ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS

Also known as Room Acoustics and Building Acoustics

Is the science and engineering of achieving a good sound within a building and is a branch
of acoustical Engineering

Design of spaces, structures and mechanical/electrical systems to meet hearing needs.

SOUND AND VIBRATION THEORY

All acoustic situation have 3 common elements

1. Source - could be loud or quiet

2. Transmission Path - can transmit more or less sound/vibrations

3. Receiver - reception of sound may be influenced

SOUND AND VIBRATION

What is a SOUND?

It is a physical wave or a mechanical vibration, or simply a series of pressure

variations in an elastic medium

Is a vibration in an elastic medium such as air, water, building materials and earth

Sound are vibrations that travel through air or another medium and can be heard
when they reach a person's or animals ear

Elasticity is the tendency of solid materials to return to their original shape after
being deformed

Sound has its origins in vibrating bodies (musical instruments or tuning fork)

VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION
Sound travels at different velocities or speed depending on the medium
 In air at 20 degrees Celcius at sea level, sound velocity is at 344 meter/second
(m/s) or 1130 feet/second (fps). That is also approximately 1,236 kph (768 mph) or
1 kilometer in 3 seconds.

Sound speed also differs in different altitudes (altitude temperature). The higher
the altitude the slower sound moves

Sound travels not only in air but also in other media

PROPAGATION OF SOUND
Sound waves do not travel through a vacuum (space) but scientist argue that you
can still hear sound in space given certain conditions (particles colliding)

For sound to propagate or travel, you need a media or medium possessing inertia
and elasticity (these would affect wave speed)

Inertia is the resistance of any physical object to any change in its motion. Objects
tendency to keep moving in a straight line at a constant linear velocity or to keep
still

First Law of Motion (one of the 3 laws of Physics by Isaac Newton) - An object
either is at rest or moves at a constant velocity, unless acted upon by an external
force.

These continuous vibrations or pressure variations take the form of periodic

compression and rarefactions that travel outward longitudinally from the source

It "bumps" adjacent particles and imparts most of its motion and energy to them.
(Newtons Third Law of Motion)

2. LONGITUDINAL WAVES
Moving parallel to the direction the particles are moving

Movement is of the same direction

Also known as P waves or Compression Waves

Is a wave in which the particles of the medium are displaced in a direction parallel
to the direction of energy transport
 Sound is longitudinal waves

In longitudinal waves, the wavelength is measured as the distance between the middles of
two compression or the middles of two rarefactions/expansions

Wavelength is designated as Lambda ( ) in formulas

PURE TONES
What is PURE TONE?

It is a vibration produced at a single frequency. This is achieved using a tuning fork

Symphonic music consists of numerous tones at different frequencies and pressures.

A tone is composed of fundamental frequency with multiples of the fundamental called

HARMONICS.

Musical sounds are composed of a fundamental frequency and integral multiples

of fundamental frequency of Harmonics

Most common sounds are complex combinations of frequencies

Compression - is a point on a medium which a longitudinal wave is travelling at

maximum density.

Rarefaction - is a point on a medium which a longitudinal wave is travelling at minimum

density.

T=1/f or f=1/T

Where:

T = Time

1 = Cycle Period

f = Frequency

CYCLE - refers to aa complete up and down oscillation of the wave

OSCILLATION - is the repetitive variation, movement back and forth in a regular rhythm

Sound travels faster in solids, than they do in liquids and in gases (elasticity factor
has a greater influence on the speed)

The distance between molecules in solids are very small (solid are more dense) as
compared to liquids and gases. Because they are so close together, it takes less
time for molecules to collide together

Sound may travel fast at 16,000 ft/s along steel pipes and duct walls. It is therefore
important to block or isolate paths where sound energy can travel through building
materials (called Structure - borne sound)

This relatinship between wavelength, frequency and speed of sound is expressed as:

=v/f

Where:

v or c - velocity of the wave or sound (fps or m/s) - usually constant (air)

f - frequency of speed (Hz)

- wavelength (m)

Sound with wavelength ranging from 12mm to 15m can be heard by humans.

