597 - Semiconductor in Equilibrium&Pn Junction1

SemiconductorinEquilibrium RajanikantaParida/ITER/
Phy/SemiconductorDevices
PHYSICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICES
TOPIC : SEMICONDUCTOR IN EQUILIBRIUM
Density of States function, g(E)

Fermi-Dirac Distribution function, f(E)
Distribution Function and Fermi Energy
Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes
n0 and p0 Equation
Intrinsic carrier concentration
Fermi level for Intrinsic Semiconductor
Extrinsic Semiconductor
Position of the Fermi Level of the Extrinsic Semiconductor
Non-Degenerated Semiconductor
Variation of EF with Doping Concentration and with Temperature
Compensated Semiconductor
Statistics of donors and acceptors
Formula to remember
Question Bank
Solved problems
Assignment
R.K. Parida
Faculty, Department of Physics,
Page 1 of 65
Institute of Technical Education & Research

DensityofStatesFunctiong(E)
The conduction in the crystal depends on the number of charge carriers. The number of charge carrier that
contributestotheconductionprocessisthefunctionofthenumberofavailableenergyorquantumstates.
Thedensityoftheseallowedenergystateiscalledthedensityofstatefunction.Thishelpstocalculatethehole
andelectronconcentration.
4(2m)3/2
Itisgivenby g(E) = E g(E)=numberofquantumstatesperunitvolumeperunitenergy
h3
Densityofallowedelectronicenergystatesintheconductionbandis
4(2m*n )3/2
g c (E) = E-E c
h3
As the energy of the electron in the conduction band decreases, the number of available quantum states also
decreases.
Similarly,densityofallowedquantumstateinthevalencebandis
4(2m*p )3/2
g v (E) = E v -E
h3
It is important to note that quantum states do not exist within the forbidden
energyband.
So g(E)=0 forEv<E<Ec
The density of energy states in the conduction band and valence band as a
functionofenergyisshowninthefigure.
FermiDiracProbabilityFunction:
Inthecrystal,theelectricalbehaviourwillbedeterminedbystatisticalbehaviourofalargenumberofelectrons.
ElectronsinthecrystalobeyFermiDiracprobabilityfunctionwheretheparticlesaredistinguishablebutonlyone
particleispermittedineachquantumstate.Theparticlesareassumedtobenoninteracting.
fF(E) =FermiDiracdistributionfunction =FermiDiracprobabilityfunction

=ProbabilitythataquantumstateattheenergyEwillbeoccupiedbyanelectron.
Filled quantum state
=
Total quantum state
FermiDiracdistributionfF(E)isgivenby 1 Where EF=Fermienergy
f F (E ) =
E -E F
1 + ex p
k T
Boltzmannapproximation
If (EEF)>>kT Then
E-E F >>1
kT
E-E F
exp >>1 Then 1
kT f F (E ) =
(E -E F
)
exp
kT
Page 2 of 65
f F (E) = exp
- (E-E F )

ThisbecomeBoltzmannapproximation
kT
Distribution function and Fermi Energy
Weknowthat 1
f F (E ) =
E -E F
1 + ex p
kT
1. LetT=0Kand if E<EF
E-E F
Then exp = exp ( - ) = 0
kT
So fF(E)=1
ThustheentireelectronhaveenergybelowtheFermienergyatT=0Kintheirlowestpossibleenergystates.
2. LetT=0Kand if E>EF
Then exp
E-E F
= exp ( + ) =
kT
So fF(E)=0 FF(E)
ThusnoelectronhaveenergyabovetheFermienergyatT=0K
1.0
AplotfortheFermiprobabilityfunctionversusenergyatT=0K
3. LetT>0Kand if E=EF
EF E
Then exp E-E
= exp ( 0 ) = 1
F
kT
1 1
So f F (E) = ThustheprobabilityofastatebeingoccupiedatE=EFis
2 2

FermiDiracprobabilityfunctionvarieswith
temperatureandisshowninthefigureatdifferent
4
temperature.

5 AplotfortheFermiDiracprobabilityfunctionand
theMaxwellBoltzmannapproximationisshownin
thefigure.

Page 3 of 65
EquilibriumDistributionofElectronsandHoles
InanintrinsicsemiconductoratT=0K,alltheenergystateintheconductionbandisemptywithelectronsandall
theenergystateinthevalencebandisfilledwithelectrons.
However,asthetemperaturestartstoincrease,thevalenceelectronwillgainthermalenergy.Someelectronsin
thevalencebandmaygainsufficientenergyandjumptotheconductionband.Thiscreatesanemptyspace(called
theholes)inthevalencebandcorrespondingtoeachelectronjumpingfromvalencebandtotheconductionband.
Thusinanintrinsicsemiconductorthenumberofelectronsintheconductionbandisequaltothenumberofholes
inthevalenceband.
Ifn(E)isthedistributionofelectronsintheconductionbandwithrespecttoenergy,thenitisgivenby
n(E) = g c (E) . f F (E)

Where g c (E) = density of allowed quantum states in the conduction band

and f F (E) = Fermi - Dirac probability function i.e the probability

of a quantum state being occupied by an electron
Similarly,thedistributionofholep(E)inthevalencebandwithrespect
toenergyisgivenby
p(E) = g v (E) . [ 1 - f F (E) ]
W here g v (E) = density of allow ed quantum

states in the valence band
and [1 - f F (E)] = Probability that a quantum state

is not occupied by an electron
Graphicalrepresentationof n(E) , p(E) , g c (E) , g v (E) , f F (E)

areshownintheadjoininggraph.
Calculationofthermalequilibriumconcentrationofelectrons(n0)
n0isthethermalequilibriumconcentrationofelectron.Wecanfinditoutbyintegratingthedistribution
ofelectron,n(E),intheconductionband
Weknowthat n(E)=g c (E) . f F (E)
Page 4 of 65


Now, n0 =
Ec
n(E) dE n0 =
Ec
g(E) f F (E) dE
Where E c =minimumamountofenergycorrespondingtoconductionband

4(2m*n )3 2 1
=> n0 = h3
E-E c
E-E F
dE (1)
Ec 1+exp
kT
If ( E c -E F ) >> kT
Then ( E-E F ) >> kT (Forconductionbandelectron,wehaveE> E c )

ThenFermiDiracdistributionreducestoBoltzmannapproximation,i.e.
1 1 - ( E-E F )
fF ( E ) = = exp
(2)
E-E F E-E F kT
1 + exp exp
kT kT
Puttingequation(2)inequation(1)weget

4(2m*n )3 2 -(E-E F )
n0 =
Ec h3
E-E c exp
kT
dE (3)
Equation(3)canbesolvedbysubstitutingthefollowing
E - Ec
Let = (4)
kT
dE
Then d = dE = kTd (5)
kT
Again as E E c , then 0 (6)
Andas E , then
E - Ec
Againfromeqn(4)wehave, =
kT
E - E c = 1 2
kT1 2 (7)
Puttingtheabovevaluesineqn(3)weget

4(2m*n )3 2 1 2 -( E- E F )
n0 = 0
h 3
(kT)1 2 exp
kT
kT d

4(2m*n )3 2 1 2 -(E- E c ) - (E c - E F )
n0 = 0
h 3
(kT)3 2 exp
kT
d

4(2m*n )3 2 1 2 - (E c - E F )
n0 =
0
h 3
(kT)3 2 exp (- )exp
KT
d

Page 5 of 65

4(2m*n kT )3 2 - (E c - E F )
n0 = e d
1 2 -
3
exp
h kT 0
4(2m*n kT )3 2 - (E c - E F ) 1
n0 = 3
exp 2 ( integral is a gama function )
h kT
32
2m*n kT - (E c - E F )
n0 = 2 2 exp
h kT
- (E c - E F )
n 0 = N c exp (8)
kT
32
2 m*n kT
Where, N c = 2 2 iscalledtheeffectivedensityofstatesintheconductionband.
h
If m n = m 0 = 9.1 10 kg and T = 300 K ( say )
* -31
Then Nc=2.5x1019cm3
Similarlywecangetthermalequilibriumconcentrationofholesinthevalenceband(p0)
- (E F - E v ) (9)
p0 = N v exp
kT
32
2 m*p kT
Where, N v = 2 iscalledtheeffectivedensityofstatesintheValenceband.
h 2

TheorderofNvisalso1019cm3
TheeffectivedensityofstatefunctionsNcandNvareconstantforagivensemiconductormaterialatafixed
temperature.
Fromeqn(8)and(9)itisclearthatn0andp0dependson:
Effectivedensityofstatesfunction
Fermienergylevel
Intrinsiccarrierconcentration
Forintrinsicsemiconductor,wehave,
n 0 = p 0 = n i ( say )
and E F = E Fi = intrinsic fermi energy
n 0 = n i = N c exp
Weknowthat
- (E c - E Fi ) (1)

kT
- (E Fi - E v )
and p 0 = n i = N v exp (2)
kT
- (E c - E Fi ) - (E Fi - E v )
So, n 0 p 0 = n 2i = N c N v exp exp
kT kT
- (E - E v
)
n 0 p 0 = n 2i = N c N v exp c

kT
Page 6 of 65
-E
n 0 p 0 = n 2i = N c N v exp g (3)
kT

Where, (E c - E v ) = E g = Bandgap Energy
ni is strong function of temperature. At a constant temperature, the value of ni for a semiconductor material is
constantandisindependentoftheFermienergy.
ni=1.5x1010cm3
Silicon at T = 300 K
Eg=1.12eV
FermilevelforIntrinsicSemiconductor
Weknowthatthethermalequilibriumconcentrationofelectronsandholesare:
- (E c - E Fi )
n 0 = N c exp (1)
kT
- (E Fi - E v)
and p 0 = N v exp (2)
kT
Where E Fi = intrinsic fermi energy
Butweknowthatatthermalequilibriumforintrinsicsemiconductor,wehave,
n 0 = p0
- (E c - E Fi ) = N v exp
- (E Fi - E v )
N c exp
kT kT
Takingnaturallogarithmonbothsidesweget
- (E c - E Fi ) - (E Fi - E v )
lnN c + = lnN v +
kT kT
kT lnNc - Ec + E Fi = kT lnNv - EFi + E v
Nv
2E Fi = (E c +E v ) + kT ln
Nc
1 1 N
E Fi = (E c +E v ) + kT ln v
2 2 Nc
3
1 m*p 2
E Fi = E midband energy + kT ln *
2 m
n
3 m*
E Fi = E midband energy + kT ln *p (3)
4 m
n
Fromequation(3)followingthingsareobtained
1 If mp = mn Then, E Fi = E midgap

ThusFermiEnergylevelisexactlyatthecenterofthebandgap.
2 If mp > mn
ThenFermiEnergylevelEFiisslightlyabovethecenterofthebandgap.
3 If mp < mn
ThenFermiEnergylevelEFiisslightlybelowthecenterofthebandgap.
Page 7 of 65
4 WeknowthatNcandNvdependson mn and mp
We have seen from the above that the intrinsic Fermi energy level shifts away from the band
withlargerdensityofstates.Thisisduetomaintainequalnumberofelectronandholes.
Extrinsic Semiconductor
ntypesemiconductor
1. Intrinsic+pentavalent=ntype
2. Electronsarethemajoritychargecarrier
3. Holesaretheminoritychargecarrier
4. n 0 > p0
5. n 0 > n i and p 0 < n i
6. E F > E Fi
ptypesemiconductor
1 Intrinsic+trivalent=ptype
2 Holesarethemajoritychargecarrier
3 Electronsaretheminoritychargecarrier
4 p 0 > n0
5 p 0 > n i and n 0 < n i
6 E Fi > E F
PositionoftheFermilevelofExtrinsicSemiconductor
Weknowthat
- (E c - E F )
n 0 = N c exp (1)
kT
Takinglogarithmonboththesidesweget
- (E c - E F ) (E c - E F )
lnn 0 = lnN c + = lnN c - ln(n 0 )
kT kT
N
E c - E F = kT ln c (2)
n0
Inntypesemiconductorwehave,
Nd > ni and n 0 N d
Thus N
E c - E F = kT ln c (3)
Nd
Equation(3)representstheinformationregardingEFforntypesemiconductorwithrespecttoEC.ItisclearthatEFliesbelowEC.
Similarly,inptypesemiconductorwehave,
Page 8 of 65
N
E F - E v = kT ln v (4)
Na
Equation(4)representstheinformationregardingEFforptypesemiconductorwithrespecttoEv.ItisclearthatEF
liesaboveEv.
FermiEnergyLevelofExtrinsicSemiconductorw.r.tEFi:
Weknowthat
- (E c - E F )
n 0 = N c exp
kT
- (E c - E Fi ) + (E F -E Fi )
n 0 = N c exp
kT
- (E c - E Fi ) (E F -E Fi )
n 0 = N c exp .exp
kT kT
(E - E )
n 0 = n i exp F Fi (5)
kT
n
E F - E Fi = kT ln o (6)
ni
Equation(6)representstheinformationregardingEFforntypesemiconductorwithrespecttoEFi.ItisclearthatEF
liesaboveEFi.
Similarly,forholesconcentrationwehave
- (E F -E Fi )
p 0 = n i exp (7)
kT
p
E Fi - E F = kT ln o (8)
ni
Equation(8)representstheinformationregardingEFforptypesemiconductorwithrespecttoEFi.ItisclearthatEF
liesbelowEFi.
Fromequations(6)&(8)wehave
If E F > E Fi If E F < E Fi
then n 0 > n i from eqn. (6) then n 0 < n i from eqn. (6)
and p0 < n i from eqn. (8)
and p0 > n i from eqn. (8)
thus n 0 > p 0 This is n-type semiconductor
thus p 0 > n 0 This is p-type semiconductor
NonDegeneratedSemiconductor
Inextrinsicsemiconductornumberofimpurityatomaddedissmallcomparedtothesemiconductoratom.
Smallnumberofimpurityatomsarespreadfarenoughapartsothatthereisnointeractionbetweendonor
electrons(incaseofntype)
Duetothepresenceofimpurityadiscrete,noninteractingdonorenergystatesinntypesemiconductoris
create.Similarlyadiscretenoninteractingaccepterenergystateiscreatedinptypesemiconductor.
Thesetypesofsemiconductorarereferredasnondegeneratedsemiconductor.

