non-Newtonian ‘Newtonian 124 4924 qo2? 4 4932 DENp N’Ren Ha Fioure 35-4. Power correlation in agitation fora fla, six-blade turbine with disk in Dpseudoplastic non-Newtonian and Newtonian fluids (Gl, M1, RL) 0. DyW = 5,1 4, DUT Substituting into Eq. (3.5.29), 35-35) Equation (3.5.35) has been used to correlate data for a flat six-blade turbine with disk in pseudoplastic liquids, and the dashed curve in Fig. 35-4 shows the correlation (M1). The solid curve applies to Newtonian fluids (RI): Both sets of data were obtained for four bales with DJ = 10, DJW = 5, and L/W = 5/4, However. since it has been shown that the difference in results for D/J = 10 and D/J = 12 is very slight (R1), this Newtonian line can be considered the same ascurve 1, Fig. 34-4. The curves in Fig. 3.5-4 show that the results are identical for the Reynolds number range I to 2000 except that they differ only in the Reynolis number range 10 to 100, where the pseudoplastic ids tse ess power than the Newtonian fluids. The fow patterns for the pseudoplastic fuids show much greater velocity gradient changes than do the Newtonian fluids in the agitator. The fluid far from the impeller may be moving in slow laminar low with a high apparent viscosity. Data for fan turbines and propellers are also available (M1). 3.6 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF CONTINUITY In Sections 2.6, 27, and 2.8 overall mass, energy, and momentum balances allowed us to solve many elementary problems on fluid flow. These balances were done on an arbi: trary finite volume sometimes called a control volume. In these total energy, mechanical energy, and momentum balances, we only needed to know the state of the inlet and outlet streams and the exchanges with the surroundings, These overall balances were powerful tools in solving various flow problems because they did not require knowledge of what goes on inside the finite control volume. Also, in the simple shell momentum balances made in Section 2.9, expressions were obtained for 164 Chap. 3 Principles of Momentum Transfer and Applicationsthe velocity distribution and pressure drop. However, to advance in our study of these flow systems, we must investigate in greater detail what goes on inside this finite control volume. To do this, we now use a differentia! element for a control volume. The differential balances will be somewhat similar to the overall and shell balances, but now we shall make the balance in a single phase and integrate to the phase boundary using the bousniary conditions. In these balances done earlier, a balance was made for each new system studied, It is not necessary to formulate new balances for each new flow problem. It is often easier to start with the differential equations of the conservation of mass (equation of continuity) and the conservation of momentum in general form. Then these equations are simplified by discarding unneeded terms for each particular problem. For nonisothermal systems a general differential equation of conservation of energy will be considered in Chapter 5. Also in Chapter 7 a general differential equation of continuity for a binary mixture will be derived. The differential-momentum-balance equation to be derived is based on Newton's second law and allows us to determine the way velocity varies with position and time and the pressure drop in laminar flow. The equation of momentum balance can be used for turbulent flow with certain modifica- tions. Often these conservation equations are called equations of change, since they de- scribe the variations in the properties of the fuid with respect to position and time. Before we derive these equations, a brief review of the different types of derivatives with respect to time which occur in these equations and a brief description of vector notation will be given, 3.68 Types of Time Derivatives and Vector Notation 1. Partial time derivative, Various types of time derivatives are used in the derivations to follow. The most common type of derivative is the partial time derivative, For example, suppose that we are interested in the mass concentration or density p in kg/m? ina flowing stream as a function of position x, y,z and time. The partial time derivative ofp is dp/6t. This is the local change of density with time at a fixed point x, y, and 2. 