3 MAJOR IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF A WAVE

OR SOUND WAVE
1. FREQUENCY

Is the number of complete vibrations or pulses of a sound source per a given unit of
time usually 1 second

Is the number of times the cycle of compression and rarefaction of air makes in a
given unit of time or 1 second
 Is a measurement of how many cycles can happen in a certain amount of time
(cycle per second or Hertz)

Hertz (Hz) is the unit of frequency, named after Heinrich Hertz

It is also commonly called the Pitch or Tone of the Sound

1 Hertz = 1 cycle / second or 1 period / second or 1 vibration / second

SOUND FREQUENCIES
SUB-AUDIBLE - below 20 Hz

AUDIBLE - 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz (dependent on individuals and environmental factors)

Hearing sensitivity especially the upper frequency limit, diminishes with increasing
age even without adverse effects from disease or noise. This condition is called
Presbycusis.

Human voice speaking has a range of approximately 100 Hz to 600 Hz. Male
voice is around 85 Hz to 180 Hz and Female voice at 165 Hz to 255 Hz.

2. WAVELENGTH

The distance a sound wave travels during one cycle of vibration

Is the distance from the crest/peak of one wave to the crest/peak of the next

Length of one complete cycle

It can be measured as the distance from crest to crest or trough to trough

Wavelength are measured in meters, centimeters, and others like any length

There is NO special spot to measure a wavelength. Just make sure you are back to
the same height going in the same direction

2 TYPES OF SOUND WAVES AND VIBRATIONS

1. TRANSVERSE WAVE

Motion of the wave is perpendicular to the displacement of the medium

Displacement is up and down

Also known as S Wave

Water, light and radio waves are transverse

INVERSE SQUARE LAW

Sound waves from a point source outdoors with no obstructions (called Free-Field
Conditions) are virtually spherical ad expand outward from the source as shown below.
A point source has physical dimensions of size that are far less than the distance an
observer is away from the source

Power is a basic quantity of energy flow. Although both acoustical and electric energies
are measured in watts, they are both different forms of energy and cause different
response.

For instance, 10 watts (abbreviated W) of electric at a incandescent lamp produces a very

dim light, whereas 10W of acoustical energy at a loud speaker can produce an extremely
loud sound. Peak power for musical instruments can range from 0.05 W

The intensity from a point source outdoors at a distance "d" away is the sound power of
the source divided by the total spherical area 4 d of the sound wave at the distance of
interest. This relationship can be expressed as:

I=W/A

or

I=W/4d

Where:

I = sound intensity (W/m )

W or P = sound power (W)

d = distance from sound source (m)

A = area

DECIBELS
Decibels - is the unit used to express the pressure or intensity level of a sound energy.
Sound level is always measured in decibels (dB) by sound level meters.

Ernst Weber and Gustav Fechner (19th Century German scientist) discovered that
nearly all human sensations are propotional to the logarithm of the intensity of the
stimulus.

In acoustics, the "bel" unit (named in honor of Alexander Graham Bell) was first used to
relate the intensity of sound to an intesity level corresponding to the human sensation.

Sound intensity level in "bels" equals the logarithm of the intensity ratio I/I where I is
the minimum sound intensity audible to the average ear at 1,000 Hz.

Decibels (prefix - deci - indicates that logarithm is to be multiplied by 10) can be found by
the following formula:

L = 10 log I/I

Where:

L = sound intensity level (dB)

I = sound intensity (W/m )

I = reference sound intensity, 10 (W/m )

Which is the threshold of audibility or equivalent to 0 dB (constant)

The human hearing range from the threshold of audibility at 0 dB to the threshold of pain
at 130 dB

It is difficult to measure sound intensity directly. However sound intensity is proportional to

the square of sound pressure, which can be more easily be measured by Sound Level
Meters.
Sound Level Measures contain microphones which transform sound pressure variations
in air into corresponding electric signals

In air under normal atmospheric conditions, sound intensity level and Sound Pressure
Level are nearly identical

NOISE REDUCTION WITH DISTANCE

Outdoors in the open and away from obstructions, sound energy from Point Sources
drops off by 6 dB for each doubling of the distance from the source.

Sound energy from Line Sources (stream of automobiles or railroad cars) drops off by 3
dB for each doubling of distance. This is because Line sources consists of successive
point of sources which reinforce each other. Thus the spread of sound energy is
cylindrical not spherical.

THE INVERSE SQUARE LAW FOR SOUND IS:

I / I = (d / d )

Where:

I = sound intensity (W / m )

d = distance from sound source (ft. or m)

If the distance is measured in feet, multiply the result by 10.76 because 1 m equals
10.76 ft.