Page 9 of 65
SemiconducctorinE
Equilibriium RajanikantaP
R
P
Phy/Semicon
Parida/ITER
R/
nductorDeviices

NtypeSemiconducttor PtypeSSemiconducto
or

DegeneratedSemico
onductor
Whenconccentrationofimpurityatomincreasesthen
n
Disttancebetweentheimpurityaatomdecreasees
Therewillbeanin
nteractionbetw
weenthecharggecarriers(forexampledon
norelectronsin
nntype)
Singglediscretedonorenergylevvel(forntype))andsingledisscreteacceptorenergylevel(forptype)wiillsplit
into
oabandofeneergies.
Donnorstateswide
ensandmayo
overlapthebotttomoftheco
onductionband
d.Acceptorstaatemayoverlaapthe
topofthevalance
eband.
In ntype
n semicon
nductor when concentration n of electrons in the conducction band excceeds the denssity of
statesNcthenEFw
willliewithinth
heconductionband.
Inp
ptypesemicon nductorwhencconcentration ofholesinthevalenceband
dexceedsthe densityofstaatesNv
thennEFwillliewithinthevalenceeband.
owEFaremostlyfilledwithelectronsandenergystateab
Energystatesbelo boveEFaremostlyempty.
In degenerated
d ntype semicon nductor, the sttates between
n EF and Ec are mostly filled
d with electrons. So
elecctronconcentrationisverylaarge
In degenerated
d ptype semico ween Ev and EF are mostly empty. So
onductor, thee states betw o hole
conccentrationisverylarge

Variation
nofEFwithDopingConcentration
Weknowtthat
N
E c - E F = kT ln c
Nd
AsNdincreeases, (E c - E F ) decreases.TThusEFshiftstowardsthe
conduction
nbandforntyypesemicondu
uctor.
Similarly, EF shifts tow

wards the vaalence band for ptype
semicondu uctorasaccepttorimpurityco
oncentrationin
ncreases.
Page 10 of 65
IngeneralasdopinglevelincreasestheFermilevelshiftstowardsthatband.
ThevariationofFermienergywiththevariationofdopingconcentrationisshowninthefigure.
VariationofEFwithTemperature
Weknowthat,forntypesemiconductorthepositionoftheFermilevelisgivenby
N no
E c - E F = kT ln c and E F - E Fi = kT ln
Nd ni
* As the temperature increases, then Nc increases
and (E c - E F ) increases. Thus EF moves away
fromtheconductionband.
* Asthetemperatureincreases,thenniincreasesand
EFmovesclosertointrinsicFermilevel.
* At higher temperature, semiconductor material
loses its extrinsic characteristics and begins to
behavemorelikeanintrinsicsemiconductor.
* At low temperature Fermi level goes above Ed for
ntypematerialandbelowEaforptypematerial.
* AtT=0K,AllenergystatesbelowEFarefullandall
energystatesaboveEFareempty.
ThevariationofFermienergywiththevariationoftemperatureisshowninthefigure.
CompensatedSemiconductor
Whenasemiconductorcontainsbothdonorandacceptorimpuritiesatomthenitcalledacompensated
semiconductor.
If Nd>Na thenitiscalledntypecompensatedsemiconductorwehave
If Na>Nd thenitiscalledptypecompensatedsemiconductorwehave
If Na=Nd,thenitisacompletelycompensatedsemiconductor.Itwillshowthecharacteristicsofintrinsic
semiconductor.
StatisticsofDonorsandAcceptors
Due to the presence of donor electrons, a donor level is created just below the conduction band. The energy
corresponds to the donor level is Ed. When donor electrons receive energy it jump to the conduction band and
becomeionized.Theseelectronsaretreatedasfreeelectrons.Thecorrespondingamountofenergyiscalledthe
ionizationenergy.
Thus, ionizationenergy=EdEc
Where, Ec=Minimumamountofenergycorrespondstoconductionband
Ed=Energycorrespondstothedonorlevel
Thedensityoftheelectronsoccupyingthedonorlevel(nd)isgivenby
n d = N d - N d+
Nd=Concentrationofthedonoratomsordonorelectrons
Page 11 of 65
Nd+ =Concentrationoftheionizeddonors(i.ethenumberofelectronjumpedtotheconductionband.
Nd
Again, n d = (1)
1 E - EF
1 + exp d
2 kT
If ( E d - E F ) >> kT ,theneqn.(1)become
Nd ( Ed - EF )
nd = 2 N d exp (2)
1 E - EF kT
exp d
2 kT
If ( E d - E F ) >> kT , thenalsoBoltzmannapproximationvalid.Sowecanwrite
( Ec - EF )
n 0 = N c exp (3)
kT
nd
Now representsrelativenumberofelectronsinthedonorstatecomparedwiththetotalnumberofelectrons
nd + n0
( Ed - EF )
2N d exp
So, nd kT
=
nd + n0 ( Ed - EF ) ( Ec - EF )
2N d exp + Nc exp
kT kT
nd 1
= (4)
nd + n0 Nc ( Ec - Ed )
1+ exp
2N d kT
Where ( E c - E d ) =Ionizationenergyofthedonorelectrons
Case:IFreezeout
Atabsolutezero(T=0K),allthedonorelectronsareintheirlowestpossibleenergystatei.eallthedonorstate
mustcontainanelectrons.Noelectronfromthedonorstateisthermallyelevatedintotheconductionband.This
effectiscalledfreezeout.
Thusatfreezeoutwehave n d = Nd , and Nd+ = 0

Puttingthisconditionineqn.(1)weget
Nd Nd
nd = Nd =
1 E - EF 1 Ed - EF
1 + exp d 1 + exp
2 kT 2 kT
1 E - EF E - EF

2
exp d = 0 exp d = 0 = exp ( - )
kT kT
( Ed - E F ) = ve

EF > Ed
Thus the Fermi energy level must be above the donor energy level at absolute zero. In case of ptype
semiconductor at absolute zero temperature, the impurity atom will
not contain any electron, so Fermi energy level must be below the
acceptorenergystate,sothattheFermienergylevelmustbebelow
theacceptorenergystate.
Page 12 of 65
Case:IICompleteionization
Atroomtemperature,alltheelectronsfromthedonorlevelarethermallyelevatedtotheconductionbandforn
typesemiconductorandbecomeionized.Thisiscalledcompleteionization.
Soforcompleteionizationwehave
n d = N d - N d+ =0
Nd = N +
d
Donor Impurity concentration = Ionized Donor Impurity
Forptypesemiconductoracceptoratomhasacceptedanelectronfrom
the valence band. So a hole is created at the valence band for each
acceptorimpurityatom.Soforcompleteionizationwehave
p a = N a - N -a =0 Na = N -a
Acceptor Impurity concentration = Ionized Acceptor Impurity
Wherepaisthedensityoftheholesoccupyingtheacceptorlevelandisgivenby
Na
pd = = N a - N -a
1 E - E a
1+ exp F
4 kT
Now
p a representsrelativenumberofholesintheacceptorstatecomparedwiththetotalnumberofholes
pa + p0
pa 1
=
pa + p0 N ( Ea - Ev )
1 + v exp
4Na kT
EquilibriumElectronandHoleconcentrationusingchargeneutrality
Due to the presence of donor electrons, a donor level is created just below the conduction band. The energy
corresponds to the donor level is Ed. When donor electrons receive energy it jump to the conduction band and
becomeionized.Theseelectronsaretreatedasfreeelectrons.Thecorrespondingamountofenergyiscalledthe
ionizationenergy.
Thus, ionizationenergy=EdEc
Where, Ec=Minimumamountofenergycorrespondstoconductionband
Ed=Energycorrespondstothedonorlevel
Thedensityoftheelectronsoccupyingthedonorlevel(nd)isgivenby
n d = N d - N d+
Nd=Concentrationofthedonoratomsordonorelectrons
+
N d =Concentrationoftheionizeddonors(i.ethenumberofelectronjumpedtotheconductionband.
Forptypesemiconductortheoccupiestheacceptorlevelwhichisjustabovethevalenceband.Theacceptoratom
has accepted an electron from the valence band. So a hole is created at the valence band for each acceptor
impurityatomandwesaythatholesareionized( N -a )
Page 13 of 65
So, p a = N a - N -a
pa=densityoftheholesintheaccepterlevel
Na=Concentrationoftheimpurityacceptoratoms
-
N a =Concentrationoftheionizedacceptors
Fromthechargeneutralityconditionwehave
Densityofnegativecharges=Densityofpositivecharges
- +

n 0 + N a = p 0 + N d n 0 + (N a - p a ) = p 0 + (N d - n d )
n0 + Na = p0 + Nd
(Duringcompleteionization)
n i2 n i2
n0 + Na = + Nd (Q p0 = )
n0 n0
n 02 - (N d - N a ) n 0 - n i2 = 0

Thisisaquadraticequationofn0.Thesolutionisgivenby
(N d - N a ) (N d - N a ) 2 4 n i2
n0 =
2
Negativesignisnotacceptable.
2
(N d - N a ) Nd - Na 2
So, n0 = - + ni
2 2
Similarlyforp0,wehave
2
(N a - N d ) Na - Nd 2
p0 = - + ni
2 2
Page 14 of 65
Formulatoremember
4(2m*n )3/2
1. g c (E) = E-E c
h3
g c (E) = Densityofallowedelectronicenergystatesintheconductionband
4(2m*p )3/2
2. g v (E) = E v -E
h3
g v (E) = Densityofallowedquantumstateinthevalenceband
3. 1
f F (E) =
E-E F
1 + exp
kT
fF(E) =FermiDiracdistributionfunction =FermiDiracprobabilityfunction
=ProbabilitythataquantumstateattheenergyEwillbeoccupiedbyanelectron.

Filled quantum state

=
Total quantum state

Where, EF =Fermienergy
4. Probabilitythatastateisbeingemptyofelectronisgivenby
1 1
1 f F (E) = 1 =
E-E F EF - E
1+exp 1+exp
kT kT
5. If (EEF)>>kT
Then 1 - (E-E F ) ThisbecomeBoltzmannapproximation
f F (E) = = exp
(E-E F )
exp kT
kT
6. If n(E) isthedistributionofelectronswithrespecttoenergyintheconductionbandthen
n(E) = g c (E) . f F (E)


7. If p(E) isthedistributionofholeswithrespecttoenergyinthevalancebandthen
p(E) = g v (E) . [ 1 - f F (E) ]
Page 15 of 65
Where g v (E) = density of allowed quantum states in the valence band
and [1 - f F (E) ] = Probability that a quantum state is not occupied by an electron
8. ConcentrationofelectronsintheconductionbandbyassumingBoltzmannapproximationisgivenby
32
- (E c - E F ) 2 m*n kT
n 0 = N c exp Where, N c = 2
kT h2
=effectivedensityofstatesintheconductionband.
9. ConcentrationofholesinthevalencebandbyassumingBoltzmannapproximationisgivenby

- (E F - E v )
p0 = N v exp
kT
32
2 m*p k T
Where, N v = 2 iscalledtheeffectivedensityofstatesintheValenceband.
h2

10. Intrinsiccarrierconcentrationisgivenby
- Eg
n 0 p 0 = n 2 = N c N v exp Where, (E c - E v ) = E g = Bandgap Energy
kT
i
ni=1.5x1010cm3
Silicon at T = 300 K
Eg =1.12eV
11. Positionoftheintrinsicfermilevelwithrespectthecenterofthebandgapisgivenby
3 m*p
E Fi = E midband energy + kT ln *
4 m
n
mn = effective mass of the electron mp = effective mass of the holes
Where E Fi = intrinsic fermi energy
12. Positionofthefermilevelinthentypesemiconductorintermsof N c and n 0 isgivenby
N
E c - E F = kT ln c
n0
13. Positionofthefermilevelinthentypesemiconductorintermsof N d and N c isgivenby
N Since, in n-type semiconductor we have,

