I.

VARIATIONAL APPROACH TO MECHANICS

1. Hamiltons Variational Principle

Consider the integral
Zt2
I= L dt, (1)
t1

where the function L is the Lagrangian of the mechanical system defined as the
difference between the kinetic, T , and potential, V , energies of the system,

L T V. (2)

Hamiltons variational principle states that the integral I taken along a possible path
of motion of a physical system is an extremum when evaluated along an actual path
of motion. In other words, out of the innumerable ways in which a system could
change its configuration during a time interval between t1 and t2 , Nature chooses
the way that either maximizes or minimizes the integral I which is called the action
for the system at hand. Mathematically, this statement can be expressed as follows:
Zt2
I = L dt = 0, (3)
t1

where means a variation in the entire integral about its extremum value. We
assume that such a variation is obtained by varying the coordinates and velocities
of a system away from the values which are actually taken as the system evolves in
time from t1 to t2 , under the constraint that all system parameters are assumed to
be unvaried values at the endpoints of the motion at t1 and t2 .
2. Hamiltons Principle: General Mathematical Formulation
The generalized coordinates are any collection of independent coordinates qi (that
is, not connected by any equations of constraint) that just suffice to specify uniquely
the configuration of a mechanical system. It follows that the required number of
generalized coordinates is equal to the number of degrees of freedom for a system. If
fewer than this number is chosen, the state of the system will be indeterminate; if a
greater number would be chosen, then some of the coordinates should be determined
through the others by conditions of constraint.
In general, if N particles move in free space but their 3N Cartesian coordinates
are connected by M conditions of constraint,

fj (xi , yi , zi , t) = 0, i = 1, 2, ..., N ; j = 1, 2, ..., M, (4)

then there exists

n = 3N M (5)
independent generalized coordinates q1 , q2 , ..., qn sufficient to describe the position of
the N particles and n degrees of freedom is available for the motion this system. The
number n is a characteristic constant of the system which cannot be altered. Less
than n parameters are not enough to determine the position of the system. More
than n parameters are not required and should not be assigned without satisfing
certain additional conditions. For the analytical treatment, neither the number N

1
of particles, nor the coordinates of these particles are of importance but the gen-
eralized coordinates q1 , q2 , ..., qn are because we assume that Cartesian coordinates
are expressible in terms of the generalized coordinates as

x1 = x1 (q1 , q2 , ..., qn )
...................................
...................................
zN = zN (q1 , q2 , ..., qn ). (6)

With these expressions, the constraint conditions (4) are satisfied identically, and
hence there are no connections between the generalized coordinates.
However, sometimes it is preferable to use the generalized coordinates whose total
number n is larger than the number of degrees of freedom n0 ,

n = n0 + m, (7)

where 0 < m M . In such cases the generalized coordinates are not independent
but subject to m constraint conditions of the form

fi (q1 , q2 , ..., qn ) = 0 (i = 1, ..., m). (8)

In analytical mechanics, the system is called holonomic system if the constraints

are expressed in the form of algebraic equalities like Eqs. (4) or (8), and the non-
holonomic system otherwise. Say, in the case of a particle constrained to remain
outside the surface of a sphere of the radius R the condition of constraint is given
by inequality
R2 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 0, (9)
and hence this system is nonholonomic. Another typical example of the nonholo-
nomic system is described by the constraints of the form
X
aji dqi + ajt dt = 0 (j = 1, 2, ..., m). (10)
i

when these equations are not integrable and thus cannot be expressed in the form
of Eqs. (8).
To formulate Hamiltons principle in a compact mathematical form it is conve-
nient also to introduce the concept of the configuration space which is one of the
most imaginative and useful concepts of the analytical mechanics. The idea is very
simple: if we associate with the three numbers x, y, z a point in a three-dimensional
space, why we should not do the same with the n numbers q1 , q2 , ..., qn , considering
these set as a point P in n-dimensional space? And if we adopt this, why we
should not to treat the equations

q1 = q1 (t)
.............
.............
qn = qn (t) (11)

as representing the motion of a point along some curve in this n-dimensional space
called configuration space?

2
 Note that the entire mechanical system is pictured as a single point in the con-
figuration space of no matter how numerous the particles constituting a system may
be, or how complicated are the relations existing between them. So, this concept
makes it possible to extend the mechanics of a single mass point to arbitrarily com-
plicated many-particle mechanical systems. It is necessary only to remind that the
space which carries this point is no longer the ordinary physical space. It is an
abstract space with as many dimensions as the nature of the problem requires. For
the sake of brevity, the points and curves in the configuration space which symbolize
the position and the motion of the mechanical system, are sometimes reffered to as
C-point and C-curve. C-point is frequently called also the system point. Any
C-curve, or the path of motion in configuration space, will not have any necessary
resemblance to the path in space of any actual particle, and each point on the path
in the configuration space, C-point, represents the entire system configuration at
some given instant of time t, so that the time can be considered as a parameter of
the curve.
SUMMARY: Now, we are able to formulate Hamiltons principle as follows:

The motion of an arbitrary conservative mechanical system occurs in such a way

that the variation of the definite line integral in the configuration space
Zt2
I= L(q1 , ..., qn ; q1 , ..., qn ; t) dt (12)
t1

is equal to zero, that is

Zt2
I = L(q1 , ..., qn ; q1 , ..., qn ; t) dt = 0, (13)
t1

where L T V is the Lagrangian of the system.