COMMON SOUNDS IN DECIBELS

Some common, easily recognized sounds are listed in order of increasing sound levels in
decibels.

The sound levels shown for occupied rooms are only example activity levels and do not
represent criteria for design.

Note also tht thresholds vary among individuals.

Threshold of Feeling - A loud sound in which one can hear and feel at the same time.

Threshold of Hearing/Audibility - Sound becomes just audible or recognizable (20 uPa or

2 x 10 Pa)

Threshold of Pain - Is the sound pressure level beyond which sound becomes unbearable
for a human listener. Threshold varies from 120 dB (20 Pa) to 140 dB (200 Pa)

1x10

You are not dividing or multiply, hence answer is always 1 however if the base is negative,
the answer is negative 1.

A negative exponent does not necessarily mean the answer is also negative.

Example:

(-4) = -64 4 =1/4 = 1 / 64

10 can also be written as 1 / 10 (negative exp. is to divide)

RULES OF EXPONENTIAL LAWS

EXPONENTS
10 or 1 x 10

10 is the base and 5 is the exponent or power (1 is constant and not necessarily shown)

5 is how many times you multiply 10 to get 100,000

A positive exponent means we are multiplying at the base

Example:

5 =1x5x5x5x5 5 =1x5

A negative exponent means we are dividing at the base

Example:

5 =

PROPERTIES OF LOGS
1. log xy = log x + log y

2. log x / y = log x - log y

3. log x = n log x

4. log 1 = 0
Examples:

1. log 5 x 10

2. log ( 154 / 25 )

3. log ( 5.46 x 10 )

4. log 1 = 0

A USEFUL LOG TABLE

Number Mantissa

1 0

2 0.3

3 0.48

4 0.6

5 0.7

6 0.78

7 0.85

8 0.9

9 0.95

In solving logarithms when decimal point is shifted to the left by "n" places, the number is
to be multiplied by 10 , when the decimal is shifted to the right by "n" places, the number
is to be divided by 10

4,820,000.0 = 4.82 x 10 5 x 10 ( means approximately equal to)

Numbers ending with 0.5 and greater should be rounded up.

0.0000258 = 2.58 x 10 3 x 10
8,400,000,000.0 = 8.4 x 10 8 x 10

If less than 0.5, the decimal should be dropped.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
The first stepp is to arrange the number aas a digit times 10 to a power

log ( 4,820,000.0 ) = log ( 5 x 10 ) = 6.7 = 6.7

log ( 0.0000258 ) = log ( 3 x 10 ) = - log ( 1 / 3 x 10 )

= - log ( 0.33 x 10 ) = - log ( 3 x 10 ) = -4.48

log ( 8,400,000,000.0 ) = log ( 8 x 10 ) = 9.9

Log = exponent

Log X = Y or Y = log X

Where: x > 0 and b > 0 ( values must be positive)

Log 8 = ? (log form) 2 = 8 (exponential form)

Log 8 = 3 2 =8

You need to raise 2, 3 times to get 8. (2 ) = 8

2 becomes the base. 3 is the answer and 3 is the exponent.

Examples:

Log 16 = ?

2 =1/4

Log 100 = ?
Log 7 = x what is x?

Log 27 = ?

3 = 1 / 27

Log 1 / 5 = x what is x?

LOGARITHS MADE EASY

LOGARITHM BASICS (Common Logarithms)

The first step to find the logarithm of a number is to express it as a digit from 1 to 9
multiplied by 10 to a power.

A logarithm usually consists of two parts - the Characteristics, which is the power of 10
and the Mantissa which is the decimal (found in the log tables)

Logarithms are used to simplify the numbers since we deak with huge numbers. Always
remember that log is an exponent. Because logs are exponents, mathematical operations
involving them follow the same rules as those for exponent.

ANTILOGARITHMS ( Inverse Log )

The antilogarithms of a quality, such as antilog ( x ), is the number for which the quantity x
is the logarithm.

Example:

antilog ( 6.7 ) = 5 x 10 = 5 x 10

antilog ( -4.48 ) = -3 x 10 = 1 / 3 x 10 = 0.33 x 10 = 3 x 10

Change in Sound Level (dB) Change in Apparent Loudness

1 Imperceptible ( except for tones )

3 Just barely perceptible

6 Clearly noticeable
 10 About twice (or half) as loud

20 About 4 times (or one-fourth) as loud

The change in intensity level (or noise reduction, abbreviated NR) can be found by:

NR = L - L

and

NR = 10 log I / I

where NR = difference in sound levels between two conditions (dB)

I = sound intensity under one condition ( W / m )

I = sound intensity under another condition ( W / m )

Note: By substitution of the inverse-square law expression from page 11 into the above
formula

NR = 10 log ( d / d )

and therefore, in terms of distance ratio d / d

NR = 20 log ( d / d )

for point sources outdoors, where d's are the distances.