E c - E F = kT ln c N > n
Nd d i and n 0 Nd

14. Positionofthefermilevelintheptypesemiconductorintermsof N a and N v isgivenby
N
E F - E v = kT ln v
Na
15. Concentrationofelectronsintheconductionbandintermsof n i isgivenby
(E -E )
n 0 = n i exp F Fi
kT
16. Concentrationofholesinthevalencebandintermsof n i isgivenby
- (E F -E Fi )
p 0 = n i exp
kT
Page 16 of 65
17. Positionofthefermilevelinthentypesemiconductorintermsof n o and n i isgivenby

n
E F - E Fi = kT ln o
ni
18. Positionofthefermilevelintheptypesemiconductorintermsof p o and n i isgivenby
p
E Fi - E F = kT ln o
ni
Problem
Densityofstatefunctions&FermiDiracDistributionFunction
*
1. DeterminethetotalnumberofenergystatesintheGaAsbetweenEcandEc+kTatT=300K.ForGaAs m n
*
=0.067m0, m p =0.48m0
Ans.:Weknowthat
Ec + kT
4(2m*n )3/2 4(2m*n )3/2
g c (E) =
h3
E-E c

g T (E) =
h3
Ec
E-E c dE
4(2m*n )3/2 2 3
2
Ec + kT
4(2m*n )3/2 2 3
g T (E) = ( E-E c ) Ec
g T (E) = . . ( kT ) 2
h3 3 h 3
3
3/2
4 2 x 0.067 x 9.11 x 10-31 2
. ( 0.0259 x 1.6 x 10-19 ) 2
3
g T (E) = .
( 6.625 x 10 ) -34 3 3
g T (E) = 3.28 x 10 23 m -3 = 3.28 x 1017 cm -3

2. FindtheratiooftheeffectivedensityofstatesintheconductionbandatEc+kTtotheeffectivedensityof
statesinthevalencebandatEvkT.
4(2m*n )3/2 3/2

E-E c gc m* E c + kT - E c gc m*
3/2
Ans.: g c = h3 = *n = *n
4(2m*p )3/2 gv m E v - E v + kT gv m
gv p p
3
E v -E
h
3. (a) IfEF=Ec,findtheprobabilityofastatebeingoccupiedatE=Ec+kT
(b) IfEF=Ev,findtheprobabilityofastatebeingemptyatE=EvkT
1 1 1
Ans. (a) f F (E) = = = = 0.269
E-E F c
E + kT -E c 1+exp [1]
1+exp 1+exp
kT kT
(b) 1 1 1
1 - f F (E) = 1 = 1 =1 = 0.269
E-E F E v -kT-E v 1+exp [ -1]
1+exp 1+exp
kT kT
4. DeterminetheprobabilitythatanenergylevelisoccupiedbyanelectronifthestateisabovetheFermilevel
by(a)kT (b)5kT (c)10kT
Page 17 of 65
Ans.: (a) HereEEF=kT 1 1

f F (E) = = = 0.269
E-E F 1+ exp [1]
1+ exp
kT
(b) HereEEF=5kT,So 1 1
f F (E) = = = 6.69 x 10 -3
E-E F 1+exp [ 5 ]
1+exp
kT
5. DeterminetheprobabilitythatanenergylevelisemptyofanelectronifthestateisbelowtheFermilevel
by(a)kT (b)5kT(c)10kT
Ans.: 1 1
1 - f F (E) = 1 =
E-E F E F -E
1+exp 1+exp
kT kT
1
(a) EEF=kT, 1 - f F (E) = =0.269
1+exp [1]
(b)and(c) Similarly
6. Showthattheprobabilityofanenergystatebeingoccupied E abovetheFermienergyisthesameasthe
probabilityofastatebeingempty E belowtheFermilevel.
Ans.: TheprobabilityofastateatE1=EF+ E ,beingoccupiedis

1 1
f F (E 1 ) = =
E -E E
1+exp 1 F 1+exp
kT kT
TheprobabilityofastateatE2=EF E ,beingemptyis
1 1 1
1 - f F (E 2 ) = 1 = =
E -E E - E E
1+exp 2 F 1+exp F 2 1+exp
kT kT kT
Hence f F (E1 ) = 1 - f F (E 2 )
7. (a) DetermineforwhatenergyaboveEF(intermsofkT)theFermiDiracprobabilityfunctioniswithin
1%oftheBoltzmannapproximation.
(b) Givethevalueoftheprobabilityfunctionatthisenergy.
1 1
-
( Boltzmann ) - ( Fermi - Dirac ) E 1 -E F E1 - E F
Ans.: (a) exp 1+exp
= 0.01 kT kT
( Fermi - Dirac )
1
= 0.01
E1 - E F
1+exp
kT
E - E
1+exp 1 F
kT 1
- 1 = 0.01 = 0.01
E - E E - E
exp 1 F exp 1 F
kT kT
E - E E - E
1 = 0.01 x exp 1 F
exp 1 F = 100
kT kT
E1 - E F
= ln(100) E 1 - E F = kT ln(100)
kT
E1 - E F = 4.6 kT E1 = E F + 4.6 kT

Page 18 of 65
(b) 1 1 1
f F (E 1 ) = = = = 0.0099 = 0.01
E 1 -E F 4.6 kT 1+exp [ 4.6 ]
1+exp 1+exp
kT kT
8. Calculatethetemperatureatwhichthereisa1%probabilitythatastate0.30eVbelowtheFermilevelwill
beemptyofanelectron.
Ans.: 1 1
1 - f F (E) = 1 =
E-E F EF - E
1+exp 1+exp
kT kT
1 1
1 - 0.01 = 0.99 =
- 0.30 - 0.30
1+exp 1+exp
kT kT
- 0.30 1
1+exp = = 1.0101
kT 0.99
- 0.30 0.30 1
exp = 0.0101 exp = = 99
kT kT 0.0101
0.30 0.30 T=756K
= ln (99) kT = = 0.06529
kT ln(99)
9. AssumetheFermienergylevelisexactlyinthecenterofthebandgapenergyofasemiconductoratT=300K
(a) Calculatetheprobabilitythatanelectronoccupiesanenergystateinthebottomoftheconductionband
forSi,GeandGaAs.
(b) CalculatetheprobabilitythatanenergystateinthetopofthevalencebandisemptyforSi,GeandGaAs.
Ans.:
1 1
At E = E midgap f F (E) = =
E-E F Eg
1+exp
kT 1+exp 2
kT

1
f F (E) =
Eg
1+exp
2kT
1
For Si, E g = 1.12 eV f F (E) = = 4.07 x 10 -10
1.12
1+exp
2(0.0259)
1
For Ge, E g = 0.66 eV f F (E) = = 2.93 x 10 -12
0.66
1+exp
2(0.0259)
1
For GaAs, E g = 1.42 eV f F (E) = = 1.42 x 10 -12
1.42
1+exp
2(0.0259)
(b) Similarly
10. Calculatethetemperatureatwhichthereisa106probabilitythatanenergystate0.55eVabovetheFermi
energylevelisoccupiedbyanelectron.
Page 19 of 65
Ans.: 1
f F (E) = 10 6 =
0.55
1+exp
kT
0.55 1 0.55
1+ exp = = 10 6 exp 10 6
kT
6
kT 10
0.55 0.55
= ln 10 6 kT = T = 461 K
kT ln 10 6
11. Calculatetheenergyrange(ineV)between f F (E) = 0.95 and f F (E) = 0.05 for E F = 7.0eV
at(a) T300K (b) 500K
Ans.: AtE=E2 f F (E 2 ) = 0.05 So, 1

f F (E 2 ) = 0.05 =
E2 EF
1+exp
kT
E EF 1
1+exp 2 = = 20
kT 0.05
E EF E2 EF
exp 2 = 19 = ln 19 (i)
kT kT
Bysymmetry,atE=E2 1 - f F (E1 ) = 0.05
So, E F - E1
= ln 19 (ii)
kT
Nowfromeq(i)+(ii)
E2 - E1
= 2 ln 19 E2 - E1 = 2 kT ln 19
kT
(a) AtT=300K, kT=0.0259eV, E 2 - E1 = 2 (0.0259) ln 19 = 0.1525 eV
(b) AtT=500K, kT=0.04317eV, E2 - E1 = 2 (0.04317) ln 19 = 0.254 eV
TheSemiconductorinEquilibrium
ForSilicon N C = 2.8 1019 cm -3 N V = 1.04 1019 cm -3 n i = 1.5 1010 cm -3

, ,
12. Calculatetheprobabilitythatastateinconductionbandisoccupiedbyanelectronandcalculatethe
thermalequilibriumelectronconcentrationinSiliconatT=300K.GiventhatFermienergyis0.25eVbelow
theconductionband.
Answer: TheprobabilitythatanenergystateE=Ecisoccupiedbyanelectronisgivenby
1 1 6.43x105
f F (E) = =
E-E F 0.25
1+ exp 1 + exp
KT
0.0259
Electronconcentrationisgivenby
- ( E C -E F ) - 0.25
n 0 = N C exp => n 0 = 2.8 * 1019 exp
KT 0.0259
15 -3
n 0 = 1.8 * 10 cm

13. CalculatethethermalequilibriumholeconcentrationinsiliconatT=400K.GiventhatFermienergyis0.27
eVabovethevalencebandenergy.
3
Answer: Nv T 2
Page 20 of 65
3
( N v )400 K 400
3
2
=> ( Nv )400 K = ( Nv )300 K 400 2
=
( N v )300 K 300 300
3
( Nv )400 K = 1.04 x 10 =>

400 2
=> 19
( Nv )400 K = 1.6 x 1019 cm-3
300
Again ( kT )300 K = 0.0259 eV
400 400
Thus ( kT )400 K = ( kT )300 K = 0.0259 x =0.03453 eV
300 300
Nowtheholeconcentrationis
- ( EF -EV ) - 0.27
p0 = NV exp 19
= 1.6 *10 exp =6.43 x 1015 cm-3
KT 0.03453

14. CalculatetheintrinsicconcentrationinGalliumArsenide(GaAs)at300Kand450K.Giventhat
N C = 4.7 1017 cm -3 N V = 7.0 1018 cm -3
Answer: ( kT )300 K = 0.0259 eV

At T=300K
-E g
n i2 = N C N V exp
kT
=> n 2 = (4.7x1 0 17 ) (7.0 x 10 18 ) exp -1.42 =5.09 x 10 12 cm -6
i 0.0259
n i = 2.26 x 10 6 cm -3
At T=450K
450 450
( kT )450 K = ( kT )300 K = 0.0259 x =0.03885 eV
300 300
3 3
( N C )450 K = (4.7 x 1017 ) =>

450 2 450 2
( NV )450 K = (7.0 x 10 ) 18

300 300
3 3
2 450 2
17 18 450 2
1.42
n = (4.7 x 10 ) (7.0 x 10 ) exp
0.0259
i
300 300
n i2 = 1.48 x 10 21 cm -6 => n i = 3.85 x 1010 cm -3

15. FindtheintrinsiccarrierconcentrationinSiliconatT=200K
Answer: -E g
n i2 = N C N V exp
kT

3 3
200 2
200 2
1 . 1 2
n 2
i = ( 2 .8 x 1 0 19
) (1 .0 4 x 1 0 19
) exp
300 300 200
0 . 0 2 5 9 300

n i = 7.68 x 10 4 cm -3
16. CalculatethepositionoftheintrinsicFermiLevelwithrespecttothecenterofthebandgapinSiliconatT=
300K.Giventhat m n* = 1 .0 8 m 0 a n d m p* = 0 .5 6 m 0
Answer: Weknowthat
3 m *p
E Fi - E m id b a n d e n e rg y = k T ln *
4 m
n
Page 21 of 65
3 0.56m 0
E Fi - E midband energy = ( 0.0259 ) ln = - 0.0128 eV = - 12.8 meV. Thus intrinsic Fermi
4 1.08m 0
levelinSiliconis12.8meVbelowthemidenergy.