2. Total time derivative. Suppose that we want to measure che density in the steam while we are moving about in the stream with veocites inthe x,y, and z directions of afd, dyfdt and dz, respectively. The total derivative dpi is dp, Onde, apdy , Onde lp _ dp ods , dp dy , dp dt ax de Oy de a dh Ben ‘This means that the density isa function of ¢ and of the velocity components dv/dt, dy/dt, and dzjdt at which the observer is moving, 3, Substantial time derivative. Another useful type of time derivative is obtained if the observer floats along with the velocity ¥ of the flowing stream and notes the change in density with respect to time. This is called the derivative that follows the motion, or the substantial time derivative, Do/D. Dee, 0, Oa where v,, v,, and v, are the velocity components of the stream velocity v, which is a vector. This substantial derivative is applied to both scalar and vector variables. The term yp} will be discussed in part 6 of Section 3.68. Sec.3.6 Differential Equations of Continuity 1654, Scalars. The physical properties encountered in momentum, heat, and mass transfer” can be placed in several categories: scalars, vectors, and tensors. Scalars are quantities such as concentration, temperature, length, volume, time, and energy. They have mag- nitude but no direction and are considered to be zero-order tensors. The common mathematical algebraic laws hold for the algebra of scalars. For example, bc = ed, bled) = (be)d, and so on. 5. Vectors. Velocity, force, momentum, and acceleration are considered vectors since they have magnitude and direction. They are regarded as first-order tensors and are written in boldface letters in this text, such as v for velocity. The addition of the two vectors B+C by parallelogram construction and the subtraction of two vectors B — Cis shown in Fig. 3.6-1. The vector B is represented by its three projections B., B,, and B, on the x, y, and z axes and B + iB, + KB, G63) where i,j, and k are unit vectors along the axes x, y, and 2, respectively. In multiplying a scalar quantity r or s by a veetor B, the following hold. B= Br G6 (398 = rsB) 665) Be Ba + 9B 366) ‘The lotiowing also hold: @B-O=(C-B G67 B-(C+D)=@-O+(8-D) 6.68) (B-OD ¥ BC-D) G69) (B- ©) = BC c08 xe 6-10) where dc is the angle between two vectors and is < 180°. Second-order tensors + arise primarily in momentum transfer and have nine com- ponents. They are discussed elsewhere (B2) 6. Differential operations with scalars and vecters. The gradient or “grad” of a scalar field is 611) @) () Fioure 36-1, Addition and subtraction of vectors: (a) adtion of vectors, B + C. (b) subtraction of vectors, B ~ C. 166 Chap. 3 Principles of Momentum Transfer and Applications‘The divergence or “div” ofa vector vis ay, y) oy Wey a (36-12) where visa function of v0, , and of The Laplacian of scalar field is vp 6-13) Other operations that may be useful are Vis =rVs +509 619 (¥-sv) = (Vs 4.(¥ +9) 6-15) as as as WW =o S40 ea 0 . (V9 = SHO SH eS 6-16 3.6C Differential Equation of Continuity 1. Derivation of equation of continuity. A mass balance will be made for a pure fuid flowing through a stationary volume element Ax Ay Az which is fixed in space asin Fig 36-2. Themass balance for the Muid with a concentration ofp kg/m? is {rate of mass in) — (rate of mass out) = (rate of mass accumulation) (36-17) In the x direction the rate of mass entering the face at x having an area of Ay Az m? is (pvp), By A= kg/s and that leaving at x + Axis(p0,),az Ay Az. The term(pr,) is a mass fiux in kgls-m#, Mass catering and that leaving in the y and the 2 directions are also shown in Fig. 36-2. Grpyrry —— (ODevae (or det ¥ Nut : \ (&y2) J Ne S (oD): (pry y Ficus 262 Mass balance fora pure fluid flowing