DECIBEL ADDITION

Because decibels are logarithmic values, they cannot be combined by normal algebraic
addition.

L = The total Sound Intensity Level or the sum of the Sound Intensity Levels

L + L + L + L = The sound Intensity Level of each object

L = 10 Log (
Example, when the decibel values of two sources differ by 0 to 1dB, 3dB should be added
to the higher value to find the combined sound level.

Therefore, the sound level of two violins, each playing at 60dB would be 60 + 3, not 60 +
60 = 120dB

A - WEIGHTED SOUND LEVELS

Not all sound pressures are equally loud. This is because the human ear does not
respond equally to all frequencies.

We are most sensitive to sound in the frequency range about 1 kHz to 4 kHz than to very
low ( infrasound - below 20 Hz ) or high frequency sounds ( ultrasound - above 20 kHz )

for this reason, sound meters are usually fitted with filter whose response to frequency is
a bit like that of the human ear.

Using this filter, the sound leel meter is thus less sensitive to very high and low
frequencies.

Measurements made on this scale are expressed at dBA.

HUMAN EAR
The human ear can detect sounds over a wide range of loudness and frequency.

It has the ability to detect indivicual sounds from within a complex background of loud and
unwanted sounds (in a noisy, crowded room called Cocktail Party Effect)

Perception of speech can be nearly impossible at noise levels above 80 dB

HOW SOUND IS RECEIVED BY THE EAR

Ear is divided into 3 parts: Outer, Middle, and inner
Sound energy is first picked up by the outer/external ear (ear lobes or pinna). The ear
lobe is shaped to enhance sound pressure at ear drum and to help determine location of
sound source (catches sound).

Sound waves then pass through the ear canal ( which contains glands to protect ear from
foreign matter). It amplifies sound by resonance, protects and directs sound waves to ear
drum.

Ear drum (tympanic membrane) then vibrates to transfer energy through ear bones to the
cochlea. Ear drum is like a disk

Ear bones (ossicles) are composed of the hammer (malleus), anvil (incus) and stirrup
(stapes)

Eustation tube is a connection to the throat, which provides pressure balance at ear
drum (equalize air pressure)

Cochlea is composed of hair cells of basilar membrane that vibrate to aid in frequency
recognition (filled with liquid)

REVERBERANT FIELD
Indoors, sound energy drops off under free field conditions only near the source (usually <
5ft for small room)

Room surfaces reflect sound, there will be little further noise reduction with distance away
from the source.

Reflections from walls and other objects may be just as strong as the direct sound from
the point of source

The more absorption in a room, the less the build up of sound energy in the reverberant
field

Phon-Loudness leve, unit of loudness for pure tones or a given sound. Unit of loudness

SOUND ABSORBING TREATMENT

When sound impinges or impacts on a surface, part of its energy is
1. Absorbed

2. Transmitted

3. Reflected

Sound levels in a room can be reduced by effective use of sound absorbing treatment,
such as fibrous ceiling boards, curtains and carpets (soft, pliable, porous materials)

Dense, hard, impenetrable materials like metals reflect most sound waves

EFFECT OF ADDING SOUND - ABSORBING

TREATMENT TO ROOMS
The addition of sound absorbing to the ceiling of a small room (<500 sq.ft) can reduce the
reverberant sound levels by 10 dB as shown in the chart for an example noise source

If the celing and all four walls treated with sound absorbing materials, the sound level in
the reverberant field drops an additional 6 dB but the sound levels near the source (in the
free field) are not affected.

A reduction of 6 dB to 8 dB in reverberant noise is more likely the upper limit for furnished
spaces of comparable size.

The study showed that we are most sensitive at 3,000 (3kHz).