12
17. Theintrinsiccarrierconcentrationinsiliconisnogreaterthan n i = 1.0 x 10 cm -3 .AssumeEg=1.12
eV.DeterminethemaximumtemperatureallowedfortheSilicon
Answer: -E g
n i2 = N C N V exp
kT

3 3
1 .1 2
T T
(1 .0 x 1 0 )
2 2 2
12
= ( 2 .8 x 1 0 1 9 ) ( 1 .0 4 x 1 0 1 9 ) exp
300 300 T
0 .0 2 5 9 3 0 0

T = 381 K
18. The magnitude of the product g C (E) f (E) in the conductionband is a function ofenergy. Assume the
Boltzmann approximation is valid. Determine the energy with respect to E C at which the maximum
occurs.
Answer: Weknowthat
- (E - E F )
3
4 ( 2 m *n ) 2
g C (E ) f(E ) = E - EC exp
h3 kT
- (E - E ) - (E C - E )
3
4 (2 m *
n ) 2
C F
g C (E ) f(E ) = E - E C exp exp
h3 kT kT
- (E - E )
g C (E ) f(E ) E - E C exp C

kT
- x Let E - EC = x
g C (E ) f(E ) x ex p
k T
For g C (E) f(E) tobemaximumwemusthave
d - x
exp x = 0
d x kT
- x -1
x exp
- x 1
+ exp = 0
kT kT kT 2 x
- x
+
1
= 0 1
=
x
kT 2 x 2 x kT

x =
kT E - EC =
kT
2 2
kT
E = EC +
2
19. AssumetheBoltzmannapproximationinasemiconductorisvalid.Determinetheratioof
n(E) = g C (E) f (E) at E = E C + 4 kT tothat E = E C + k T
2
Answer: - (E - E )
g C (E ) f(E ) E - E C exp F

kT
Page 22 of 65
- (E1 - E C )
ex p
Thus n (E 1 ) E1 - E C kT
=
n (E 2 ) E2 - EC - (E 2 - E C )
ex p
kT
n (E 1 ) 4kT -E + E 2
= exp 1
n (E 2 ) kT k T
2
n (E 1 )
= 2 2 exp
1
4

= 2 2 e x p ( - 3 .5 )

n (E 2 ) 2
n (E 1 )
= 0 .0 8 5 4
n (E 2 )
20. Two semiconductor materials have exactly the same properties except that material A has a band gap
energyof1.0eVandmaterialBhasabandgapenergyof1.2eV.DeterminetheratioofniofmaterialAto
thatofmaterialBatT=300K.
-E gA
exp - ( E gA E gB )
kT
2
Answer: n (E 1 ) =
i
= exp
2
n (E 2 ) -E gB kT
i
exp
kT
- ( E gA E gB )
n (E 1 ) = ex p = 4 7 .5
n (E 2 ) 2kT

* *
21. The carrier effective masses in a semiconductor are m n = 0.62 m 0 and m p = 1.4 m0 Determine
thepositionoftheintrinsicFermilevelwithrespecttothecenterofthebandgapatT=300K.
3 m *
p

Answer: E - E = K T ln
Fi m id b a n d e n e rg y
4 m *
n
1 .4 m 0 3
E Fi - E ln
m id b a n d e n e rg y = (0 .0 2 5 9 )
= + 0 .0 1 5 8 e V

4
0 .6 2 m 0
22. CalculateEFi,withrespecttothecenterofthebandgapinSiliconforT=200K.
Answer: 1 N 1 1.04 x 10 19
E Fi - E m idband energy = kT ln V = kT ln 19
2 NC 2 2.8 x 10
E Fi - E midband energy = - 0.495 ( kT )
23. The electron concentration in Silicon at T = 300 K is n0 = 5 x 104. (a) Determine p0. Is this n or p type
material?(b)DeterminethepositionoftheFermilevelwithrespecttotheintrinsicFermilevel.
Answer: n0=5x104 atT=300K

(1.5 x 10 10 )
2
n i2
p0 = = = 4.5 x 10 15 cm 3
n0 5 x 10 4
As p 0 > n 0 the material is p-type semiconductor.
Weknowthat
- ( E F -E Fi ) (p )
p 0 = n i exp => E Fi -E F = kT ln 0
kT ni
Page 23 of 65
4 .5 x 1 0 15
E Fi -E F = 0 . 0 2 5 9 ln 10
= 0 .3 2 6 6 e V
1 .5 x 1 0
24. Determinethevaluesofn0andp0forSiliconatT=300KiftheFermienergyis0.22eVabovethevalence
bandenergy.
Answer: E F -E V = 0.22 eV at T = 300 K

- ( E F -E V ) 19
- ( 0 .2 2 ) 15 -3
p 0 = N V exp = 1 .0 4 x 1 0 e x p = 2 .1 3 x 1 0 c m
KT 0 .0 2 5 9
E C - E F = 1.12 - 0.22 = 0.90 eV
- (E C -E F ) 18
- (0 .9 0 ) 4 -3
n0 = N C exp = 2 .8 x 1 0 e x p = 2 .2 7 x 1 0 c m
kT 0 .0 2 5 9
25. Thevalueofp0inSiliconatT=300Kis1015cm3.DetermineECEFandn0.
Answer: p0=1015cm3atT=300K
- ( E F -E V )
p 0 = N V exp
kT
=> E - E N 1 .0 4 x 1 0 19
F V = k T ln V = 0 . 0 2 5 9 ln = 0 .2 4 e V
p0 1 015
=> EC EF = 1.12 0.24 = 0.88 eV
*
26. Foraparticularsemiconductor,Eg=1.50eV. m p = 10 m*n atT=300K,andni=1.0x105cm3.
(a)DeterminethepositionoftheintrinsicFermienergylevelwithrespecttothecenterofthebandgap.
(b) ImpurityatomsareaddedsothattheFermienergylevelis0.45eVbelowthecenterofthebandgap.
(i) Areacceptorordonoratomsadded?
(ii) Whatstheconcentrationofimpurityatomsadded?
3 m* 3
Answer:(a) E Fi - E midband energy = ( kT ) ln *p = ( 0.0259 ) ln 10 = + 0.0447 eV
4 mn 4
(b) Impurityaddedsothat Emidband energy - EFi = 0.45 eV
(i) Soitisptypesemiconductor.Thusacceptorimpurityisadded.
(ii) E Fi - E F = 0.0447 + 0.45 = 0.4947 eV
- ( E F -E Fi ) 0.4947
p 0 = n i exp 5
= 10 exp = 1.97 x 10 13 cm -3
KT
0.0259

13 -3
p 0 = N a = 1.97 x 10 cm
Page 24 of 65
ASSIGNMENT

1. Whatisthequantumstatewithintheforbiddenenergyband?
2. WhendotheFermiDiracdistributionchangestoBoltzmannapproximation?
3. WhatisthephysicalsignificanceofFermiDiracdistributionfunctionfF(E)?
4. WhatisthevalueoffF(E)at0KforE>EFandE<EF?
5. Atabsolutezeroasemiconductoractsasaninsulator.JustifyitbyusingFermiDiracdistributionfunction.
6. fF(E)representstheprobabilityofastatebeingoccupiedbyanelectron.Thenwhatwillbetheprobabilityof
astatebeingempty?
7. Defineallowedenergyband.
8. Definedensityofstatefunction.
9. WhatisFermienergy?
10. WhatisBoltzmannapproximation?
11. FermiDiracdistributionfunctionvarieswithtemperature.Representitgraphically.
12. Whatisdirectandindirectbandgapsemiconductor?
13 Writetheequationforn(E)asafunctionofthedensityofstatesfunctionforconductionbandandtheFermi
probabilitydistributionfunction.
14 Writetheequationforp(E)asafunctionofthedensityofstatesforvalencebandandtheFermiprobability
distributionfunction.
15 Writetheequationsforn0andp0intermsofFermienergybyassumingBoltzmannapproximation.
16 WhatisthevalueofintrinsiccarrierconcentrationinsiliconatT=300K?
17 UnderwhatconditionwouldtheintrinsicFermilevelbeatthemidgapenergy?
18 Whatisdonorimpurityandacceptorimpurity?
19 Sketchagraphofn0versustemperatureforanntypematerial.
20 SketchgraphsoftheFermienergyversusdonorimpurityconcentration.
21 SketchgraphsoftheFermienergyversustemperature.
22 WritetheconditionofwhichFermiDiracprobabilityfunctionchangestoBoltzmannapproximation.
23 WhatistheorderofNcandNvformostofthesemiconductormaterialatT=300K?
24 DiscussthattheintrinsicFermienergylevelisafunctionof mn and mp
25 Whataredonorandacceptorlevel?
Page 25 of 65
26 Whatisionizationenergy?
27 JustifythatinntypesemiconductorthepositionoftheFermienergylevelisabovetheFermienergylevel
forintrinsicsemiconductor.
28 JustifythatinptypesemiconductorthepositionoftheFermienergylevelisbelowtheFermienergylevel
forintrinsicsemiconductor.
29 Whatisanondegeneratesemiconductor?
30 Whatisacompensatedsemiconductor?
31 HowistheFermienergylevelchangewithimpurityconcentration?
32 HowistheFermienergylevelchangewithtemperature?
Page 26 of 65
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
p-n junction diode
Basic Structure of p-n Junction
Zero Applied Bias

o Energybanddiagram
o Builtinpotentialbarrier
o Electricfield
o Potential
o Spacechargewidth
Reverse Applied Bias

o Energybanddiagram
o Spacechargewidth
o Electricfield
o Junctioncapacitance
Forward Biasing of p-n junction

o Boundarycondition
o Minoritycarrierdistribution
o Idealpnjunctioncurrent
o Temperatureeffectofpnjunctiondiodecurrent
o Diffusionresistance
o Diffusioncapacitance
o SmallsignalEquivalentcircuit
o GenerationCurrent
o RecombinationCurrent
Formula to remember
Numerical
Question Bank
Rajanikanta Parida
Faculty, Department of physics,
Page 27 of 65
ITER
PNJunction(NoBiasing)
BasicstructureofthePNjunction
1. pnjunctionismadeonthesinglepieceofsemiconductor.
2. Theinterfaceseparatingthenandpregionsisreferredtoasthemetallurgicaljunction.
3. Incaseofastepjunction,dopingconcentrationis
uniformly distributed in each region and there is
anabruptchangeindopingatthejunction.
4. Initially at the metallurgical junction, there is a
very large density gradient in both the electron
andholeconcentrations.
5. Electronofntypesidediffuseintoptypeside.
Holesofptypesidediffuseintontypeside.
6. As one electron diffuse from n region, a positively charged donor atom left behind near the
junction.Theseareimmobile.
7. Similarlynegativelychargedacceptoratomsareformedinthejunctioninptypeside.Theseare
alsoimmobile.
8. Theseimmobilechargesarecalledspacechargeregionordepletionregion.
9. Due to the presence of these immobile charges near the junction, an induced electrical field is
createdinadirectionfromntopregion.
10. Density gradient still exist in the majority carrier concentration at the edge of the space charge
region.Thisdensitygradientprovidesadiffusionforcethatactsonthemajoritycarriers.
11. Atthermalequilibrium
Forceduetospacecharge=Diffusionforce
12. The space charge region produced due to the

presence of immobile charge acts as a fictitious
batterywhose+veterminalisconnectedtoN type
sideandveterminalconnectedtoPtypeside. The
correspondingpotentialiscalledbuiltinpotential
barrierandisdenotedVbi.
13. Duetothepotentialbarriertheconductionbandof N
region is lower by eVbi withrespect theconduction band
ofPregion.
14. Thispotentialdifferenceacrossthejunctioncannotbemeasuredwithavoltmeter.ThispotentialVbi
maintainsequilibrium,sothisvoltageproducesnocurrent
15. Energybanddiagramduringnobiasing.
Page 28 of 65
BuiltinPotentialBarrier
Duringnobiasingofpnjunction,apotentialisdevelopedacrossthemetallurgicaljunctionduetothepresence
ofthespacechargenearthejunction.ThispotentialiscalledbuiltinpotentialBarrier.ItisdenotedbyVbi.
Due to this built in potential barrier the conduction band of n region is lowered by eVbi with respect to the
conductionbandofpregionandtheFermilevelgetsdisturbed.
Theenergybanddiagramofapnjunctioninthermalequilibriumatzerobaisingisshownbelow.
Inthefigure
eVbi= Conduction band energy difference
betweenpandnregion
= Intrinsic Fermi energy difference

betweenpandnregion
= ( E Fi )P ( E Fi )n
Thus, eVbi = e FP + e Fn
Vbi = FP + Fn (1)
Fromthefigurewehave,
e Fn = E Fn - E Fi Fornregion (2)
and e FP = E Fi - E Fp Forpregion (3)
where Fn and FP arethepotential.
Weknowthat
E E Fn E E Fn E E Fi
c c Fn
kT kT
n 0 = Nc e kT
=> n0 = Nc e

.e

E Fn E Fi

=> n 0 = n i e kT
Where ni=intrinsiccarrierconcentration
EFi=intrinsicFermienergy
e Fn e Fn

kT

n0
kT

=> n0 = ni e
=> = e
ni
Page 29 of 65
n e Fn kT n
=> ln 0 = => Fn = ln 0
ni kT e ni
kT N
=> Fn = ln d (4)
e ni
whereno=Nd=Netdonorconcentration
Forpregionwehave,
E Fi E Fp e Fp
kT
p0 = N a = n i e
=> Na = ni e kT
=>
e Fp
Na e Fp
= e kT
=> ln
Na
=
ni ni kT
kT N
=> Fp = ln a (5)
e ni
Nowfromequation(1)wehave,
Vbi = Fn + Fp
kT N N kT N a N d
=> Vbi = ln d + ln a => Vbi = ln
e n i ni e ni2
N N
=> Vbi = Vt ln a 2 d (6)
ni
kT
where, Vt = ,thermalvoltage.
e
Equation(6)representsthebuiltinpotential.ItdependsontheNaandNd.
ElectricFieldinthespacechargeregion
Nearthemetallurgicaljunctionspacechargeiscreatedduetothepresenceofpositivelychargedimmobiledonor
ionsinthenregionandnegativelychargedimmobileacceptorionsinthepregion.Thesepositiveandnegative
chargescreateanelectricfield(E).
p n
Wp Wn
Let W=Spacechargewidth
Page 30 of 65
x=xp x=0 x=xn
Wp
Wn= Widthoftheneutralpartofnregion
Wp=Widthoftheneutralpartofpregion
Let the p-n junction is uniformly doped and let us assume the abrupt junction approximation. Then the variation of
space charge density with distance is as shown in the graph given below.
Let =Volumechargedensity
Hereitisassumedthatthespacechargeregionabruptlyendsinn region
atx=+xnandpregionatx=xp
Here =eNa xp<x<0
and =eNd 0<x<xn
FromPoissonsequationwehave,
dE ( x ) (x)
= , s = Permitivity of semiconductor
dx s
1
dE ( x ) = ( x ) dx (1)
s
Followingassumptionsaremade:
1. Electricfieldiszerointheneutral pregionforx<xp (Sincenocurrentflowsinthermal

equilibrium)
2. Electricfieldisacontinuousfunction(sincethereisnosurfacechargedensitywithinthepnjunction
structure)
3. E=0 at x=xp
E=0 at x=xn
Nowintegration(1)andapplyingtheaboveassumptionswecangetElectricalfieldforpandnregion
Electricfieldinpregionis
1
dE( x ) = ( x ) dx
s
Ep =
1
s
(- e Na dx)
eN
E p = - a x+C
1 (2)
s
e Na
At x=xp E=0 Thus, 0 = - ( x p ) + C1
s
Page 31 of 65
e Na
C1 = - xp
s
Puttingthisvalueinequation(2)weget
eN
Ep = - a x - e Na x
p
s s
eN a
Ep =
s
(x + x ) p for x p x 0 (3)
Electric field in n region is