The integral I is often called the action integral. Then Hamiltons principle is
referred to as the principle of least action. Hamiltons principle in the form (13) is
the starting point for the derivation of Lagranges equations for conservative systems.

II. LAGRANGIAN FORMULATION OF MECHANICS

1. Lagranges Equations for Conservative Systems
The Lagrangian equations of motion for a conservative system subject to holo-
nomic constraints of type (8):
!
d L L
= 0 (i = 1, 2, ..., n). (14)
dt qi qi
NOTE: The derivation of these equations you can find at page 13 in
Lecture Notes.
2. Forces of Constraint: Lagrange Multipliers
We consider first the simple case of a system, described by the two generalized
coordinates connecting by a single equation of constraint
f (q1 , q2 , t) = 0. (15)

3
These are Lagranges equations of motion for the system with constraint given by
Eq. (8).
d L L
= Qi , (i = 1, 2) (16)
dt qi qi
where
f
Qi = (t) (i = 1, 2). (17)
qi
NOTE: Derivation of these equations at pages 18-19 in Lecture Notes.
We can generalize these ideas to the system described by n generalized coordi-
nates with m equation of constraints of the form

fj (q1 , q2 , ..., qn ) = 0 (j = 1, 2, ..., m). (18)

Namely, if knowledge of the constraining forces is desired, then it is necessary to

solve the system of n Lagranges equations
d L L
= Qi , (i = 1, 2, ..., n) (19)
dt qi qi
where Qi are generalized forces of constraint given by
X fj
Qi = j (t) (i = 1, 2, ..., n). (20)
j qi

Equations (19) and (20) with (18) together constitute n + m independent equa-
tions for the set of n + m unknown functions of time: q1 (t), q2 (t), ..., qn (t), and
1 (t), 2 (t), ..., m (t). These equations when solved give one the possibility to deter-
mine not only the set of the generalized coordinates but also the forces of constraint
(20).
For the case of nonholonomic constraints:
d L L
= Qi , (i = 1, 2, ..., n), (21)
dt qi qi
where X
Qi = j (t)aji . (22)
j

These equations must be solved together with the set of constraint equations (10)
which may be considered as the first-order differential equations. Eqs. (22) define
the generalized forces of constraint for the nonholonomic systems.
3. Lagranges Equations: Derivation from DAlemberts Principle
DAlemberts principle, or the principle of virtual work for the dynamical systems
of N particles reads as follows:
N
X
(Fi pi ) ri = 0 (23)
i=1

Here, Fi represents all the forces acting on i-th particle, besides the inertial force
pi given by the second term in paranthesis in (23). Finally, ri are the so-called
virtual displacements. These displacements are akin variations: they are imagined
(the particle do not undergo any real displacements), they are assumed to be of

4
infinitesimal extent, and they assumed to take place instantaneously (i.e. t = 0) in
a way that is consistent with any imposed constraints.
For forces of any kind the Lagranges equations:
NOTE: derivation you can find at pages 24-25 in Lecture Notes:
!
d T T
= Qj , (24)
dt qj qj
In the the case of conservative forces, when the forces are derivable from a po-
tential energy function,
V
Fi = 5i V , (25)
xi
and hence
X xi X V xi V
Qj = Fi = = . (26)
i qj i xi qj qj
Substituting this into Eq. (24)
!
d T (T V )
= 0. (27)
dt qj qj
If the potential energy function V is independent of velocities qj , we can include
V into the first term of Eq. (27) as well and then to introduce the Lagrangian
T = L V reduce this equation to the form
! !
d (T V ) (T V ) d L L
= = 0. (28)
dt qj qj dt qj qj
We see that this equation is nothing but Lagranges equation of motion for conser-
vative systems that we derived previously from Hamiltons variational principle.
In general, for the Lagrangian of type
L(qj , qj , t) = T (qj , qj , t) V (qj ), (29)
Lagranges equations may be written as
!
d L L
= Q0j , (j = 1, 2, ..., n). (30)
dt qj qj
Here the Lagrangian includes the effect of all conservative forces acting on the sys-
tem, whereas all the nonconservative forces and forces of constraint comprise Q0j .
The forces of constraint may be obtained using the method of Lagrange multipliers.
The rest part of Q0j , that is, the generalized nonconservative forces may be calculated
immediately by means of expression:
X xi
Qj = Fi . (31)
i qj
if the nonconservative forces Fi are known, or they must be found from the process
of solving Lagranges equations itself.
4. First Integrals and Conservation Theorems
Under special circumstances a partial integration of the Lagranges equations can
be accomplished with the result
f (q1 , q2 , ...; q1 , q2 , ...; t) = const, (32)