through a fixed volume Ax Ay Ax inspace. Sec.3.6 Differential Equations of Continuity 167‘The rate of mass accumulation in the volume Ax Ay Azis a cate of ass cumin = Ax pba 22 Substituting all these expressions into Eq. (3.617) and divi Ax Ay Az, Wi (122), = (0eperag} , Ue), = (pedevar) _ 20 + ay * Az at 8.619) ‘Taking the limit as Ax, Ay, and dz approach zero, we obtain the equation of continuity ‘or conservation of mass for a pure ud. a [aon , aon), aon) or Ox. oy oz (Vee 3.620) “The vector notation on the right side of Eq, (36-20) comes from the fact that visa vector. Equation (34-20) tells us how density p changes with time at a fixed point fesulling from the changes in the mase velocity vector pv. We can convert Eq, (36-20) into another form by carrying out the actual partial differentiation. 2 22) een oe Bee | Oy, Oo a o( ye Gem) ‘The leftchand side of Eq, (3.6-22) is the same as the substantial desivative in Eq, (3.62) Hence, Eq, (36-22) becomes Dp a, | dy, dv, Do _ {Ge 5 Oey , ove De Ss a” #) 2. Equation of continuity for constant density. Often in engineering with liquids that are relatively incompressible, the density p is essentially constant. Then p remains constant for a fluid element as it moves along a path follovting the fiuid motion, or Dp/Dt Hence, Eq. (36-23) becomes for a fluid of constant density at steady or unsteady state, =p +) 6-23), de, ae, =o oe 3.6.24 Waa z 36-24) Atsteady stats, pit = 0 in Eq. (36-22). EXAMPLE36-1. Flow overa Flas Plate ‘An incompressible Quid ows past one side of a fat plate. The flow in the x dieection is parallel to the fat plate. At the leading edge ofthe plate the flow is uniform at the free stream velocity v9. These is no velocity in the 2 direction. The y dircction is the perpendicular distance from the plate ‘Analyze this case using the equation of continuity Solution: For this case where p is constant, Eq, (3.6-24) holds. a0, , 20, , 25 ax * ay 36-29 168 Chap. 3 Principles of Momentum Transfer and Applicationsin the z direction, we obtain a0, aa 6625) [At a given small value of » close to the plate, the value of, must decrease from its free stream velocity’vye as it passes the leading edge in the x direction because of uid friction, Hence, v,Jéx is negative. Then from Eq. 66-23), d0,/0y is positive and there is a component of velocity away from the plate. 3. Continuity equation in cylindrical and spherical coordinates. It is often convenient to use cylindrical coordinates to solve the equation of continuity if luid is flowing in a cylinder. The coordinate system as related to rectangular coordinates is shown in Fig, 3.6-3a, The relations between rectangular x, y,z and cylindrical r, 8, z coordinates are xercos@ ysrsin@ za2 36-26) ye Using the relations from Eq. (3.6-26) with Eq, (36-20), the equation of continuity in cylindrical coordinates is fo, Laer) , 1 Aloe) , aon) otro r 60 oz @=tan 0 86.27) For spherical coordinates the variables r, 0, and @ are related to x, ys z by the following as shown in Fig, 3.6.36. x=rsin@cos@ y=rsindsing z= rcosd . sam ce PETE ont LEE gg td The sean fcontnity in phrial coins comes dp 1 Apr.) 1 Alprysin ) 1 Xv) % Lo 36 a a rsinf 30 rsind Gb ° G62) (xy, 2) (b) FiguRe 36.3, Curvlinear coordinate systems : (a) cylindrical coordinates, (b) spher’ cal coordinates, Sec.3.6 Differential Equations of Continuity 1693.7 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF MOMENTUM TRANSFER OR MOTION BIA. Devivati of Equations of Momentum Transfer The equation of motion is really the equation for the conservation-of- momentum equation (2.83), which we can write as (seam in) (arena ot) (cr of forces ) (qeetmomenin ‘We will make a balance on an element as in Fig. 36-2. First we shall consider only the x component of each term in Eq, (36-30). The y and z components can be described in sn analogous manner, The rate at which the x component of momentum enters the face at x in the x direction by convection is (pv, 0,), Ay Az, and the rate at which it leaves at x + Ax is (pvx2))csax Ay Az. The