The range in which the human ear is most sensitive is from 1 to 5 kHz. This is became the
standard frequency used by phone companies (it takes less energy to hear the
frequency)

Sounds below 20 Hz is called Infrasound. Sound waves 20 kHz is called Ultrasound (bats,
dogs, whales, dolphins)

LOUDNESS PERCEPTION
In the early 1930's Bel Labs decided to research speech intelligibility in order to determine
the leat expensive way of transmitting a phone call. This experiment was done by Harvey
Fletcher and Wilden A. Munson.

The goal was to transmit a phone call with least amount of energy therefore save money.

During the research they discovered how we perceive different frequencies

1kHz tone was used as a reference point and measured the perceived loudness of all
frequencies within the hearing range.

Subjects or volunteers were subjected to a 1 kHz sound at 60 dB. This is a loudness of 60

phon. Sounds with different frequencies were then played. The volunteers adjusted the
decibel level until it was perceived to have the same loudness as it had at 1 kHz. The
average result from the subjects were taken and plotted in curves at 13 reference levels of
1 kHz, 10 dB apart from 0 to 2 dB. This chart became known as the Fletcher - Munson
Curve or the Equal - Loudness Curve/Contour.

The new curve was revised and given the designation ISO-2262003

Under free - field conditions, sound energy from point sources spreads spherically and
drops off 6 dB for each doubling of distance from the source.

Line sources of vehicular traffic consists of successive point sources which reinforce each
other. Sound energy from line sources cylindrically not spherically and drops off only 3 dB
for each doubling distance.

Sound spreads out from the source as a wavefront in a direction perpendicular to the
line source

Long term and repeated exposure to loud sounds can cause permanent damage to the
inner ear (commonly called nerve deafness).

When it is necessary to shout to be heard by normal - hearing persons less than 3ft away,
the noise may be hazardous to ears.

In this situation, wear hearing protection devices such as earplugs, earmuffs or both when
noise levels exceed about 100 dBA
NOISE REDUCTION OUTDOORS AND WITHIN
ENCLOSURES
Free Field

- Free Field conditions occur when sound waves are free from the influence of reflective
surfaces (open areas, outdoors, anechoic rooms)

- Anechoic rooms - have sound absorbing wedges on all six enclosing surfaces to
stimulate the free field condition. These extremely "dead" rooms allow indoor study of and
research on direct sound without room reflection effects.

SOUND ABSORPTION COEFFECIENT

Sound Absorption Coeffecient (SAC) - How much sound energy is reflected or absorbed
by a material.

It is expressed as a value between 1.0 perfect absorption (no reflection) and 0, zero
absorption (total reflection)

Coeffecients are derived from lab tests or estimated from measurements in finished
rooms.

The effectiveness of a sound absorbing material can be expressed by its absorption

coeffecient a (alpha)

1 sq.ft of perfect absorption is equivalent to 1 Sabin (Imperial Unit)

1 sq.m of perfect absorption is equivalent to 1 Sabin (Metric Unit)

Materials with medium to high sound absorption coeffecients (usually > 0.50) are referred
to as sound - absorbing. Those with low coeffecient (usually < 0.20) are sound reflecting

Difference in Coeffecient Effect for Most Situations

 < 0.10 Little (usually not noticeable)

0.10 to 0.40 Noticeable

> 0.40 Considerable

Reverberation rooms are used to measure the absorption effeciency of building materials
(under provisions of ASTM Test Method C423), sound power levels of noise - producing
equipment (ANSI S1.21. ASHRAE 36) and can be the source or receiving room for sound
transmission loss TL Tests (ASTM E 90) and impact noise test (ASTM E 492)

To measure sound absorption, a large example of the materials is placed in the

reverberation room

ASTM - American Society for Testing Materials

ANSI - American National Standards Institute

ASHRAE - American Soceity of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers

EFFECT OF THICKNESS ON ABSORPTION

EFFICIENCY
The amount of absorptio that can be achieved is determined by the physical properties of
thickness, density and porosity for most porous materials and fiber diameter and
orientation for fibrous materials.

Manufacturers try to optimize these properties to achieve high sound absorption

efficiencies

Fibrous sound absorbers are sometimes referred to as "Fuzz"

As shown in the chart, thickness has a significant effect on the efficiency of a porous
sound absorber

A simple test to determine if a porous material can be an effective sound absorber is to

blow through it. If the material is thick and passes air under moderate pressure, it should
be a good absorber
RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF SOUND ABSORBERS
Basic types of sound absorbers are

1. Porous Materials

2. Vibrating Panels or Panel Absorbers

3. Volume Resonators (called Helmholtz Resonators)

Porous sound absorbers (thick materials or thin materials with aispace behind) should be
placed at location of maximum compression for impinging sound waves.