5
which is the first-order differential equation. This relation is called the first integral
of the equations of motion. Such integrals can bring us much information about the
most general properties of a mechanical system. A particularly important example
is the case of the cyclic or ignorable variables for which the Lagrangian does not
contain a certain variable qj , although qj is present.
For a cyclic coordinate qj , the Lagrange equation of motion,
d L L
= 0, (33)
dt qj qj
reduces to
d L
= 0. (34)
dt qj
L
pj , (35)
qj
are the components of the generalized momentum. The terms canonical momentum
or conjugate momentum are often also used for this quantity.
The equation
pj = const (36)
is a first integral which expresses an important conservation theorem:
The generalized momentum conjugated to a cyclic coordinate is conserved.
If we introduce the quantity
X L X
h = h(q, q, t) qj L pj qj L. (37)
j qj j

and assume that our system is scleronomic, i.e. L does not contain the time
explicitly, we obtain
dh
= 0, (38)
dt

h(q, q, t) = const. (39)

This relation again constitues a first integral of Lagranges equation (sometimes it
is referred to as the Jacobis integral).
5. Laws of Momentum Conservation
Considering the case of the conservative systems by assuming that V is not a
function of velocities and that T does not depends on qi . The Lagrange equation of
motion
d L L d T V dpj V
= + + = 0, (40)
dt qj qj dt qj qj dt qj
which gives
dpj V
= Qj , (41)
dt qj
where the generalized force Qj is introduced.
Suppose now that the translation coordinate qj under discussion is cyclic. Then
qj cannot appear in V , and we obtain the momentum conservation law reformulated
in terms of the generalized forces via the relation
dpj
= Qj = 0. (42)
dt

6
For our special choice of generalized coordinate qj , this relation is equivalent to the
linear momentum conservation law in the Newton mechanics which stands:
SUMMARY: If a given component of the total applied force vanishes, the cor-
responding component of the linear momentum is conserved.

In the same way it can be shown that if a cyclic coordinate qj is such that dqj
corresponds to the rotation of the system of particles as a whole around some axis,
then the conservation of its conjugate momentum corresponds to the conservation
of an angular momentum.
Conservation law for angular momentum stands:
SUMMARY: If a given component of the total applied torque vanishes, the cor-
responding component of the angular momentum is conserved.

6. Law of Energy Conservation

For a very wide range of systems and sets of generalized coordinates, T is a
quadratic form in the velocities qi ,
1X
T = aik qi qk , (43)
2 i,k

aik being functions of qi , while V is independent of the velocities qi . Under these

circumstances n
T X
pj = = ajk qk , (44)
qj k=1
and thus
X X
h= pj qj L = ajk qj qk (T V ) = 2T T + V = T + V E, (45)
j j,k

where E is the total energy of the system. The conservation theorem with this
special choice of the Lagrangian takes the form

E = T + V = const, (46)

which expresses the well known law of the conservation of energy:

SUMMARY: The sum of kinetic and potential energies is constant during the
motion.
7. Elimination of cyclic variables
The process of eliminating an ignorable variable may be performed into three
steps:
1. Write down the equation for the kinosthenic momentum
dL
dqn
= cn (a)
2. Modify the given Lagrangian to
L = L cn qn (b)
3. Eliminate the ignorable velocity qn by solving the equation (a) for qn and
substituting this solution in (b).
As a result of this reduction process, the original variation problem of n degrees
of freedom is reduced to a new variation problem of (n 1) degrees of freedom.
The process remains the same if the given problem contains more than one cyclic

7
coordinates with only obvious difference: the modified Lagrangian has now to be
defined by X
L=L ck qk , (47)
k

the summation being extended over all the cyclic coordinates.

III. THEORY OF SMALL OSCILLATIONS

1. Lagrangian
The lowest order Lagrangian:
NOTE: derivation you can find at pages 37-38 in Lecture Notes
1
L T V = (Tij i j Vij i j ) (48)
2
which leads via the Lagranges equations to the following n equations of motion
of a mechanical system near the equilibrium.

Tkj j + Vkj j = 0 (k = 1, ..., n). (49)

2. Eigenvalue Problem
These equation of motion are linear differential equations with constant coeffi-
cients, and we thus try an oscillatory solution of the form

i = Cai eit (50)

where Cai is the complex amplitude of the oscillations for coordinate i , the scaling
factor C and the frequency being the same for all coordinates.
n linear algebraic equations for the amplitudes ai :

(Vij 2 Tij )aj = 0. (51)

These are homogeneous equations, and hence the nontrivial solution exists only if
the determinant of the coefficients vanishes:
V11 2 T11 . V1n 2 T1n 
 

 . .