quantity (pv,) is the concentration in momentumn/m? or (kg m(5)/m?, and it is multiplied by v, to give the momentum flux asmomentum/s- m2, “The x component of momentum entering the face at is (pv, v9, Ax Az, and leaving at y + AVis (92,2, A¥ A. For the face at z We have(pe,0,), Ax Ay entering, and at 7+ Az we have (pr, 0Jrvaq Ax Ay leaving. Hence, the net convective x momentum flow into the volume clement Ax Ay Axis Upr.0),— (Dre raer ely Az + (92,2), ~ (00, Ydyrap]Ax Az . + 10,90). ~ (OH )evaeldx dy G72) Momentum flows in and out of the volume clement by the mechanisms of convec- tion or bulk flow as given in Eq, (3.7-2) and also by molecular transfer (by virtue of the velocity gradients in laminar flow). The rate at which the x component of momentum enters the face at x by molecular transfer is (t..), Ay Az, and the rate at which it leaves the surface at x + Ax is (,Jevae Ay Az. The rate at which it enters the face at y is (iy), Ax Az, and it leaves at y+ Ay at a rate of (yea, Ax Az, Note that zy, isthe flux of x momentum through the face perpendicular to the y axis, Writing a similar equation for the remaining faces the net x component of momentum by molecular veansfer is [sends = Cedes addy O2 + [yay — Spelysay]O Az + L(t, J — (acderacJAx Ay 8.73) These molecular fixes of momentum may be considered as shear stresses and normal stresses. Hence, ¢,. is the x direction shear stress on the y face and t,, the shear stress on the 2 face. AlsO,,, is the norm stress on the x face The net uid pressure foree acting on the element in tne x direction isthe difference between the force acting at xand.x + Ax (0, — Prvsdy Az or) The gravitational force g, acting on a unit mass in the x direction is multiplied by the sass ofthe element to give 9, Ax By dz 75) where g, is the x component of the gravitational vector g, 170 Chap.3 Principles of Momentuns Transfer and Applications‘The rate of accumulation of x momentum in the element is = alpvn : Ax dy a. yd (3.7-6) Substituting Eqs. (3.7-2)-G.1-6) into (3.7-1), dividing by Ax Ay Az, and taking the limit as A x, Ay, and Az approach zero, we obtain the x component of the differential equation of motion, alpred {Fore , apy, m oe y Mover) , ovsvy) , Kory) a ay a ty Wy ate) ap ~ (2442, He) z apr) _ [lous , alpryvd a ae ay ares, OT, Ate) ap a9 ax by Soe} ay PME ory ‘We can use Eq. (3.620), which is the continuity equation, and Eq. (3.7-7) and obtain an equation of motion for the x component and also do the same for the y and z components as follows: Adding vectorially, we obtain an equation of motion for a pure fuid Dy 0 ppt Wo + oe G.7513) We should note that Eqs. (3.7-1) to (3.7-13) are valid for any continuous medium, Sec. 37 Differential Equations of Momentum Transfer or Motion m3.78. Equations of Motion for Newtonian Fluids with Varying Density and Viscosity In order to use Eqs. (3.7-7) to (3.7-13) to determine velocity distributions, expressions ‘must be used for the various stresses in terms of velocity gradients and fluid properties. For Newtonian fluids the expressions for the stresses 7.5 tyr» Tox» ad 0 on, have been related to the velocity gradients and the fluid viscosity ,2 (B1, B2, D1) and are as follows. 1. Shear-stress components for Newtonian fluids in rectangular coordinates tas 2H S45 WW) (3.7-14) (3.7-18) G.7-16) B77) (3.7-18) (3.7.19) (3.7-20) (3.7.21) (3.7-22) ww (3.723) 7-28) ar rae G728) Aluglrt) 1 au, | tad se ral (3.7.28) m Chap. 3 Principles of Momentum Transfer and Applications(3.7-26) 3.7.27) 9.7-28) (3.7.29) (3.7.30) atest) taste oof se 7-31) sin @ a(vglsin @) Tea Tee -al = sede (3.7-32) 1 ay, alvgir) * 3.7-34) ww rain 0 36 or 4. Equation of Motion for Newtonian fluids with varying density and viscosity After Eqs. (3.7-14)-(3.7-20) for shear-stress components are substituted into Eq, (3.7-10) for the x-component of momentum, we obtain the general equation of motion for a Newtonian fluid with varying density and viscosity bo af, su 2 3 0 Bie 3 Lan MF orn] 2 [af 5 Deas ae 3 ax + 2], fOtey Mul) 3.7.35) 2 