1
dE ( x ) = s ( x ) dx
1
En = ( e N ) dx
s
d
e Nd
E = x + C2 (4)
s
e Nd
At x=xn E=0 Thus, 0 = x n + C2
s
e Nd
C2 = - xn
s
e Nd e Nd
E = x - xn
s s
eN d
En = ( xn x) for 0 x x n (5)
s
Atx=0,Electricfieldiscontinuous
So, Ep=En atthemetallurgicaljunction
- eN a - eN d
( x + x p ) = ( x n -x )
s x=0 s x=0
Na x p = Nd x n (4)
No. of -ve charge per No. of +ve charge per

=
unit area in p-region unit area in n-region
Page 32 of 65
Now the variation of electric field (E) with distance inside the space charge region (depletion region) for a
uniformlydopedpnjunctionisshowninthefigure.
Fromthefigurewehave
Efieldisalinearfunctionofdistancethroughthejunction.
Emaxoccursatx=0(i.eatmetallurgicaljunction)
Efieldexistsinthespacechargeregionevennovoltageisappliedbetweenpandnregion.
Potential across the junction
pregion
Weknowthat
E = -
d d = - Edx
dx
Where, =potentialdifference
and E=electricfieldinthespacechargeregion
p = - E p dx
- eN a
p = -
eN a
s
( x + x p ) dx [Since E p =
s
( x + x p ) ]
eN a
p = x dx +
x p dx

s
eN a x 2
p = + x p .x + C1 (1)
s 2
At x=xp =0
eN a x p
2
Thus, 0= + x p . ( -x p ) + C1
s 2
eN a x p
2

2
C1 = - - xp
s 2
Page 33 of 65
2
eN a x p
C1 =
s 2
Puttingthisvalueinequationinequation(1)weget
2
eN a x 2 eN a x p
p = + x p .x +
s 2 s 2
eN a x 2
2
xp
p = + x p .x+
s 2 2
eN a 2
x + 2x p .x + x p
2
p =
2 s
eN a
(x + x )
2
p = p for x p x 0 (2)
2 s
nregion
Weknowthat
E = -
d d = - Edx
dx
Where, =potentialdifference
and E=electricfieldinthespacechargeregion
n = - E n dx
eN d - eN d
n = ( x n -x ) dx [Since E n = ( x n x ) ]
s s
eN d
n = x n dx - x dx

s
eN d x2
n = x
n .x - + C2 (3)
s 2
Aspotentialisacontinuousfunctionwehave
Eqn(2)=Eqn(3) atx=0
Page 34 of 65
eN a eN d x2
(x + x )
2
p = x
n .x - + C2 atx=0
2 s s 2
eN a 2
xp = C2 (4)
2 s
Puttingthevalueofequation(4)inequation(3)weget
eN d x2 eN a 2
n = x n .x - + xp for 0 x x n (5)
s 2 2 s
Thevariationofpotentialthroughthejunctionwiththe
distanceisshowninthefiguregivenbelow
Fromthefigureitisclearthat
Potentialthroughthejunctionisaquadraticfunction of
thedistance
Energy=e
Asisaquadraticfunctionofdistance,theenergyisalsoaquadraticfunctionofdistance.Itisshowninthe
energybanddiagram.
Atx=xn =Vbi
WhereVbi=builtinpotentialbarrier
eN d x 2n eN a 2
Thus Vbi = x n .x n - + xp
s 2 2 s
e
N d x n2 + N a x p
2
Vbi = (6)
2 s

Equation(6)isanotherformofthebuiltinpotentialbarrier.
SpaceChargeWidth
Thepositivedonorimmobileioninthenregionandnegativeacceptorimmobileioninpregionnearthe
metallurgicaljunctionarecalledspacechargeregionordepletionregion.
Let xn=spacechargewidthinnregion
And xp=spacechargewidthinpregion
Thenthespacechargewidth(W)isgivenby
W=xn+xp (1)
Page 35 of 65
Weknowthat
Na x p = Nd x n
N
x p = d x n (2)
Na
Againthebuiltinpotentialbarrierisgivenby
e
N d x 2n + N a x p
2
Vbi = (3)
2 s
Puttingthevalueofequation(2)inequation(3)weget
e e N d2 2
N d x 2n + N a x p
2
2
Vbi = Vbi = N x
d n + N xn
2 s 2 s
a
N a2
e Nd e N + Nd
Vbi = N d x 2n 1 + Vbi = N d x 2n a
2 s Na 2 s Na
2 s N a 1
x 2n = Vbi
e Nd Na + Nd
1
2 s N a 1 2
x n = Vbi (4)
e N d N a + N d
Fromequation(2)wehave
1
N 2 N 2
Nd
x p = s a
1
xp = d xn Vbi
Na e N d N a + N d Na
1
2 s N d 1 2
x p = Vbi (5)
e N a N a + N d
Weknowthat
W=xn+xp
2 s Vbi 1
1
2 N 1 2 N 1 2
W = a + d
e N a + N d N d N a

Page 36 of 65
1
2 V 1 2 N +N
W = s bi N + N a1 1 d
e a d
N a 2 N d 2
1
2 V N a +N d
2
W = s bi N N (6)
e a d
Equation(6)representsthespacechargewidthofthepnjunctionatzerobiasing.
p-n Junction with Reverse Biasing
Duringreversebiasing+veterminalofthesourceisconnectedtothentypesideandveterminalisconnected
totheptypeside.Asaresultofwhichspacechargeregionisincreased,potentialbarrieratthejunctionis
increased,theenergybanddiagramchangesaccordingly.
X Energybanddiagramforreversebiasing:
The energy band diagram for reverse biasing is shown below

Let VR=Reversebiasedvoltageappliedtothepn
junction
InreversebiasingtheFermilevelonthensideis
below the Fermi level on the pside by eVR with
respecttoenergy.
From the figure it is clear that, total reverse voltage

appliedisgivenby
Vtotal = Fn + Fp + VR
Vtotal = Vbi + VR
WhereVbi=builtinpotentialbarrier
Y Spacechargewidthforreversebiasing:
Duetothereversebiasvoltage(VR)appliedtothepnjunction,thespacechargewidthcanbeobtained
byreplacingVbiby(Vbi+VR)andisgivenby
1
2 N +N d 2
W = s ( Vbi + VR ) a
e N a N d
Page 37 of 65
FromtheaboveequationitisclearthatbyincreasingVRthespacechargewidth(W)increases
Z Electricalfield
Maximumelectricfield(Emax)isobtainedatthemetallurgicaljunction.Itisgivenby
eN x eN a x p
E max = d n =
s s
Emaxcanalsobewrittenintheformoftotalspacechargewidth(W)
eN
Weknowthat E max = d xn
s
1
eN d 2 s Na 1 2
E max = N N + N ( Vbi + V R )
s e d a d
1
2e N a N d 2
(V )
1
E m ax = + VR 2
s N a + N d
bi
2 (V bi + V R )
E m ax = 1
2 s N a + N 2
(V bi + V R )
d

e N a N d
2 ( Vbi + VR )
E max =
W
[JunctionCapacitance
Due to the presence of positive charge and negative charge in the depletion region a capacitance is
associatedwiththepnjunction.Thisiscalledjunctioncapacitanceordepletionlayercapacitance.
Whenreversebiasvoltageappliedacrossthejunctionincreases,thespacechargeregionisalsoincreases.
Thusthemagnitudeofcapacitanceincreases.
If C=capacitance
dQ
Then C=
dVR
Butweknowthat dQ = e N d dx n = e N a dx p
1
2 ( V + VR ) N a 1 2
And x n = s bi
e N d N a + N d
Page 38 of 65
dQ e N d dx n
Thus, C= C=
dVR dVR
1
d 2 s ( Vbi + VR ) N a 1 2
C = e Nd
dVR e N d N a + N d
1
2 s N a 1 2
1
C = e N d N N + N 1

e d a
d 2 ( Vbi + VR ) 2
1
e s N a N d 2
C=
2 ( Vbi + VR ) ( N a + N d )
Alternatemethod:
Asthejunctionactsasaparallelplatecapacitor,thecapacitanceperunitareaisgivenby
s s
C= C =
1
w
)
2 N + N 2
(

s a d V +V
e N a N d bi

R
1
2
e N N 1
C = s a d
( )
2 N a + N d

bi VR
V +

Graphical representation
Duringreversebiasingthespacechargewidthisgivenby
1
2 N +N d 2
W = s ( Vbi + VR ) a
e N a N d
PNJunctionForwardbiasing)
1. Ifpsideisconnectedtothe+veterminalofthebatteryandnsideisconnectedtotheveterminalofthe
batterythenpnjunctionissaidtobeforwardbiased.
2. Applied electrical field is in opposite direction to the
electricalfieldduethespacechargeregion.
Page 39 of 65
3. Asaresultofwhichthebarrierpotentialdecreasesto(VbiVa).WhereVa=appliedpotential.
4. TheFermienergylevelinnregionwillbeathigherlevelcomparedtotheFermienergylevelinpregion
5. Thespacechargewidth(W)decreases.
6. Electronofntypesidediffuseintoptypeside.Holesofptypesidediffuseintontypeside.
7. Aselectronofnregiondiffusesintopregionitbecameminoritychargecarrierforpregion.Andasholeof
pregiondiffusesintonregionitbecameminoritychargecarrierfornregion.
ThereforeAmbipolartransportequationisrequiredtostudythebehaviouroftheseminoritycarriers.Thus
byapplyingforwardbias,excessminoritycarriersarecreatedineachregionofthepnjunction.
8. Asthediffusionofcarriertakesplaceacrossthejunctionmeansthereexistsadiffusioncurrent.
9. Energy band diagram for forward is shown in the figure.
Boundary condition
Duringthermalequilibriumatzerobiasingthebuiltinpotentialbarriermaintainsequilibriumbetweenthecarrier
distributionsoneithersideofthejunction.
Itisgivenby
kT N N e Vbi N N
Vbi = ln a 2 d = ln a 2 d
e ni kT ni
Na Nd eV n i2 - eVbi
= exp bi = exp (1)
n i2 kT Na Nd kT
Let nn0=thermalequilibriumconcentrationofmajoritycarrierelectroninnregion
And np0=thermalequilibriumconcentrationofminoritycarrierelectroninpregion
Thenwecanwrite
ni 2
n n0 Nd and n p0 = (2)
Na
Puttingthesevaluesinequation(1)weget
n p0 - eVbi - eVbi
= exp n p0 = n n0 exp (3)