 . . . . . 

. . . . .  = 0. (52)
 

 

 . . . . . 

 Vn1 2 Tn1 . . 2
. Vnn Tnn 
3. General Solution of Equations of Motion
The trial function of the oscillatory type satisfies the equations of motion not
for a single frequency but in general for a set of n frequencies k , k = 1, ..., n.
Mathematically, it means that the complete solution of the equations of motion
may be written as a sum over index k,

i = Ck aik expik t , (53)

where Ck is a complex scale factor. Strictly speaking this solution must be general-
ized to
i = aik (Ck+ exp+ik t +Ck expik t ), (54)

8
since for each eigenvalue k (and thus for each eigenvector ak ) there are two fre-
quences +k and k and accordingly two different scale factors Ck+ and Ck .
Nevertheless the real parts of these equations can be written in the same form

i = fk aik cos (k t + k ) (55)

For the determination of the constants fk and k we put

i (0) = Re Ck aik (56)

Similarly, the initial value of the velocities is

i (0) = Im Ck aik k (57)

These equations form a set of 2n equations from which the real and imaginary parts
of the scale factors Ck , ReCk and ImCk , may be evaluated.
In matrix relation,
Re Cl = ajl Tjk k (0). (58)
A similar procedure with velocities gives
1
Im Cl = ajl Tjk k (0). (59)
l
4. Normal Coordinates

The general solution for each coordinate i like (?) being a sum of simple har-
monic oscillations of the frequencies k is not itself a periodic function of time. It is
possible, however, to transform i to a new set of generalized coordinates that are
periodic function of time. Such set of variables is known as the normal coordinates.
The Lagrangian in a new reference system
1
L = (k k k2 k2 ), (60)
2
which results in the Lagranges equations for k

k + k2 k = 0, (61)

with an obvious solution

k = Ck exp (ik t). (62)
This equation demonstrates that each coordinate k is a periodic function of one
of the frequences k and amplitudes aik . Such states are said to define the normal
modes of vibration, and k are properly called the normal coordinates of the system.
5. Forced oscillations:
a) Sinusoidal driving force: In nature, the driving forces have frequently the
sinusoidal character varying in time as

Qi = Q0i cos (t + i ). (63)

The equation of motion becomes

i + i2 i = Q0i cos (t + i ). (64)

9
The particular solution
i = Bi cos (t + i ). (65)
where
Q0i
Bi = , (66)
i2
2
The complete motion is composed by the linear combinations of the normal modes
aij Q0j
i = aij j = cos (t + j ). (67)
j2 2

b) Dissipative forces:
Equations for the normal coordinates j :

i + Fi i + i2 i = 0, (68)

Solutions: " s #
F t
2i F2
i = Ci e exp i i2 i t. (69)
4
This
r expression represents nothing but the damping oscillations with the frequency
F2
i2 4i and damping coefficient F2i .
c) Combined Effect of Sinusoidal and Dissipative Forces
Equations:

Tij j + Fij j + Vij j = F0i eit , (70)

When searching for solution
j = Aj eit , (71)
it leads to the following set of the linear equations for the amplitudes Aj :

(Vij iFij 2 Tij )Aj = F0i . (72)

These equations are merely the inhomogeneous equations. As such, they can be
solved by the application of the Cramers rule which gives
Dj ()
Aj = , (73)
D()
where
D() = det(Vij iFij 2 Tij ) (74)
and Dj () is obtained from the determinant D() when the j-th column is replaced
by F01 , ..., F0n .
Equating the determinant D() to zero, we obtain the secular equation for free
oscillations. Its roots determine the complex frequencies of the free modes of oscil-
lations which can be treated as the resonance frequencies for the forced oscillations.

10
 IV. CENTRAL FORCE PROBLEM

1. Lagranges Equations and First Integrals

The Lagrangian in plane polar coordinates is expressed as
1
L = T V = m(r2 + r2 2 ) V (r), (75)
2
Canonical momentum
L
= mr2 ,
p (76)

is conserved which is equivalent to the equation of motion
d
p = (mr2 ) = 0, (77)
dt
We notice that p is the angular momentum of a single particle

mr2 = l, (78)

determines the constant magnitude l of the angular momentum.