f,, (284 Me] a ae (ax * Ge }| 9x * “ Similar equations are obtained for the y and z components of momentum, 3.7C_ Equations of Motion for Newtonian Fluids with Constant Density and Viscosity ‘The equations above are seldom used in their complete forms. When the density p and the viscosity gare constant where (Vv) = 0, the eqiiations are simplified and we obtain the equations of motion for Newtonian fluids. These equations are also called the Navier-Stokes equations. Sec. 37 Differential Equations of Momentum Transfer or Motion 131. Equation of motion in rectangular coordinates. For Newtonian fluids for constant pand p for the x component, y component, and z component we obtain, respectively, ug =) ap os -2. ay? az? ax! Po (3.7-36) aoy uy) ap ay?” az? ay oh 8.737) ap art Pe . (3.7.38) Combining the three equations for the three components, we obtain by : pots = Yet pet avy (3.7.39) 2, Equation of motion in cylindrical coordinates, ‘These equations are as follows for Newtonian fluids for constant p and y. for the r, 0, and z components, respectively, ‘du, dv, Ug Bu, vg au, | Bee Steg Ba ee ve, aur Nar aT ae ae F ( se) 13%, 2 ayy 2 + nl (+ +a Sal + ea. (.7-40) jar \r ar J Fae? Foe” Bet vt +y ar or or 8/1 atrue) Flake or ‘Bue Bue Ye BVe Vid) vy! Lap p 26 Oe 1 ep (3.7-42) 3. Equation of motion in spherical coordinates. The equations for Newtonian fuids are given below for constant p and y. for the r, 0, and ¢ components, respectively. 2 avy by on a4 Chap. 3 Principles of Momentum Transfer and Applicationslap 730 ) soa en aug aug ve AUS Hp FUG Vad UWY, 1a ple 4 y, 28, Bee, Ye 98, Dove ta og) tae a oP a0 sind ab rr Fin 6 3 ot 2 2eos & avy + u (Ve rot ee GO eh 7 BlVP04 3* Tan a ag] T P98 3.7-88) where in the three equations above, taf,a 1a a 1 (@ Pale [sin @ =| 4 = (3.7.46) Par \" ar) * sin 0 90 30) * Pain? 8 lag? Significanc advantages and uses arise in the transformation from rectangular coordi: nates to cylindrical coordinates. For example, in Eq. (3.7-40) the term pu3/r is the centrifugal force. This gives the force in the r direction (radial) resulting from the ‘motion of the fluid in the 8 direction, Note that this term is obtained automatically from the transformation from rectangular (o cylindrical coordinates. It does not have to be added to the equation on physical grounds. ‘The Coriolis force pu,v9/r also arises automatically in the transformation of coordinates in Eq. (3.7-41) It is the effective force in the @ direction when there is Row in both the r and the @ directions, such as in the case of flow near a rotating disk. 3.8 USE OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF CONTINUITY AND MOTION 3.8. Introduction ‘The purpose and uses of the differential equations of motion and continuity, as mentioned previously, are to apply these equations to any viscous-flow problem. For a given specific problem, the terms that are zero or neat zero are simply discarded and the remaining equations used in the solution to solve for the velocity, density, and pressure distributions. OF course, i¢is necessary to know the initial conditions and the boundary conditions to solve the equations. Several examples will be given to illustrate the general methods used, ‘We will consider cases for flow in specific geometries that can easily be described mathematically, such as for flow between parallel places and in cylinders. 3.86 Differential Equ: Plates ions of Continuity and Motion for Flow between Parallel Two examples will be considered, one for hacizontal plates and one for vertical plates. EXAMPLE 3.8-1. Laminar Flow Between Horizontal Parallel Plates Derive the equation giving the velocity distribution at steady state for laminar flow of a constant-density fluid with constant viscosity which is flowing between two flat and parallel plates. The velocity profile desired is Sec. 3.8 Use of Differential Equations of Continuity and Motion 15ata point far from the inlet or outlet of the channel. The two plates will be considered to be fixed and of infinite width, with