n n0 kT kT
Duringforwardbiasingthevoltageacrossthepnjunctionis
Vtotal = Vbi Va Where Va = Forward voltage
Andequation(3)canbewrittenas
Page 40 of 65
- e (Vbi Va )
np = n n0 exp
kT
Where n p = Total minority carrier concentration of electron in p-region
- e Vbi e V
np = n n0 exp exp a
kT kT
e V
np = n p0 exp a (4)
kT
Equation(4)representstheexpressionforminoritycarrierelectronconcentrationattheedgeofthespacecharge
regioninpregion(x=xp)
Similarly,minoritycarrierholeconcentrationpnattheedgeofthespacechargeregioninnregion(x=xn)isgiven
by
e V
pn = p n0 exp a (5)
kT
Graphicalrepresentationforexcessminoritycarrier
concentrationattheedgeofthespacecharge,
generatedduetoforwardbiasisshowninthefigure.
Minoritycarrierdistribution
Page 41 of 65
During forward biasing electron of nregion diffuses into pregion and it becomes minority charge carrier for p
region. Similarly hole of pregion diffuses into nregion and it
becomesminoritychargecarrierfornregion.
ThereforeAmbipolartransportequationisrequiredtostudythe
behaviouroftheseminoritycarrier.Thusbyapplyingforwardbias,
excessminoritycarriersarecreatedineachregionofthepnjunction.
Ambipolartransportequationforexcessminoritycarrierholeinannregionis
( p n ) 2 ( p n ) ( p n ) p
= Dp p E + g / n (1)
t x 2
x p0
Where p n = p n p no
p n = T otal m inority carrier concentration of holes in n-region
p no = Thermal equilibrium concentration of minority carrier hole in n-region
Inneutralpartofnregionwehave
x > xn
E = 0
g/ = 0 ( assuming no generation )
( p n )
= 0 ( assuming steady state )
t
Thenequation(1)becomes
2 (p n ) p n 2 ( p n ) pn
Dp = 0 = 0
x 2 p0 x 2
p0 Dp
2 ( p n ) p n
2 = 0 (2)
x 2 Lp
2
Where L p = p0 D p (3)
Lp= Distancewithinwhichtheminoritycarrierholediffusesinsidetheneutralpartofthenregion
= Minoritycarrierdiffusionlengthforhole
Inneutralpartofpregionwehave
x < xp , E = 0 ,
Page 42 of 65
g/ = 0 ( assuming no generation )
( n p )
= 0 ( assuming steady state )
t
Thenwehave
2 ( n p ) np 2 ( n p ) np
Dn = 0 = 0
x 2
n0 x 2
n 0 Dn
2 ( n p ) np
= 0 (4)
x 2
L2n
Where L2n = D n n0 (5)
Ln= Minoritycarrierdiffusionlengthforelectron
Generalsolutionforequation(2)is
x -x
Lp Lp
p n = A e +Be (6)
Generalsolutionforequation(4)is
x x
np = C e Ln
+De Ln
(7)
ThevaluesofA,B,CandDcanbeobtainedbyusingtheboundarycondition.
Theboundaryconditionsare:
e V
i) pn = p n0 exp a
kT
e V
ii) np = n p0 exp a
kT
iii) p n ( x ) = p n0 (forlongdiode,i.eWn>>Lp)
iv) n p ( x ) = n p0 (forlongdiode,i.eWp>>Ln)
Puttingtheboundaryconditions(iii)and(iv)inequations(6)and(7)respectivelyweget
A=0andD=0
So,equations(6)and(7)become
Page 43 of 65
-x
Lp
pn = B e (8)
x
And np = C e Ln
(9)
Fromtheboundarycondition(i)wehave
e V
( pn )x = x = p n0 exp a
n
kT
e V
( pn + p n0 ) x = x = p n0 exp a
n
kT
e Va
( pn ) x = x = p n0 exp 1 (10)
n
kT
Atx=xn,eqn(8)become
x
( p n ) x = x = B exp n
L (11)
p
n
Now eqn(10)=eqn(11)
x e Va
B exp n
L = p n0 exp kT 1
p
e Va xn
B = p n0 exp 1 exp L (12)
kT p
x
p n = B exp
L
p
e Va x -x
p n = p n0 exp - 1 exp n (13)
L
kT p
Similarlyeqn(9)canbewrittenas
eV xp + x
n p = n po exp a 1 exp (14)
kT Ln
Page 44 of 65
Graphical representation of equations (13) and (14) is shown

below
Fromthegraphitisclearthat
The graph shows the steady state minority carrier

concentrations in a p-n junction under forward biasing.
Minority carrier concentrations decay exponentially
with distance away from the junction and reach the
thermal equilibrium values.
Ideal p-n junction current
Assumption made to derive current voltage relationship is

given below:_
1. The abrupt depletion layer approximation applies. The space charge regions have abrupt boundaries and the
semiconductor is neutral outside of the depletion layer.
2. The Maxwell Boltzmann approximation applies to carrier statistics.
3. The concept of low injection applies.
4. (i) The total current is constant throughout the entire p-n junction.
(ii) The individual electron and hole currents are continuous function through the p-n junction.
(iii) The individual electron and hole currents are constant throughout the depletion layer.
Let JP (xn) = Minority carrier hole diffusion current density at
x = xn
d
J p (x n ) = - e D p p n (x) at x=x n
dx
d
J p (x n ) = - e D p ( pn (x) )
dx
at x = xn -----------------------(1)
Since p no is constant we have
d
p n ( x ) = d ( p no + p n ( x ) ) = d p n ( x )
dx dx dx
But we know that the excess minority carrier hole is
eV xn - x
p n ( x ) = p no exp a - 1 exp L
kT p
d eV x n - x ( -1)

dx
( p n ( x ) ) = p no exp a - 1 exp L . L
kT p p
Page 45 of 65
d -p eVa
Atx=xnwehave
dx
( p n ( x ) ) = no
Lp exp kT - 1 (2)

Puttingthevalueofequation(2)inequation(1)
e Dp p no eV
J p (x n ) = exp a -1 (3)
Lp kT
Similarlytheminoritycarrierelectrondiffusioncurrentdensityatx=xpisgivenby
e D n n po eV
J n (-x p ) = exp a -1 (4)
Ln kT
Astheindividualelectronandholecurrentswerecontinuousfunctionsandconstantthroughthespacecharge
region,wehave
Total current electron diffusion hole diffusion

= +
density current density current density
J = J p (x n ) + J n (-x p )
e D p p no e D n n po eV
J= + exp a -1 (5)
Lp Ln kT

eV
J = J s exp a -1 (6)
kT
e D p p no e D n n po
Where, Js = + (7)
Lp Ln
Equation(5)and(6)aretheidealcurrentvoltagerelationshipofa pn
junction.Thisisalsocalledasidealdiodeequation.
Equation(7)iscalledreversesaturationcurrentdensity.
The variation of forward current density with applied forward

voltageisshowninthefigure.
IfVa>>kT/e,thenequation(6)willbe
eVa
J = Js exp
kT
Page 46 of 65
lnJs
eVa
ln J = ln J s +
kT
e (8)
ln J = V a + ln J s
kT
The ideal current a voltage characteristic of a pn junction diode with current is plotted on a log scale and is
showninthefigure.
kT
log(J)~VagraphisastraightwhenVaisgreaterthanafew voltand1terminequation(6)canbe
e
neglected.
Forwardbiascurrentisanexponentialfunctionoftheforwardbiasvoltage.
Aswehaveassumedtheelectricfieldtobezeroatthespacechargeedge,wehaveneglectedminority
carrierdriftcurrent.
DifferentformofJs
Weknowthatthereversebiassaturationcurrentdensityis
Js = + (i)
Lp Ln
Butweknowthat
n i2 n i2
p no = , n po = , Lp = D p po and Ln = D n no
Nd Na
Puttingthesevaluesinequation(i)weget
e Dp n i2 e Dn n i2
Js = +
D p po Nd D n no Na
e Dp n i2 e Dn n i2
Js = +
po Nd no Na
1 Dp 1 Dn
Js = e n i2 + (ii)
N d po Na no
Thisequationrepresentsthereversebiassaturationcurrentdensityintermsofminoritycarrierlifetime.
TemperatureEffectofCurrentVoltagerelationshipduringForwardBiasing
TheForwardbiascurrentisgivenby
Page 47 of 65
A = Area of cross-section
ID = A Jf Where
J f = Current density
eV
I D = A J s exp a -1
kT
eV
I D = Is exp a -1 (1)
kT
Where, J s = Reverse saturation current density
Js = + (2)
Lp Ln
Fromequation(2)itisclearthat
Jsdependsonpnoandnpo(thermalequilibriumminoritychargecarrierconcentration).Weknowthat
pnoandnpodependsontemperature.SoJsdependsonthetemperature.
eVa
Equation (1) contains the term exp . So ID is function temperature. As temperature increases
kT
thediodecurrentalsoincreases.
eVa
ThefactorJsismoresensitivetotemperaturethan exp .
kT
Diffusion Resistance (rd)

Whenpnjunctionisforwardbiasedtheforwardcurrentisgivenby
eV
I D = Is exp a - 1 (1)
kT
Where Is = Reverse saturation current
Ifthediodeisforwardbiasedwithd.cvoltageV0,thenad.cdiodecurrentIDQisproduced.
Nowasmall,lowfrequencysinusoidalvoltageissuperimposedonthed.cvoltage,thenasmallsinusoidalcurrent
willsuperimposeonthed.ccurrent.
So,
Sinusoidal current
Incremental current =
Sinusoidal voltage
Inthelimit,theslopeoftheI~Vcurvegivesthevalueofincrementalconductance(gd).
Thus,
Page 48 of 65
dI D
gd =
dVa V = V
a 0
dI D eVa e
=

dVa V =V IS exp kT kT
a 0
Va = V0
dI D e eV0
= IS exp
dVa V =V
a 0
kT kT
dI D I DQ I DQ
= gd =
Vt
dVa V =V Vt
a 0
Ifrd=incrementalresistanceordiffusionresistance
1 dVa Vt
Then rd = rd = ID = I DQ =
gd dId I DQ
Ifthediodeissufficientlybiased,then1terminequation(1)canbeneglected.
eVa
Thus, I D = IS exp
kT
ThusthediffusionresistancedecreasesbyincreasingIDQ.
DiffusionCapacitance(Cd)
Whenasmallsignala.cvoltageissuperimposedonthedcvoltage,thenthetotalforwardvoltageisgivenby
Va = Vdc + v sin t (1)
Fromtheaboveexpressionitisclearthat
Vachangescontinuouslyfrommaximumtominimumacrossthejunction.
So the number of holes and electrons injected across the space charge region also changes
accordingly.
We know that the hole concentration at the edge of the p Va n space
chargeregiononnregionis
e Va
p n ( x = xn ) = p n0 exp
kT
1. At, t=t0 Vac=0

Vdc Vac = v sin t
So, Va=Vdc
Page 49 of 65
e Vdc
And p n = p n0 exp
kT
2. At,t=t1 Vac=v=max.
So Va=Vdc+v
eVdc + v
And p n = p n0 exp kT

3. At,t=t2 Vac=v=min.
So Va=Vdcv
e Vdc - v
And p n = p n0 exp kT

Thus,holeconcentrationchargecontinuouslychangesattheedgeofthespacechargeregiononnregion.Itisalso
showninthegraph.
The shaded region represents the charge Q that is alternatively charged and dischargedduring the a.c voltage
cycle.
Exactlythesameprocessoccursfortheelectronsintheedgeofthespacechargeregioninpregion.Thischarging
anddischargingofholeinthenregionandelectronsinthepregionleadstoacapacitance.Thiscapacitanceis
calledthediffusioncapacitance(Cd).Itisgivenby
1
Cd = ( I po po + I no no )
2Vt
Small Signal Equivalent Circuit

rd=diffusionresistance
Cd=diffusioncapacitance
Cj=junctioncapacitance
rs=seriesresistance
Va=voltageacrosstheactualjunction
Vapp =Va =Irs
Vapp=totalvoltageappliedtothejunction
Page 50 of 65
Generation and Recombination Current
Whilederivingidealcurrentvoltagerelationship,wehaveneglectedthecurrentcomponentgeneratedwithin
thespacechargeregion.Therefore,theactualIVcharacteristicsofapnjunctiondiodedeviatefromtheideal
expression.
TheShockleyReadHalltheory,givestherecombinationtheory.
Accordingtothistheory,wehave
1. Theallowedenergystatewithintheforbiddenbandgapiscalledatrap.
2. Thetrapactsasarecombinationcenter.
3. Thetrapcapturesbothelectronsandholeswithalmostequalprobability.
4. Inthetheoryitisassumedthatasinglerecombinationcenter(ortrap)havingenergyEtexistwithin
thebandgap.
Therecombinationrateforelectronandholeisgivenby
Cn C p N t ( np -n i2 )
R= (1)
Cn ( n+ n ' ) + C p ( p +p ' )
Where
Cn=Constantproportionaltoelectroncapturerate
Cp=Constantproportionaltoholecapturerate
Nt=Totalconcentrationoftrappingcenters
n=Electronconcentrationinconductionband
p=Holeconcentrationinvalenceband
n/=ElectronconcentrationexistintheconductionbandwhenEtcoincidedwithEf.
- ( E c -E t )
and n'= N c exp
KT
Reverse Bias Generation Current

Inreversebiasing, n p 0 becauseelectronsandholesarecompletelysweptoutofthespacechargeregion.
Thus,
Cn C p N t ni2
R=
Cn n ' + C p p '
Thereversebiascurrentdensity(JR)isgivenby
J R = J s + J gen
Where, Js=reversesaturationcurrentdensity
Page 51 of 65
Jgen=reversebiasinggenerationcurrentdensity
Js = +
Lp Ln
e ni w
And J gen = Thesymbolshaveitsusualmeaning.
2 o
Forward Bias Recombination Current

