformation was signicantly enhanced. Under hydro-
static conditions a 47%, 27% and 10% reduction in
slope of the linear stage II (bulk modulus of pore
closure) was observed for Penrith, Tennessee and Darley
Dale sandstones, respectively. In Penrith sandstone the
onset of grain crushing occurred at lower effective
pressures when water-wet than ethanol-wet and inelastic
deformation was signicantly enhanced, although no
microstructural differences were noted. The strength of
Penrith sandstone is little different when oven dried at
80 C compared to water-wet (Fig. 3b). This observation
is tentatively attributed to the presence of adsorbed
water on intergranular clay minerals, which is not driven
off by oven-drying below ca 110 C. Baking of clay-
bearing sandstones at temperatures high enough to
cause chemical breakdown and dehydroxylation of clay
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
860 R.J. Cuss et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862
minerals causes substantial strengthening (Rutter, un-
published data).
Time-dependent strain was also observed in Penrith
sandstone after the onset of grain crushing (stage III
Fig. 2). This feature might be interpreted to derive from
the time required to re-equilibrate pore pressure in
response to a load change, according to the rock
permeability. However, Penrith sandstone has a high
porosity and high permeability and shows no time-
dependency during elastic deformation, yet strong
time-dependency post-yield. Thus, observed time-depen-
dency in response to load increments is most likely
attributable to the effects of brittle creep. A similar
micromechanical origin of creep has been reported for
hydrostatic compaction of loose sands [26]. Several
workers have reported hydrostatic deformation for a
range of sandstones using similar experimental
methods to those of this investigation [4,8,22,27]. One
previous study reported time dependency [8], although
the 2 min to 2 h stabilization time was attributed to
permeability effects.
6. Conclusions
Yield data in the Q2P parametric space approximate
arcuate envelopes that decrease in size with increasing
porosity. The normalization of the yield data with
respect to the grain crushing pressure (P ; which is the
intercept of the yield data on the abscissa) suggest a
unied model of yield applies to porous sandstones.
Both yield and post-yield data can also be represented
using the principles of critical state soil mechanics in the
Q2P2fR space. The critical state line for porous
sandstones (the crestal line of the yield surface) appears
to correspond to the transition from dilatant behaviour
with localized faulting at low effective mean pressures
(P=P  o0:5), to pervasive cataclastic ow, requiring
collapse of porosity, at high effective mean pressures
(P=P > 0:5). The expected behaviour of any porous
sand therefore appears to be predictable to a useful
degree simply from a knowledge of P ; porosity and
mean grain size.
Water sensitivity, attributed to sub-critical crack
growth, was observed in hydrostatic and uniaxial
compression tests in all rock types tested. Considerable
strength and elastic anisotropy was also noted in
Tennessee sandstone.
Acknowledgements
The authors very much appreciate helpful and
constructive reviews by two anonymous referees and
the editor, which helped signicantly to improve the
paper. Robert Cuss thanks BG plc (formerly British Gas
plc) for a graduate studentship, during the course of
which this work was carried out.
Appendix A. Experimental procedure
A.1. Uniaxial compression testing
Strain-gauged cylindrical samples were loaded in
uniaxial compression between two steel platens. Load
was directed down the centre of the specimen by means
of a spherical seat and was measured using a 250 kN
load-cell. Strain was measured on samples in both the
axial and circumferential directions by means of bonded
strain gauges, wired into a Wheatstone bridge cong-
uration with passive strain gauges to remove any
temperature effects.
Strain gauge and load cell data from uniaxial
compression tests were reduced to stress, axial strain,
diametral strain and volumetric strain, allowing
Youngs modulus (E), Poissons ratio (n), and bulk
modulus of compressibility (K) to be calculated. As non-
linearity is often observed in uniaxial compression, the
fundamental elastic constants were taken from the
steepest portion of the stress-axial strain curve, which
tended to occur at approximately half the uniaxial
strength.
A.2. Large specimen rig
The large specimen rig was used to load specimens
under a hydrostatic conning pressure (P) of up to
500 MPa through the compression of low-viscosity oil
(Reolube-DOSt). This allowed cylindrical samples of
25 mm diameter and 75 mm length to be tested, within
3 mm wall-thickness PVC jackets. Pore pressures (Pp ) of
up to 200 MPa (providing P > Pp ) could be applied to
the samples, which were saturated with either water or
ethanol. The principal use of the pore pressure system
was to enable measurement of pore volume changes at a
constant but low pore pressure (3.5 MPa). As a sample
compacts by elastic or permanent pore collapse under
the inuence of effective conning pressure, Pp in-
creases. Pore pressure was maintained constant by a
servo-controlled pore pressure regulator so that pore
volume changes could be measured to a resolution of
0.2 mm3 or about 0.01% of the initial pore volume of a
sample of 10% porosity. The constant pore pressure
volumometry (CPV) experiments permitted investiga-
tion of hydrostatic volumetric strain as conning
pressure was steadily and slowly increased from 5 to
500 MPa. To protect the pore pressure transducer in
case of catastrophic sample jacket failure that would
result in rapid and excessive pore pressure rise, a rupture
disc rated at 770.5 MPa was used. Exposed pipe-work
and valves were wrapped with thermal insulation to
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R.J. Cuss et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 847862
minimize the effect of laboratory temperature uctua-
tions on pore pressure.
A.3. Triaxial rig
The triaxial rig used was similar to the large specimen
rig, but was limited to a maximum conning pressure of
400 MPa. It also allowed differential stress of up to
1 GPa to be applied to annealed copper-jacketed
samples by axial displacement of the loading piston by
a drive motor and gear train screw-jack system. A
constant strain rate of 103 s1 was used, as sandstone
strength tends to be strain-rate insensitive. All tests were
conducted at room temperature with the pore-pressure
system vented to atmosphere.
Two types of experiment were conducted on the
triaxial rig: (1) constant displacement rate and (2)
hydrostatic volumetric strain (HVS) tests. The constant
displacement rate test was conducted with the drive
motor advancing the upper piston at a constant rate.
Tests were conducted at constant conning pressure
through sample failure to obtain stress/strain data.
A secondary set of tests was also conducted to different
strains through failure to describe microstructural
features at one pressure for each sandstone type. The
hydrostatic volumetric strain test (HVS) determines
volumetric sample variations by measuring length
changes at 7 MPa increments in conning pressure from
0 to 250 MPa in both up- and down-pressure cycles.
A.4. Sample preparation
All tests were conducted on cylindrical samples with
diameters dictated by the testing apparatus. Samples
were cut normal to bedding with aspect ratios (length:-
diameter) of 3:1, which is an optimum balance between
sample buckling and bulging [28]. In the case of
Tennessee sandstone, additional tests were performed
on samples cored parallel to bedding. Samples used for
uniaxial testing or hydrostatic loading had 25 mm
diameter and those used for triaxial testing had 10 mm
diameter. All prepared cores were stored in an oven at
80 C until immediately prior to use. According to
requirements, some samples were vacuum saturated for
20 min with pore uid (water or ethanol) immediately
before testing to ensure full saturation of the material.
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