the flow driven by the pressure gradient in the x direction, Solution: Assuming that the channel is horizontal, Fig. 3.8-1 shows the axes selected with flow in the x direction and the width in the z direction. The velocities v, and v, are then zero. The plates are a distance 2yp apart. ‘The continuity equation (3.6-24) for constant density is oy , Ov, , 0 Ry ae 36-2 Since u, and », are zero, Eq. (3.6-24) becomes av, dv, 3.81) ze G84) ‘The Navier-Stokes equation for the x component is Also, dv/at = 0 for steady state, v, = 0, v, = 0, du,/0x =0, dJ0x* = 0. ‘We can see that dv,/éz = 0, since there is no change of o, with z. Then a7y,/az? = 0. Making these substitutions into Eq. (.7-36), we obtain \o “Ox "7 dy” * Oz ap &o, FP TE In fluid-low problems we will be concerned with gravitational force only in the vertical direction for g,, which is g, the gravitational force, in ‘m/s*. We shall combine the static pressure p and the gravitational force and call them simply p, as follows (note that g, = 0 for the present case of a horizontal pipe but is not zero for the general case of a nonhorizontal pipe): 682) p=p+pgh 68-3) __ flow in x direction bottom plate Ficune 3.8-1. Flow between two parallel plates in Example 3.8-1 176 Chap. 3 Principles of Momentum Transfer and Applicationswhere his the distance upward from any chosen reference plane (his inthe dizection opposed fo gravity). Then Eg, (82) becomes Bo ax ay B84) We can see that p is not a function of z, Also, assuming that 2yo is small, p is not a function of y. (Some references avoid this problem and simply use p as a dynamic pressure, which is rigorously correct since dynamic pressure gradients cause flow. Ina fluid at rest the total pressure gradient is the hydrostatic pressure gradient and the dynamic pressure gradient is zero.) Also, ap/2x is a constant in this problem since, is not a function of x. Then Eq. (3.8-4) becomes an ordinary differential equation. Po, a Integrating Eq. (3.8-5) once using the condition du,/dy = O at y for symmetry, do, _ (ae) , ay (i #) y (3.8-6) Jntegrating again using v, = Oaty = yo 4B yz yy ae 9d) 887 ‘The maximum velocity in Eq. (3.8-7) occurs when y = 0, giving 3.88) 3.89) Hence, 2 parabolic velocity profile is obtained. This result was also obtained in Eq, (29-9) when using a shell momentum balance. ‘The results obtained in Example 3,8-1 could also have been obtained by making a force balance on a differential element of fluid and using the symmetry of the system to ‘omit certain terms. EXAMPLE 38-2. Laminar Flow Between Vertical Plates with One Plate Moving A Newtonian fluid is confined between two parallel and vertical plates as shown in Fig, 3.8-2 (W6). The surface on the left is stationary and the other is moving vertically at a constant velocity vp. Assuming that the flow is laminar, solve for the velocity profile Sec. 3.8 Use of Diferential Equations of Continuiy and Motion a¥o Flour 3.82, Flow between vertical parallel plates in Example 3.8-2 Solution: The equation to use is the Navier-Stokes equation for the y coordinate, Eq. 3.737). (3.7.37) At steady state, du,/ar = 0. The velocities v, and v, = 0. Also, u,/ dy = 0 from the continuity equation, dv,/az~ 0, and pg, = ~ pa. ‘The partial derivatives become derivatives and Bq, (3.7-37) becomes dv, dp = pg =0 (3.8-10) dy This is similar to Eq. (3.8-2) in Example 3.8-1. The pressure gradient dpldy is constant, Integrating Ea. (3.8-10) once yields dey x (a BE (E+) cy G.R2t) Integrating again gives ” ‘The boundary conditions are at x Solving for the constants, C, 0. Hence, Eq. (3.8-12) becomes 0, vy = Oand atx = Hy vy = ve lH = (Hu) dpidy + pg)'and Co 1 [dp tn-2) +2 5 wy a | tea)tte +0 5 B83) 8 Chap.3 Principles of Momentum Transfer and Applications3.8C Differential Equations of Continuity and Motion for Flow in Stationary and Rotating Cylinders Several exampies will be given for flow in stationary and rotating cylinders. EXAMPLE 3.8-3. Laminar Flow in a Circular Tube Derive the equation for steady-state viscous flow in a