Underforwardbias,theelectronandholeareinjectedacrossthespacecharge.Sowehavesomeexcesscarriersin
thespacechargeregion.Someoftheelectronsandholesrecombineinthespacechargeregionandforwhichwe
getrecombinationcurrent.
TherecombinationcurrentdensityJrecisgivenby
e ni w eV
J rec = exp a
2 o 2kT
eV
J rec = J ro exp a (1)
2kT
e ni w
Where, J ro =
2 o
TotalforwardbiascurrentJisgivenby
J = J rec + J D
eV
Where J D = J s exp a (2)
kT
Takinglogarithmonboththesidesofequation(1)and(2)weget
eVa Va
ln J rec = ln J ro + ln J rec = ln J ro +
2kT 2kT
e
Va 1V
ln J rec = ln J ro + ln J rec = a + ln J ro
2Vt 2 Vt
Againfromequation(2)weget
Page 52 of 65
eVa
ln J D = ln J s +
kT
Va
ln J D = ln J s +
kT
e
Va
ln J D = ln J s +
Vt
V
ln J D = a + ln J s
Vt
V
A graph between ln(J) and a isshown
Vt
AtlowcurrentdensityJrecdominates
AndathighcurrentdensityJDdominates.
eV
In general I = Is exp a 1
nkT
Where n=idealityfactor
Forlargeforwardbiasvoltagewehave n1andJDdominates
Forlowforwardbiasvoltagewehave n2andJrecdominates
Thereisatransitionregionwhere 1<n<2
Formulatoremember
1. pnjunctionwithnobiasing
N N
Vbi = Vt ln a 2 d
ni
WhereNd=Netdonorconcentration
Na=Netacceptorconcentration
Page 53 of 65
kT
Vt = ,thermalvoltage
e
eN a
Ep =
s
(x + x ) p for x p x 0 Ep=Electricfieldinpregion
eN d
En = ( xn x) for 0 x xn En=Electricfieldinnregion
s
No. of -ve charge per No. of +ve charge per
Na x p = Nd x n =
unit area in p-region unit area in n-region
eN a
(x + x )
2
p = for x p x 0
2 s
p
p=Potentialinpregion
eN d x2 eN a
for 0 x x n
2
n = x n .x - + xp
s 2 2 s
n=Potentialinnregion
e N d x 2n + N a x p
2
Vbi =
2 s
1
2 s Na 1 2
x n = N N + N Vbi Spacechargewidthinthenregion
e d a d
1
2 s N d 1 2
x p = Vbi Spacechargewidthinthepregion
e N a N a + N d
1
2 s Vbi N a +N d
2
W = N N TotalSpacechargewidth
e a d
2. pnjunctionwithReversebiasing
1
2 N +N d 2
a) Spacechargewidth W = s ( Vbi + VR ) a
e N a N d
eN x eN a x p 2 ( Vbi + VR )
b) Max.electricfield E max = d n = =
s s W
1
e s N a N d 2
c) Capacitanceatmetallurgicaljunction C=
2 ( Vbi + VR ) ( N a + N d )
3.. pnjunctionwithforwardbiasing
- eVbi
n p0 = n n0 exp
kT
nn0=thermalequilibriumconcentrationofmajoritycarrierelectroninnregion
Andnp0=thermalequilibriumconcentrationofminoritycarrierelectroninpregion
Theboundaryconditionsare:
Page 54 of 65
e V e V
i) p n = p n0 exp a ii) n p = n p0 exp a
kT kT
iii) p n ( x ) = p n0 (forlongdiode,i.eWn>>Lp)
iv) n p ( x ) = n p0 (forlongdiode,i.eWp>>Ln)
Minoritycarrierdistribution
e Va xn x
pn = p n0 exp 1 exp
kT Lp
e V x +x
n p = n po exp a 1 exp p
kT Ln
The graph for the steady state

minority carrier concentrations in a pn
junctionunderforwardbiasing.
Idealcurrentvoltagerelationshipofa pn
junction
eV e D p p no e D n n po
J = J s exp a 1 Where J s = +
kT Lp Ln
1 Dp 1 Dn
J s = e n i2 +
N d po Na no
Therecombinationrateforelectronandholeisgivenby
Cn Cp N t ( n p -n i2 )
R=
Cn ( n+ n ' ) + Cp ( p +p' )
Vt
Diffusionresistance(rd)is rd =
I DQ
1
Diffusioncapacitance(cd)is Cd = ( I po po + I no no )
2Vt
e ni w
Generationcurrent J gen =
2 o
Recombinationcurrent e ni w eVa
J rec = exp
2 o 2kT
Page 55 of 65
Numericals
1. Calculate the builtin potential barrier in a silicon pn junction at T = 300 K for N a = 51017 cm -3 ,
N d = 2 1016 cm -3 and n i = 1.51010 cm -3 .
Na Nd
Answer: Vbi = kT ln 2
ni
(5 x 1017 ) x (2 x 1016 )
= 0.0259 ln = 0.796 V
(1.5 x 1010 ) 2
2. AsiliconpnjunctionatT=300Kwithzeroappliedbiashasdopingconcentrationof N a = 51016 cm -3 and

N d = 5 1015 cm -3 .Determine x a , x p , W and E max .
N N
Answer: Vbi = kT ln a 2 d
ni
(5 x 1016 ) x (5 x 1015 )
= 0.0259 ln = 0.718 V
(1.5 x 1010 ) 2
1
2 s Na 1 2
x n = N N + N Vbi
e d a d
1
2(11.7) x ( 8.85 x 10-14 ) ( 5 x 1015 ) 1 2
x n = -19 16 15 16
( 0.718)
( 1.6 x 10 ) ( 5 x 10 ) ( 5 x 10 ) + ( 5 x 10 )
x n = 4.11x10-6 cm
Nd -5
xp = x n = 4.11 x 10 cm
Na
W = x n + x p = 4.52 x 10-5 cm
Page 56 of 65
e Nd x n
E max = = 3.18 x 10 4 V/cm
s
3. A silicon pn junction at T = 300 K is reversed biased at VR = 8.0V. The doping concentrations are
N a = 51016 cm -3 and N d = 5 1015 cm -3 .Determine x a , x p , W and E max .
N N
Answer: Vbi = kT ln a 2 d
ni
(5 x 1016 ) x (5 x 1015 )
= 0.0259 ln = 0.718 V
(1.5 x 1010 ) 2
1
2 s Na 1 2
x n = (Vbi + VR )
e Nd Na + Nd
1
2(11.7) x ( 8.85 x 10-14 ) ( 5 x 1015 ) 1 2
x n = -19 16 15 16
( 0.718 + 8.0)
( 1.6 x 10 ) ( 5 x 10 ) ( 5 x 10 ) + ( 5 x 10 )
x n = 1.43 x10-4 cm
Nd -5
xp = x n = 1.43 x 10 cm
Na
W = x n + x p = 1.57 x 10-4 cm
2( Vbi + VR ) 2( 0.718 + 8.0)

E max = = 4
= 1.11 x 105 V/cm
W 1.57 x 10
4. A silicon pn junction at T = 300 K has doping concentrations of N a = 81015 cm -3 and N d = 3 1016 cm -3 .

DeterminethejunctioncapacitanceatVR=2Volts.
Na Nd
Answer: Vbi = kT ln 2
ni
(8 x 1015 ) x (3 x 1016 )
= 0.0259 ln = 0.717 V
(1.5 x 1010 ) 2
1
e s Na Nd 2
C = A = 0.694 pF
2(Vbi +VR ) N a + N d
5. Anabruptpnjunctionatzerobiashasdopantconcentrationsof N a = 1017 cm-3 and N d = 5 1015 cm -3 atT

=300K.
a) CalculatetheFermileveloneachsideofthejunctionwithrespecttotheintrinsicFermilevel.
b) SketchtheequilibriumenergybanddiagramforthejunctionanddetermineVbifromthediagramand
theresultofpart(a).
c) CalculateVbifromtheequationandcomparetheresulttopart(b)
Page 57 of 65
d) Determine x a , x p , and E max .
Answer: a) nregion: N
EF - E F i = k T ln d = 0 .3 2 9 4 e V
ni
pregion: N
E Fi - E F = k T ln a = 0 .4 0 7 0 e V
ni
b) Vbi = 0.3294 + 0.4070 = 0.7364 volts
N N
c) Vbi = kT ln a 2 d = 0.7363 volts
ni
1
2 s N a 1 2
d) x n = (Vbi ) = 0.426 m
e N d N a + N d
Nd
xp = x n = 0.0213 m
Na
e Nd x n
E max = = 3.29 x 10 4 V/cm
s
6. AsiliconabruptjunctioninthermalequilibriumatT=300Kisdopedsuchthat E c - E F = 0 .2 1 e V in
the nregion and E F - E v = 0 .1 8 e V in the pregion. N c = 2.8x 1019 cm -3 and
N v = 1.04 1019 cm-3 atT=300K.
a) Determinetheimpuritydopingconcentrationsineachregion
b) DetermineVbi
( Ec EF )
Ans.: a) n 0 = N n exp
kT
0.20
n 0 = 2.8 x 1019 exp = 8.43 x 1015 cm -3
0.0259
n 0 = N d = 8.43 x 1015 cm -3
( EF Ev )
p 0 = N v exp
kT
0.18
p 0 = 1.04 x 1019 exp = 9.97 x 10 cm
15 -3
0.0259
N N
b) Vbi = kT ln a 2 d = 0.690 volts
ni
Page 58 of 65
7. ConsidertheuniformlydopedGaAsjunctionatT=300K.Atzerobiasonly20%ofthetotalspacechargeis
to be in the pregion. The built in potential barrier is Vbi = 1.20 Volts. Determine
N a , N d , x a , x p , and E max .
Ans.:a)GaAs:Vbi=1.20volts ni = 1.8 106 cm -3
x p = 0.2 W = 0.2 (x n + x p ) = 0.2x n + 0.2 x p
xp 1
0.8 x p =0.2 x n = =0.25
xn 4
xp Na
x p Na = Nd x n = =0.25
xn Nd
kT N a N d kT N a ( 0.25N a )
Vbi = ln 2 = ln
e ni e n i2
1.20 =
kT
ln
( 0.25N ) 2
a
=
kT N a2
ln 0.25 2

e n i2 e ni
1.20 N2 N2 1.20
= ln 0.25 2a 0.25 2a = exp ( )
0.0259 n i ni 0.0259
ni 1.20
Na = exp ( ) = 4.14 x 1016 cm -3
0.25 2 x 0.0259
b) N a = 0.25 N d = 1.04 x 1016 cm -3
c) Calculate x a , x p , and E max usingtheformula.
8. Asiliconpnjunctionat300KisdopedwithimpurityconcentrationofNa=5x016cm3andNd=2x1016cm
3
.ThejunctionisforwardbiasedatVa=0.610V.Determinetheminoritycarrierconcentrationsattheedge
ofthespacechargeregion.
n i 2 ( 1.5 x 1010 ) 2
Ans: p n0 = = = 1.125 x 104 cm -3
Nd 5 x 1016
Va 0.610
Then p n (x n ) = p n0 exp ( ) = ( 4.5 x 103 ) exp ( ) = 1.90 x 1014 cm-3
Vt 0.0259
n i 2 ( 1.5 x 1010 ) 2
Again, n p0 = = 16
= 4.5 x 103 cm -3
Na 2 x 10
Page 59 of 65
Va 0.610
Then n p (-x p ) = n p0 exp ( ) = (1.125 x 104 ) exp ( ) = 7.62 x 1013 cm -3
Vt 0.0259
9. TheimpuritydopingconcentrationinaSiliconpnjunctionatT=300KareNa=5x1016cm3,Nd=5x1015
cm3. The minority carrier concentration at either space charge edge is to be no larger than 10% of the
respective majority carrier concentration. Calculate the forward bias voltage that can be applied to this
junctionandstillmeettherequiredspecification.
Ans.: Themaximumcarrierconcentrationwilloccuronthelowdopedside.
p n (max) = 10% of N d = 5 x 1014 cm -3
n i 2 ( 1.5 x 1010 ) 2
p n0 = = = 4.5 x 104 cm -3
Nd 5 x 1015
Va Va
Then p n = p n0 exp ( ) 5 x 1014 = ( 4.5 x 104 ) exp ( )
Vt 0.0259
Va = 0.599 Volts
10. A silicon pn junction at 300 K has the following parameters: N a = 5 x 1016 cm -3 , N d = 1 x 1016 cm -3 ,
D n = 25 cm 2 / s , D p = 10 cm 2 / s , n0 = 5 x 10-7 s , p0 = 1 x 10-7 s , A = 10-3 cm 2 , Va = 0.625Volts .
Calculatethe
a) Minorityelectrondiffusioncurrentattheedgeofthespacecharge.
b) Minorityholediffusioncurrentattheedgeofthespacecharge.
c) Totalcurrentinthepnjunctiondiode.
Va eD n n p0 Va
Ans.: a) I n = A J sn exp ( ) In = A exp ( )
Vt Ln Vt
Aen i2 Dn Va
b) I n = exp ( ) = 1.54 x 10-4 Amp = 0.154 mA
Na n0 Vt
Aen i2 Dp Va
Ip = exp ( ) = 1.09 x 10-3 Amp = 1.09 mA
Nd p0 Vt
c) I = I n + I p =0.154+1.09=1.244mA
11. ConsiderthesiliconpnjunctionusingdatagiveninQ.3.Calculatetheelectronandholecurrentat:
a) x=xnandx=xp(i.eattheedgeofthespacechargeregion)
b) x=xn+Lp
Ans.: a) Already solved in Q3. I n = 0.154 mA and I p = 1.09 mA
xn - x
b) I p = I p (x = x n ) exp ( )
Lp
x n - x n - Lp -L p
I p = 1.09 exp ( ) = 1.09 exp ( ) = 1.09 exp (-1) = 0.401mA
Lp Lp
Page 60 of 65
I n = I total I p = (0.154 + 1.09) 0.401 = 0.843mA
12. ConsideranidealpnjunctiondiodeatT300Koperatingintheforwardbiasregion.Calculatethechangein
diodevoltagethatwillcauseafactorof10increaseincurrent.
Ans.: T=300K
eV1
Is exp( )
If1 kT = 10 e
= 10 exp ( V1 V2 ) = 10
If2 eV kT
Is exp( 2 )
kT
e ( V1 V2 )
( V1 V2 ) = ln 10 = ln 10
kT kT/e
( V1 V2 ) = 0.0259 x ln 10 = 59.9 mV
13. CalculatetheappliedreversebiasvoltageatwhichtheidealreversecurrentinapnjunctiondiodeatT300
Kreaches90%ofitsreversesaturationcurrentvalue.
Ans.: VR=?
I
= 0.90 (reverse bias current is -ve )
Is
V
I = Is exp ( a ) 1
Vt
I V I V
= exp ( a ) 1 + 1 = exp ( a )
Is Vt Is Vt
I V I
ln + 1 = a Va = Vt ln + 1
Is Vt Is
Va = 0.0259 ln ( -0.90 + 1 ) Va = -59.6 mV
14. ForasiliconpnjunctionatT=300K,assume p0 = 0.1 n0 and n = 2.4 p .Theratioofelectroncurrent