Differential area:
1 1
dA = r(rd) = r2 d, (79)
2 2
and the areal velocity is
1 2
dA r d 1 d 1
VA = 2 = r2 r2 . (80)
dt dt 2 dt 2

d d 1 dVA
(mr2 ) = 2m ( r2 ) = 2m = 0, (81)
dt dt 2 dt
dVA
=0 (82)
dt
i.e. the areal velocity is constant. Note that this statement sounds as a general
property of the central force motion, whereas the well-known Keplers second law of
planetary motion: the radius-vector sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
The equation for the remaining coordinate r.
h
L 1
r
= r 2
m(r2 + r2 2 ) V (r)] = mr;
L 1 V (r)
r
= [ m(r2
r 2
+ r2 2 ) V (r)] = mr2 r
, (83)

The Lagranges equation gives

d L L d V (r)
= (mr) mr2 + . (84)
dt r r dt r
Using the designation
V (r)
f (r) = , (85)
r
f (r) being the value of the force along r

mr mr2 = f (r). (86)

11
 l2
mr = f (r). (87)
mr3
l2 d 1 l2 1 l2
! !
dV d
mr = f (r) + = = V + (88)
mr3 dr dr 2 mr2 dr 2 mr2
1 l2 dr
!
d
mrr = V + (89)
dr 2 mr2 dt
1 l2
! !
d 1 2 d
mr = V + (90)
dt 2 dt 2 mr2
d 1 2 1 l2
!
mr + +V =0 (91)
dt 2 2 mr2
1 2 1 l2
mr + + V = const, (92)
2 2 mr2
1 l2 1 2 4 2 mr2 2
= m r = , (93)
2 mr2 2mr2 2
1 2 1 2 2
mr + mr + V (r) = E, (94)
2 2
where E is the total energy of the system.
For r, v !
2
u
u2 l
r = t EV (95)
m 2mr2
dr
dt = q . (96)
2 l2
m
(E V 2mr2
)
Zr
dr
t= q , (97)
2 l2
r0 m
(E V 2mr2
)
which gives t as a function of r. Inverting this function, we can find r as a function
of t. Then the solution
d l
= (98)
dt mr2 (t)
Zt
dt
(t) = l + 0 , (99)
mr2 (t)
0

where 0 is the initial value of (t).

2. Classification of Orbits-see Figures 3-3 to 3-11 in Lecture Notes
The particle velocity is determined in the form
s
2 
v= E V (r) . (100)
m

l2
mr = f + , (101)
mr3

12
Formally this equation corresponds to the particle of mass m subjected to a force
l2
f0 = f + . (102)
mr3
The physical sense of the extra term in this expression is established by the rela-
tionship
l2 2 mv2
= mr , (103)
mr3 r
which is the familiar centrifugal force.
The total force
V 0
f0 = , (104)
r
where V 0 is the equivalent one-dimensional potential, defined by
1 l2
V0 =V + . (105)
2 mr2
The energy conservation theorem
1
E = V 0 + mr2 . (106)
2
Special case of an inverse square law of force,
k
f = (107)
r2
with k > 0, which ensures that the force acts toward the center of force. For this
force,
k
V = , (108)
r
and the equivalent one-dimensional potential is
k 1 l2
V0 = + . (109)
r 2 mr2
3. Equations for Orbits
The dependence of r upon :
ldt = mr2 d. (110)

ldr
d = q =
2 l2
mr2 m
(E V 2mr2
)
dr
q
2mE
r2 l2
2mV
l2
1
r2
du
q , (111)
2mE 2mV
l2
l2
u2
where the variable r is changed to u = 1/r.
Zu
du
= 0 q . (112)
2mE 2mV
u0 l2
l2
u2

13
 This integral solves the problem formally but it can be practically used only for
certain types of potential laws. The most important is the power-law potential,

V = arn+1 , (n 6= 1). (113)

Zu
du
= 0 q . (114)
2mE 2ma n1
u0 l2
l2
u u2
The total set of integral exponents n resulting in circular and elliptic functions is

n = 5, 3, 1, 0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7. (115)

In these cases the solution can be investigated analytically because the properties
of the circular and elliptic functions.
The functions (u) (or u()) can be treated as the solutions of some differential
equation for the orbit. This equation can be obtained by converting the equation of
motion
l2
mr = f (r), (116)
mr3

d l d
dt
= mr2 d
,
 
d2 l d l d
dt2
= 2
mr d mr d 2 , (117)

and the Lagrange equation

l2
!
l d l d
2 2
= f (r). (118)
r d mr rd mr3
!
1 dr d 1 du
2
= . (119)
r d d r d
d2 u
!
m 1
+ u = f J(u), (120)
d2 l2 u2 u
In terms of potential as
d2 u
!
m d 1
2
+u= 2 V J(u), (121)
d l du u
since
d dr d 1 d
= = 2 . (122)
du du dr u dr
4. Kepler Problem
Introduce the inverse-square law,
k k
f (r) = , V (r) = , (123)
r2 r
!
1
f = ku2 (124)
u

14
into the general differential equation for the orbit
d2 u
!
m 1 mk
2
+ u = 2 2f = . (125)
d l u u l2
The change of the variable
mk
y =u (126)
l2
transforms this equation to
d2 y
+y =0 (127)
d2
with the solution
y = B cos( 0 ), (128)
B and being the two constant of integration. In terms of r this solution is
1 mk  
= 2 1 + e cos( 0 ) , (129)
r l
where
l2
e=B
. (130)
mk
To rederive this expression, starting from the formal solution, we represent the
latter in the form, containing indefinite integral:

0
Z
du
= q . (131)
2mE 2mku
l2
+ l2
u2

Setting
2mE 2mk
= , = , = 1, (132)
l2 l2
we obtain the standard integral
!
Z
du 1 + 2u
= arccos , (133)
+ u + u2 q
where the discriminant q is
!2
2El2
!
2 2mk
q = 4 = 1+ . (134)
l2 mk 2
l2 u
0 mk
1
= arccos q . (135)
2El2
1+ mk2

Converting this equation, we obtain the equation of the orbit in the form
s !
1 mk 2El2
= 2 1+ 1+ cos( 0 ) , (136)
r l mk 2
s
2El2
e= 1+ . (137)
mk 2

15
The general equation of a second order curve ( or conic section) with the focus at
the origin [any MATHEMATICAL HANDBOOK or Fowles, Cassiday. Analytical
mechanics, Appendix C],
1  
= C 1 + e cos( 0 ) , (138)
r
where C is constant and e the eccentricity of the conic section which defines the
type of the curve according to
e > 1, hyperbola,



e = 1, parabola,
(139)



e < 1, ellipse,
e = 0, circle.
From this comparison, it follows that the orbit is always a conic section, so that the
type of the conic depends on the total energy E according to


E > 0, hyperbola,
E

= 0, parabola,
(140)
E < 0, ellipse,
2

E = mk


2l2
, circle.
In the particular case of an elliptic orbit with the two apsidal distances r1 and r2
it is instructive to evaluate the so-called semimajor axis,
r1 + r2
a= . (141)
2
The most elegant method of this calculation is based on the use of the conservation
law which, for the apsidal points, where the radial velocity is zero, stands
l2 k
E 2
+ = 0, (142)
2mr r
or
k l2
r2 + r = 0. (143)
E 2mE
The roots of this equation are just the apsidal distances, so that
r1 + r2 k
a= = . (144)
2 2E
It is useful also to rewrite the eccentricity of the ellipse in terms of the semimajor
axis as s
l2
e= 1 . (145)
mka
From this expression we have
l2  
= a 1 e2 . (146)
mk
 
a 1 e2
r= (147)
1 + e cos( 0 )

16
For the apsidal distances which occur when 0 is 0 and , we have

r1 = a(1 e) (148)

and
r2 = a(1 + e), (149)
as is to be expected for an ellipse.

5. Keplers Laws
The third Keplers law which in its original formulation reads:
The squares of the times of circulation of the planets around sun are proportional
to the cubes of their middle distances to the sun.
r
mZ dr
r
t= q . (150)
2r k
l2
+ E
0 r 2mr2
r
mZ r dr
r
t= q . (151)
2k r r2
r 2a a(1e2 )
0 2
The integral in the r.h.s. of this equation is most conveniently evaluated through
the auxiliary variable , denoted in the terminology of medieval astronomy as the
eccentric anomaly and defined by the relation

r = a(1 e cos ). (152)

s
ma3 Z
t= (1 e cos ) d. (153)
k
0

m
r
3/2
= 2a . (154)
k
This equation states that, other things being equal, the square of the periods of the
various planets are proportional to the cube of their major axis. This statement can
be considered as more precise formulation of the third of Keplers laws.

V. HAMILTONIAN FORMULATION OF ANALYTICAL

MECHANICS

1. Hamiltons Equations
NOTE: derivation you can find at pages 73-74 in Lecture Notes
Hamilton discovered a remarkable transformation which renders the Lagrangian
function linear in the velocities which leads to the 2n first-order equations expressed
in terms of 2n independent variables , namely n generalised coordinates qi and n
generalised or conjugated momenta pi :
L
pi . (155)
qi
In the Hamilton formulations we can again speak of the system point and its path
but - in the space of 2n dimensions which has been called by the American physicist

17
Gibbs the phase space. The coordinates of the system point in the phase space
are the original coordinates of Lagrangian mechanics qi (t) along with the conjugate
momenta pi (t). To find the equation of motions in the variables qi and pi replacing
the Lagranges equation, we introduce the Hamiltonian
H = qi pi L, (156)
Applying the variational procedure we get the system of the 2n first order equations
qi = H
(
pi
,
H (157)
pi = qi ,