horizontal tube of radius ro, where the fuid is far from the tube inlet. The fluid is ineompress- ible and jis a.constant. The flow is driven in one direction by a constant- pressure gradient. Solution: The fluid will be assumed to flow in the z direction in the tube, as shown in Fig. 3.83. The y direction is vertical and the x direction hor- izontal. Since v, and v, are zero, the continuity equation becomes dv,/2z = 0. For steady state du,/at = 0. ‘Then substituting into Eq. (3.7-38) for the z ‘component, we obtain dp_ (av, , Pre z ( mt os) 8414) To solve Eq. G.8-14) we can use cylindrical coordinates from Eq. (36-26, giving xercos9 yersind - 36-26, roa JEP mtn Substituting these into Eq. (3.8-14), Ldp av, | 1 do, nae OF ‘The flow is symmetrical about the z axis so 3?v,/30* is zero in Eq, G.8:15). As before, dp/dz is a constant, so Eq. (3.8-15) becomes L Po, td ( Ae const = a Ld (de, ade Gira rae @) C819 5) direction of flow of fluid Figure 3.83. Horizontal flow ina tube in Example 3.853. Sec. 38 Use of Differential Equations of Continuity and Motion rr180 Alternatively, Eq. (3.7-42) in cylindrical coordinates can be used for the z component and the terms that are zero discarded. feet oe Mee Be) 7 we)" ~ 1a rar\’ As before, au,/a¢ = 0, 7v,/a6* = 0, v, = 0, du,/88 = 0, du,/02 Then Eq, (3.7-42) becomes identical to Eq. (3.8-16). The boundary conditions for the first integration are dv,jdr =0 at = 0. For the second integration, x, = 0 atr = ro (tube radius), The result =| + pg, (3.742) 9, ’) G81 Converting to the maximum velocity as before, aC) If Eq. (.8-17) is integrated over the pipe cross section using Eq (2.9-10) t0 give the average velocity v.45 dp au dz Integrating to obtain the pressure drop from 2 = 0 for p = py to 2 P= pz, we obtain opp = Bagel 32st pions oa (38-20) where D = 2rg. This is the Hagen-Poiscuille equation derived previously as Eq. (2.9-11). EXAMPLE 3.8-4. Laminar Flow in a Cylindrical Annulus Derive the equation for steady-state laminar flow inside the annulus be: ‘tween two concentric horizontal pipes. This type of flow occurs often in concentric pipe heat exchangers. Solution: In this case Eq. (3.8-16) also still holds. However, the velocity in the annulus will reach a maximum at some radius r = ray Which is between r, and rz, as shown in Fig. 3.8-4. For the first integration of Eq, (B.8-16), the boundary conditions are dy ,/dr = 0 at r = riyaq, Which gives velocity profile FIGURE 3.8-4. Flaw through a cylindrical annulus Chap. 2 Principles of Momentum Transfer and Applications(1) (2s) ausan Also, for the second integration of Eq. (3.8-21), v; = Oat the inner wall where =r, giving La\(?@_doo yer (i *) (5-8 Pain ‘) 6.8.22) Repeating the second integration but for v,=0 at the outer wall where r= rs, we obtain Aap) (2 8 By dz) (7-2 Combining Eqs. (3.8-22) and (3.8-23) and solving f0r rinax (38-23) Tre (iri (3.8.24, om Vinten In Fig, 3.8-4 the velocity profile predicted by Eq. (3.8-23) is plotted. For the case where r; = 0, tag in Eq. (3.824) becomes zero and Eq. (3.8-23) reduces to Eq. (3.8-17) for a single circular pipe. EXAMPLE 3.8.5. Yelocity Distribution for Flow Between Coaxial Cylinders Tangential laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid with constant density is occurring between two vertical coaxial cylinders in which the outer one is rotating (S4) with an angular velocity of w as shown in Fig, 3.85. It can be assumed that end effects can be neglected. Determine the velocity and the shear stress distributions for this flow. Solution: On physical grounds the fluid moves in a circular motion and the velocity v, in the radial direction is zero and », in the axial direction is zero, Also, 2p/at = 0 at steady state, There is no pressure gradient in the 9 direction. The equation of continuity in cylindrical coordinates as derived before is 8 1 alpren) 1 alors) | aor ar ar a0 ae @ (36-27) outside cylinder rotates inside cylinder _ wW—- fixed Figure 3.85. Laminar flow in the region between two coaxial cylinders in Example 3.8.5 