Combination of porous materials and vibrating panels or volume resonators can provide
the uniform or "flat" sound absorption with frequency required in recording or radio/TV
studios

Porous Absorbers
Common porous absorbers include carpets, draperies, spray applied cellulose,
aerated plaster, fibrous mineral wool and glass fibers, open cell foam and cast
porous celling tiles

Generally all of these materials allow air to flow into a cellular structure where
sound energy is converted into heat

Porous absorbers are the most commonly used sound absorbing materials

Thicker materials generally show greater damping

Damping refers to the capacity of the materials to dissipate energy

Sealing the surface with paint films greatly reduces the absorption

Thin Porous Materials

(Convert sound energy into heat by friction)

REVERBERATION ROOM
Reverberation

- is a persistence of sound in a particular space after the original sound is produced

- is created when a sound is produced in an enclosed space causing a large number of

echoes to build up and then slowly decay as the sound is absorbed by the walls and air

- if so many reflections then arrive at a listener that they are unable to distinguish between
them, then it is a reverberation

Reverberation rooms are fairly large ( > 10,000 cu.ft or 283 cu.m )

All interior boundary surfaces are highly sound reflecting ( a < 0.05 at 125 to 4,000 Hz )

Walls normally painted concrete block, metal panels or concrete

To provide isolation from exterior noises, enclosing constructions usually consist of

double ot triple layers ( example : walls, floated floors ) and must be completely isolated
from the rest of the building

The total room absorption for a space can be found by:

a=

Where:

a or A = total room absorpion (Sabins)

S = surface area (feet square)

a = sound absorption coefficient at given frequency (decimal percent)

To find metric Sabins, divide A by 10.76

It is the sum of all the surface areas in the room multiplied by their respective absorption
coefficients

Absorption coefficients for building materials normally vary from about 0.01 to 0.99.
However, acoustical testing lab sometimes report coefficients which exceed perfect
absorption of 1.0

Panel Absorbers (Vibrating Panels)

 Typically non-rigid, non-porous materials which are placed over an airspace that
vibrates in a flexural mode in response to sound pressure excerted by adjacent air
molecules.

Common panel (membrane) absorbers include thin wood panelling over framing,
light weight impervious ceilings and floors, glazing and other large surfaces
capable of resonating in response to sound

Panel absorbers are usually most efficient at absorbing low frequencies

Sound Baffle - Any object designed to reduce airborne sound

Parallel

Honeycomb

Egg Crate

Resonators (Volume Resonators)

Typically tend to absorb sound in narrow frequency range - resonators include

some perforated materials and materials that have opening holes and slots)

Classic example of resonator is the helmholtz resonator, shaped of a bottle

Typically perforated materials only absorb the mid frequency range

Slots usually have a similar acoustic response. Long narrow slots can be used to
absorb low frequency

Volume Resonators (Reduce sound energy by friction at opening and by interreflections

within cavity)

AREA EFFECT FOR SPACED SOUND ABSORBERS

The efficiency of a sound absorbing material can be affected by its distribution and
location in a room

Acoustical materials spaced apart can have greater absorption than same amount
of material butted together
 The increase in efficiency is due to absorption by soft exposed edges and also to
diffraction of sound energy around panel perimeters

This kind of surface treatment also can be used to achieve a diffuse sound field,
which is desired in music practice rooms.

Checkboard Pattern and Uniform Coverage

Materials:

Shredded-Wood Formboard

Glass-Fiber Blankets and Boards

Vibrating Panels (Convert sound energy into vibrational energy which is dissipated by
internal damping and radiation)

Mounting A, B, D, and E apply most to prefabricated products

F to sound absorbing mechanical air duct linings

C is used for specialized applications

Sample as evaluated by the ASTM C 423 lab test are isntalled on the floor of the
Reverberation room. Therefore illustrations for mountings A to F appear to upside
down for ceiling applications.