which are known as the canonical equations of Hamilton. For cyclic coordinate, the
conjugate momentum pi is constant.
2. Evaluating of Hamiltonian-see examples at pages 77-79 in Lecture
Notes
The Hamiltonian for each system can be constructed via the Lagrangian formu-
lation by performing the following sequence of steps:
1. With a chosen set of the generalized coordinates qi , the Lagrangian L(qi , qi , t)
is constructed.
2. The congugate momenta are defined as the functions of qi , qi and t by equation:
L
pi . (158)
qi
3. To form the Hamiltonian, or rather some mixed function of qi , qi , pi and t we use
the equation:
H = qi pi L, (159)
4. Equations from (2) are then inverted to obtain qi as functions of (q, p, t).
5. The results of the previous step are then applied to eliminate qi from H so as
to express it solely as a function of (q, p, t).
VI. CANONICAL TRANSFORMATIONS-see example: harmonic
oscillator in canonical transformation at pages 85-87 in Lecture Notes
Jacobi has discovered a special type of coordinate transformation which gives
rise to so highly simplification of the starting canonical equations that in the new
coordinates these equations become directly integrable. The essential feature of this
transformation is that it preserves the canonical equations themselves. In this sense,
the transformation is said to be the canonical transformation.
1. Generating functions
The transformed variables Qi , Pi , and the transformed Hamiltonian by K(Q, P, t),
we may write

Qi = Qi (q, p, t),

Pi = Pi (q, p, t),

K
Qi = P , (160)
i


P = K .


i Qi

From the application of variational principle the equation

dF
pi qi H = Pi Qi K + (161)
dt

18
holds. four different possibilities of a choice of F as a function of mixed set of old
and new variables,

F1 (q, Q, t),
F (q, P, t) Q P ,

2 i i
F = (162)
q
i i

p + F 3 (p, Q, t),
qi pi Qi Pi + F4 (p, P, t).

The remarkable feature of any choice is that in each case the variables which are
complementary to the total set of old and new variables, (q, p, Q, P ), are determined
by the simple differentiation of the corresponding functions Fi according to:
pi = F
(
qi
1
,
F1 (q, Q, t) F1
Pi = Qi ;
pi = F
(
qi
2
,
F2 (q, P, t) F2
Qi = Pi ;
qi = F
(
pi
3
,
F3 (p, Q, t) F3
Pi = Qi ;
qi = F
(
pi
4
,
F4 (p, P, t) F4 (163)
Qi = Pi .

To complete the story, we notice that the connection between the new Hamiltonian
K and the old one H is always expressed by the same formula formula
Fi
K=H+ , (i = 1, 2, 3, 4). (164)
t
In particular case of the time-independent function F we have K = H, and in order
to obtain new Hamiltonian K it is enough to substitute into H the variables p, q,
expressed in terms of new variables P, Q.
2. Poisson Bracket Formulation of Mechanics Almost the entire framework
of Hamiltonian mechanics can be restated in terms of the so-called Poisson brackets.
For the two arbitrary functions of canonical variables u(p, q) and v(p, q), the Poisson
bracket is defined as
u v u v
[u, v] = . (165)
qi pi pi qi
Poisson bracket formulation of mechanics: let us suppose that any function of canon-
ical variables and time satisfies the generalized equation of motion
du u
= [u, H] + , (166)
dt t
where H is the Hamiltonian of the system, and [u, H] is the Poisson bracket.

VII. HAMILTON-JACOBI THEORY

1. Hamilton-Jacobi Equation
There is an alternative technique to use the generating function directly for seek-
ing a canonical transformation from the coordinates and momenta, (q, p), at time
t to a new set which is nothing but the 2n initial values of the coordinates and

19
momenta, q0 , p0 , at t = 0. With such a transformation, the equations of the trans-
formation relating the old and new canonical variables are then exactly the desired
solution of the mechanical problem:

q = q(q0 , p0 , t),
p = p(q0 , p0 , t). (167)

To obtain this equation, we notice that the new variables shall be surely constant in
time if we require that the transformed Hamiltonian K is identically zero, for then
the equations of motion are
K
Qi = Pi
= 0,
K
Pi = Q i
= 0. (168)

Further, we know that the new Hamiltonian K relates to the old Hamiltonian H by
means of the equation
F
K=H+ , (169)
t
where F is a generating function to be determined. Now, we see that K will be zero
if this function satisfies the equation
F
H(q, p, t) + = 0. (170)
t
The question arises: what variables the function F depends on? It is most
convenient to take F as a function of the old coordinates qi , the new (constant!)
momenta Pi , and the time . This generating function is F2 (q, P, t). The equation of
transformations
F2
pi = , (171)
qi
!
F2 F2 F2
H q1 , ..., qn ; , ..., ;t + = 0. (172)
q1 qn t
This equation is Hamilton-Jacobi equation. In the context of this equation, it is
customary to use the symbol S for the generating function F2 ,

F2 S. (173)

In this notation the Hamilton-Jacobi equation is rewritten in a more familiar form

!
S S S
H q1 , ..., qn ; , ..., ;t + = 0. (174)
q1 qn t
The function S is usually called the Hamiltons principal function.