See. 38 Use of Differential Equations of Continuity and Motion 181182 All terms in this equation are zero. ‘The equations of motion in cylindrical coordinates, Eqs. (3.7-40), 2.1-41), and (3.7-42) reduite to the following, respectively: ap - (r-component) .8-25) ar a [Lar = (0-component) G.8-26) ar ® 0= -S +9, (z-component) (3.827) a Integrating Eq. (3.8-26), . Co vp re (3.8.28) ‘To solve for the integration constants C, and C3, the following boundary conditions are used: at r = Ry, ve = Oj at r = Ry, vg = wRz. The final equation is o Ry v= ICR \R3) (3.8-29) Using the shear-stress component for Newtonian fluids in cylindrical coordinates, alvelr) | Lavy) or 88 (37-31) ” The last term in Eq. (3.7-31) is zero, Substituting Eq. (3.8.29) into (3 7-31) and differentiating wives aft te= ~2H@R3| ‘The torque T that is necessary to rotate the outer cylinder is the product Of the force times the lever arm. PURI TRY (3.8-30) T= (2mRH)(—T,o)le = n(R2) 4 a {| RURE = Ann Hor? | ara? (38-31) ‘where H is the length of the cylinder. This type of device has been used to measure fluid viscosities from observations of angular velocities and. torque and also has been used as a model for some friction bearings. Chap. 3 Principles of Momentum Transfer and ApplicationsEXAMPLE 3.86. Rotating Liquid in a Cylindrical Container ‘A Newtonian fluid of constant density is in a vertical cylinder of radius R (Fig. 3.8-6) with the cylinder rotating about its axis a¢ angular velocity w (B2). At steady state find the shape of the free surface, Solution: ‘The system can be described in cylindrical coordinates. As in Example 3.85, at steady state, », = v; = 0 and g, = gy ~ 0- The Gnal equations in cylindrical coordinates given below are the same as Eqs. G.8-25) to G.8-27) for Example 38-5 except that g = ~g in Ea. G.8-27). ap 2 3.8.32) ar (@.832) on 2 (1 ave a8 tea lr ar C833) ap . spn Teo (3.834) a Integration of Eq, (3.8-33) gives the same equation as in Example 3.8-5 ee Cyr (3.8-28) The constant Cz must be zero since vg cannot be infinite at r= the velocity vp=Rw. Hence, C)=w and we obtain At Ry =or (3.8-35) Combining Eqs. (3.8-35) and (3.8:32) 2 pu G.8-26) p= ppat surface P=D(r2) FiouRe 3.86. Liguid being rorared in a comainer with @ free susface in Example 3.8.6. See.38 Use of Differential Equations of Continuity and MotionHence, we see that Eqs. (3.8-36) and (3.8-34) show that pressure depends upon r because of the centrifugal force and upon z because of the Bravitational force. ap ae PP (3.8-34) Since the term p is a function of position we can write the total differential of pressure as p= drt de 8: pao drs. (3.837) Combining Eqs. (3.8-34) and (3.8-36) with (3.8-37) and integrating, purr? yon eg 3 (3.8-38) ‘The constant of integration can be determined since p = p, at r = 0 and 2 = Zp. The equation becomes pwr P= Po=—>—+ paleo ~ 2) (3.8-39) ‘The free surface consists ofall points on this surface at p=p.. Hence, (3.8-40) ‘This shows that the free surface is in the shape of a parabola. 3.9 OTHER METHODS FOR SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF MOTION 3.94 Sntroduetion In Section 3.8 we considered examples where the Navier-Stokes differential equations of motion could be solved analytically. These cases were used where there was only one nonvanishing component of the velocity. To solve these equations for flows in two and three directions is quite complex. In this section we will consider some approximations that simplify the differential equations to allow us to obtain analytical solutions. Terms will be omitted which are quite small compared to the'terms retained, Three cases will be considered in this section: inviscid flow, potential flow, and creeping flow. The fourth case, for boundary-layer ow, will be considered in Section 3.10. The solution of these equations may be simplified by using a stream function Wx, y) andlor a velocity potential (x, y) rather than the terms of the velocity components »,, v,, and 134 Chap. 3. Principles of Momentum Transfer and Applications