SUSPENDED SOUND - ABSORBING PANELS AND

UNITS
Suspended sound absorbing panels are also called "Baffles" or "Sound Baffles"

These are commercially available for installation in a spaced regular pattern

When these panels or baffles are installed with all edges and sides exposed, they
can provide extremely high absorption per square foot of material because at least
6 surfaces will be exposed to sound waves

Absorption data for spaced units are normally presented in terms of Sabins per unit
 at the recommended spacing

Note that the total absorption from suspended units is limited by the quantity that
can be installed at the recommended spacings

Suspended spaced absorbers can be used where uniform or continuous

application of conventional sound absorbing materials is not feasible. (example:
industrial plants with extremely high ceilings)

Baffles or suspended flat-panel and spaced sound absorbing units should be well
braced to prevent motion from air circulation in rooms.

PREFABRICATED SOUND-ABSORBING MATERIALS

Generic examples of the numbers commercially available prefabricated sound absorbing
materials

Most sound absorbing tiles and panels are not sufficiently durable for wall application. For
walls, use fibrous materials with protective open facing (perforated or expanded metal,
perforated hardboard, metal slats), fabric-covered panels or shredded-wood formboard

Use membrane - faced or ceramic tile materials for humid enivoronments such as
swimming pools, locker rooms and kitchens

Observe manufacturer's recommendations for cleaning and painting of porous sound

absrbing materials. Lightly tint or stain, rather than paint sound absorbing materials,
because paintings can seriously diminish the sound efficiency by clogging the openings.
For many situations, spray applications can achieve a thinner coating than brushes or
rollers.

APPLICATION FOR SOUND-ABSORBING

1. Reverberation Control

Sound absorbing materials can be used to control reverberation so speech will not
be garbled

The larger the room volume, the longer the reverberation time because sound
waves will encounter room surfces less often than in small rooms

Each doubling of the total amount of a absorption in a room reduces the

 reverberation time by one half

Sound absorption can make the sound seem to come directly from the actual
source rather than from everywhere in the room.

2. Noise Reduction in Rooms

When correctly used, sound absorbing materials can be effective in controlling

noise build up within a room

However they have a limited application for noise control and are not the panacea
for all noise problems.

3. Echo Control

Sound absorbing materials can be used to control echoes

Echoes are long delayed, distinct reflections of sufficient sound level to be a clearly
heard above the general reverberation as a repetition of the original sound

Echo is reflection of sound, arriving at the listener some time after the direct sound

Echo (Greek) - Sound

A true echo is a single reflection of the sound source

If too many reflections and there is a build up of echoes - it is a reverberation

Flutter echo which can be heard as a "rattle" or "clicking" from a hand clap may be
present in a small rooms (narrow spaces with parallel walls)

Creep Echo - useless sound reflections concentrated near and along smooth
concave surfaces

Flutter Echo - a rapid succession of echoes caused by reflection of sound back and forth
between two parallel walls

If the volume is measured in cubic feet and area in square feet, thn the experimentally
obtained value of the constant of proportionality, according to Sabine is 0.05, Then,

T= 0.05V / EaA

If there are different absorbing surfaces of area A1,A2,A3,A4, etc., having absorption
coefficients a1,a2,a3,a4 etc., then,

T = 0.05/ a1A1+a2A2+a3A3+a4A4+...

If the area is measured in square meters and the volume in cubic meters, then Sabine's
formula can be written as:

T = 0.16V / EaA

Increasing the effective aea of complete absorption like, changing the wall materials or
adding more furniture may decrease an excessive reverberation time for a hall.

This also decreases the intensity of a steady tone.

Too much absorption will make the reverberation time too short and cause the room to
sound acoustically 'dead'.

The optimum reverberation time is a compromise between clarity of sound and its
intensity.

The Sabine formula is generally used by testing lab to compute absorption

coefficients and its appropriate for use in most architectural works.

It is reasonably accurate when sound field conditions are diffuse (sound

absorption uniformly distributed) ad room dimensions do not vary widely (compact
rooms without one extremely long dimensions), rooms without deep side pockets
or transepts.

It should not be used for recording studios or anechoic chambers which have
extremely high ratios of absorption to room volume.

Works well for medium sized auditoriums

Sabine Formula neglects air absorption which can be significant for large
auditoriums.
REVERBERATION TIME
Reverberation time is defined as the time required for the sound pressure to drop by 60
dB upon termination.

Prof. Wallace C. Sabine (1869-1919) of Harvard Universiy investigated architectural

acoustics scientifically, particularly with reference to reverberation time. He deducted
experimentally that the reverberation time is

1. Directly proportional to the volume of the hall (the bigger the volume the longer the
reverberation)

2. Inversely proportional to the effective absorbing surface area of the walls and the
materials inside the hall