2. Hamiltons Principal Function-see example of harmonic oscillator

in Hamilton-Jacobi theory, at pages 93-95 in Lecture Notes We can take
the solution in the form

S = S(q1 , ..., qn ; 1 , ..., n ; t), (175)

20
In this form the solution S is a function of n coordinates, the time t and some
n independent quantities i which we can freely identify with the new constant
momenta:
i P i i , (176)
These identities can be considered as the first part of canonical transformations.
The other part which provide the new coordinates appear as a result of calculation
of the right side of equations
S(q, , t)
Q i i = (177)
i
at the initial time t = t0 with the known initial values of qi . These equations can
then be turned inside out to furnish qi in terms of , and t:
qi = qi (, , t). (178)
By this, we solve the problem of finding the coordinates as functions of time and
the initial conditions. The congugate momenta pi ,
pi = pi (, , t) (179)
can be then found by substitution of qi into expressions
S(q, , t)
pi = (180)
qi
after the differentiations have been performed. Equations for qi and pi constitute
the complete solution of equations of motion in the Hamilton formulation.
3. Hamiltons Characteristic Function
What is the canonical transformation in which the new momenta are all constant
of the motion i , and where one of these constants (say, 1 ) is equal to H? The
unknown function of our interest by W (q, P ), where (q, P ) is the set of all coordinates
and momenta describing the system. The equation of transformation that we are
searching for, are
W W W
pi = , Qi = = . (181)
qi Pi i
By making agree the first of this transformations with the requirement
H(q, p) = 1 , (182)
we obtain the condition for determining the generating function W
!
W
H q, = 1 . (183)
q
We see that this condition has the form of a partial differential equation which can
be evidently referred to as the Hamilton-Jacobi equation for the function W . Since
this function does not depend on t, the new and old Hamiltonian are equal
H = K = 1 = P 1 . (184)
This leads to the canonical equations of motion
K
Pi = Q = 0,
i
K 1, i = 1
Qi = P = (185)
i 0, i 6= 1

21
with the immediate solutions

P i = i ,
t + 1 , i = 1

W
Qi = (186)
i i , i 6= 1
So, the function W which obeys the Hamilton-Jacobi equation (40) is the function
which we are searching for, since it generates n constant momenta i , with 1 = H.
As for the new coordinate, the only one is not simply a constant of the motion,
namely, Q1 , which is equal to the time plus a constant. The realtion between
Hamiltons principal and characteristic functions:

S(q, P, t) = W (q, P ) 1 t, (187)

4. Separable Variables
A coordinate qi is separable when it is possible to split Hamiltons principal
function into two additive parts, one of which depends only on the coordinate qi
and the other is entirely independent of it.

S(q1 , ..., qn , P, t) = S1 (q1 , P, t) + S 0 (q2 , ..., qn , P, t), (188)

The Hamilton-Jacobi equation

!!
S S S
H qi , , t, f q1 , + = 0, (189)
qi q1 t
where qi represents the set of all the generalized coordinate qi0 s except q1 . The
solution
S(q, P, t) = S1 (q1 , P ) + S 0 (qi , P, t), (190)

S 0 S 0
! !
dS1
H qi , , f q1 , ,t + = 0, (191)
qi dq1 t

 
f q1 , dS
dq1
1
= 1 ;
0 S 0
 
H qi , S
qi
, 1 , t + t
= 0, (192)

where 1 is an arbitrary constant.

For conservative systems:

S(q, P, t) = W (q, P ) + S1 (P, t), (193)

The Hamilton-Jacobi equation

!
W S1
H q, + = 0. (194)
q t

S1
= 1 ;
t 
H q, W
q
= 1 . (195)

22
The first of this equations shows that
S1 (P, t) = 1 t, (196)
We can apply the separation of variables to this equation and, if succeded, we can
obtain the complete integral of it in the form
n
X
W = Wk (qk ; 1 , ..., n ), (197)
k=1

where each function Wk is dependent of only one coordinate qk and i are the
constants of integration as always.
The further simplification is possible in the case of cyclic coordinates. The mo-
menta which corresponds to such coordinates are constant:
Wi
pi = = i . (198)
qi
Consider, for example, the case when all coordinates, besides q1 , are cyclic, so that
the Hamiltonian depends only on q1 . The Hamilton-Jacobi equation
!
W1
H q1 , , 2 , ..., n = 1 . (199)
q1

Wi = i qi . (200)
The total characteristic function
n
X
W = W1 + i qi . (201)
i=2

5. Action-Angle Variables -see Kepler problem in action-angle vari-

ables at pages 106-108 in Lecture Notes
For either type of periodic motion we can introduce the action variable J,
I
J= p dq, (202)

where the integration is to be carried over a complete period of libration or rotation.

Using this variable as the new generalized momentum, we can write Hamiltons
characteristic function as
W = W (q, J). (203)
Then the transformation equation gives the generalized coordinate w conjugate to
J:
W
w= . (204)
J
w is known as the angle variable.
The equation of motion for w is reduced to
H
w = = (J), (205)
J
where is a constant function of J only. This equation shows that w is always a
linear function of time,
w = t + . (206)

23
 1
= . (207)

Therefore the quantity can be interpreted as the frequency associated with the
periodic motion described by the function q(t).

24