crossingthedepletionregiontothetotalcurrentisdefinedastheelectroninjectionefficiency.Determine
theexpressionfortheelectroninjectionefficiencyasafunctionof: (a) (N a / N d ) (b)the ratio of n
typeconductivitytoptypeconductivity.
Ans.: T=300K
n0
p0 = 0.1 n0 = 10
p0
p 1 Dp
n = 2.4 p = =
n 2.4 D n
Page 61 of 65
Electron current crossing

Electron injection the depletion region
=
efficiency ( Total current )
Electron injection Jn Electron injection 1

= =
efficiency Jn + Jp efficiency Jp
1+
Jn
Electron injection 1 1
= eD p p n0
=
efficiency en 2
Dp
Lp i

1+ N p0
eD n n p0 1 + d
Ln en i2 Dn

Na n0

1 1 1
= = =
Dp Na 1 Na N
1 + n0 1 + 10 1 + 2.04 a
p0 Dn Nd 2.4 N d Nd
15. Consider an ideal pn junction diode with following parameters: n0 = p0 = 0.1 x 10-6 s , D n = 25 cm 2 / s ,
D p = 10 cm 2 / s .Whatmustbetheratioof (N a / N d ) sothat95%ofthecurrentinthedepletionregionis
carriedbyelectron?
eD n n p0
Jn Ln
Ans.: = 0.95 = 0.95
Jn + Jp eD n n p0 eD p p n0
+
Ln Lp
eD n n p0
Ln 1
= 0.95 = 0.95
D p p n0 L n D p N a D n n0
1+ 1+
D n n p0 L p D n N d D p p0
1
3
= 0.95
D p N a n0 2
1+
D n N d p0
3
1 25 2 N 1
3
= 0.95 1+ a =
25 2 N 10 N d 0.95
1+ a 1
10 N d
Na Na 1
3 1 0.05 1 1
( 2.5) 2
= -1= = = = 0.083
19 ( 2.5 ) 2
3
N
d 0.95 0.95 19 Nd
16. Asiliconpnjunctionwithacrosssectionalareaof104cm2hasfollowingparameters: N a = 5 x 1015 cm-3 ,

N d = 1017 cm -3 , n i2 = 1.5 x 1010 cm -3 . Sketch the thermal equilibrium energy band diagram of the pn
Page 62 of 65
junction, including the values of the Fermi level with respect to the intrinsic level on each side of the
junction.
N 5x1015
Ans: pside E Fi E F = kT ln a = 0.0259 ln 10 = 0.329 eV
ni 1.5x10
N 1017
nside E F E Fi = kT ln d = 0.0259 ln 10
= 0.407 eV
ni 1.5x10
17. A germanium p+ n diode at T = 300K has the following parameters: N a = 1018 cm -3 , N d = 1016 cm -3 ,
D p = 49 cm 2 / s , D n = 100 cm 2 /s , n0 = n0 = 5 x 10-6 s and A = 104 cm2. Determine the diode current for
(a)aforwardbiasvoltageof0.2V(b)areversebiasvoltageof0.2V.
V
Ans. I = Is exp ( a ) - 1
Vt
eD n n p0 D n2
Forp+ndiode = A e
n i
Is = A
L N
n p0 d
(1.6 x 10-19 ) 10 (
2.4 x 1013 )
2
Is = 10 -4 Is = 2.91 x 10-9 A
10-6 1016

(a) forVa=+0.2V
0.2
I= ( 2.91 x 10 )
-9
exp 0.0259 - 1

I = 6.55 A

(b) forVa=0.2V
- 0.2
I= ( 2.91 x 10 )
-9
exp 0.0259 - 1

I = 2.91 x 10-9 A

I = - Is = 2.91 nA
Aen i2 Dn Va
(c) I n = exp ( ) = 1.54 x 10-4 Amp = 0.154 mA
Na n0 Vt
Page 63 of 65
QuestionBank

1. Whichisthemetallurgicaljunctioninapnjunction?
2. Thenet+veandvechargesinthen&pregionsaroundthemetallurgicaljunctionconstituteto
formthe
3. The electric field generated in a pn junction is always to that of the diffusion
current.
4. Definethetermcontactpotential.
5. Definethetermdepletionregion.
6. Showthedependenceofcontactpotentialondopingconcentrationforasemiconductor.
7. Wheredoesthemaximumelectricfieldoccurinthespacechargeregion?
8. Writetheexpressionsfortheelectricfieldinthespacechargeregionforpsideandnside
9. Writetheboundaryconditionfortheelectricfieldandthepotentialinthespacechargeregion.
10. Doesthespacechargewidthinpandnregionsame?Justifyyouranswer.
11. Whatisthevalueofelectricfieldandpotentialatx=xpandatx=xn?
12. Plotandexplainthebehaviorofelectricfieldinthedepletionregion.
13. Whatthebehaviorofelectricalfieldatthemetallurgicaljunction?
14. Wheredoyougetmaximumelectricfieldinthespacechargeregion?
15. Howthebuiltinpotentialbarriermaintainsthermalequilibrium?
16. Whyisanelectricfieldformedinthespacechargeregion?
17. Drawtheenergybanddiagramofazerobiasandreversebiasedpnjunction.
18. Writetheexpressionforthebuiltinpotentialbarriervoltage.
19. Draw a curve to show the variation of the potential through the space charge region with
distanceforauniformlydopedpnjunctionandhencefindthebuiltinpotentialvoltage.How
doesthepotentialvarywithdistance?
20. Writetheexpressionforthespacechargeregionatzerobiasingandreversebiasing.
21. Whatdoyoumeanbyjunctioncapacitance?
22. Expressjunctioncapacitanceintermsofspacechargewidth.
23. Whydoesthepotentialbarrierdecreasesinaforwardbiasing?
24. Describethemechanismofchargeflowacrossthespacechargeregionofapnjunctionwhen
forwardbiasvoltageisapplied.
25. Writetheboundaryconditionsfortheexcessminoritycarriersinapnjunctionattheedgeof
thespacechargeregionunderforwardbiasandunderreversebias.
26. Sketchthesteadystateminoritycarrierconcentrationsinaforwardbiasedpnjunction.
Page 64 of 65
27. Explain the procedure that is used in deriving the ideal current voltage relationship in a pn
junctiondiode.
28. Sketchtheelectronandholecurrentthroughaforwardbiasedpnjunctiondiode.
29. Whatdoyoumeanbycarrierinjection?
30. Whatismeantbyshortdiode?
31. Whatismeantbylongdiode?
32. Explainthephysicalmechanismofdiffusioncapacitance
33. Whatisdiffusionresistance?
34. Explainthephysicalmeaningofgenerationcurrent.
35. Explainthephysicalmeaningofrecombinationcurrent.
36. DescribetheAvalanchebreakdownmechanisminapnjunction.
37. DescribetheZenerbreakdownmechanisminapnjunction.
38. Plot a graph for the electron and hole current components through the space charge region
duringavalanchemultiplication.
39. Sketch the energy band diagram for pn junction at zero biasing, reverse biasing and forward
biasing.
40. ComparethepositionoftheFermienergylevelforpregionandnregionofapnjunctiondiode
atzerobiasing,reversebiasingandforwardbiasing.
41. Writetheexpressionforthereversebiassaturationcurrentdensityintermsofmeanlifetimeof
minoritycarriers.
42. Howdoesthereversebiassaturationcurrentdensitydependontemperature?
43. Writetheexpressionfortheforwardcurrentdensitywhentheforwardvoltageappliedismore
kT
thanafew .
e
Long Questions
1. Derivebuiltinpotentialvoltage.
2. Deriveanexpressionforelectricalfieldinthespacechargeregion
3. Deriveanexpressionforpotentialinthespacechargeregionandfindanexpressionforthe
builtinpotential.
4. Derivetheexpressionforthespacechargewidthofpnjunction.
5. Derivetheboundaryconditionsfortheexcessminoritycarriersinapnjunctionattheedgeof
thespacechargeregionunderforwardbiasandunderreversebias.
6. Derivetheexpressionforthesteadystateminoritycarrierconcentrationsinaforwardbiased
pnjunction.
7. Derivetheidealcurrentvoltagerelationshipforapnjunctiondiode.
Page 65 of 65

597 - Semiconductor in Equilibrium&Pn Junction1

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597 - Semiconductor in Equilibrium&Pn Junction1

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SemiconductorinEquilibrium RajanikantaParida/ITER/

TOPIC : SEMICONDUCTOR IN EQUILIBRIUM

Density of States function, g(E)

Institute of Technical Education & Research

fF(E) =FermiDiracdistributionfunction =FermiDiracprobabilityfunction

Distribution function and Fermi Energy

n(E) = g c (E) . f F (E)

Where g c (E) = density of allowed quantum states in the conduction band

and f F (E) = Fermi - Dirac probability function i.e the probability

p(E) = g v (E) . [ 1 - f F (E) ]

W here g v (E) = density of allow ed quantum

and [1 - f F (E)] = Probability that a quantum state

Graphicalrepresentationof n(E) , p(E) , g c (E) , g v (E) , f F (E)

Weknowthat n(E)=g c (E) . f F (E)

Where g c (E) = density of allowed quantum states in the conduction band

and f F (E) = Fermi - Dirac probability function i.e the probability

Then ( E-E F ) >> kT (Forconductionbandelectron,wehaveE> E c )

and E F = E Fi = intrinsic fermi energy

Similarly, EF shifts tow

Thusatfreezeoutwehave n d = Nd , and Nd+ = 0

Filled quantum state

Total quantum state

and f F (E) = Fermi - Dirac probability function i.e the probability

Where g v (E) = density of allowed quantum states in the valence band

and [1 - f F (E) ] = Probability that a quantum state is not occupied by an electron

N Since, in n-type semiconductor we have,

17. Positionofthefermilevelinthentypesemiconductorintermsof n o and n i isgivenby

g T (E) = 3.28 x 10 23 m -3 = 3.28 x 1017 cm -3

4(2m*n )3/2 3/2

Ans.: (a) HereEEF=kT 1 1

Ans.: TheprobabilityofastateatE1=EF+ E ,beingoccupiedis

Ans.: AtE=E2 f F (E 2 ) = 0.05 So, 1

ForSilicon N C = 2.8 1019 cm -3 N V = 1.04 1019 cm -3 n i = 1.5 1010 cm -3

( Nv )400 K = 1.04 x 10 =>

Answer: ( kT )300 K = 0.0259 eV

( N C )450 K = (4.7 x 1017 ) =>

Answer: n0=5x104 atT=300K

Answer: E F -E V = 0.22 eV at T = 300 K

Zero Applied Bias

Reverse Applied Bias

Forward Biasing of p-n junction

12. The space charge region produced due to the

= Intrinsic Fermi energy difference

and e FP = E Fi - E Fp Forpregion (3)

where Fn and FP arethepotential.

Here =eNa xp<x<0

and =eNd 0<x<xn

1. Electricfieldiszerointheneutral pregionforx<xp (Sincenocurrentflowsinthermal

Electric field in n region is

So, Ep=En atthemetallurgicaljunction

No. of -ve charge per No. of +ve charge per

Potential across the junction

p-n Junction with Reverse Biasing

The energy band diagram for reverse biasing is shown below

From the figure it is clear that, total reverse voltage

Vtotal = Vbi Va Where Va = Forward voltage

Where n p = Total minority carrier concentration of electron in p-region

p n = T otal m inority carrier concentration of holes in n-region

p no = Thermal equilibrium concentration of minority carrier hole in n-region

Where L2n = D n n0 (5)

Graphical representation of equations (13) and (14) is shown

The graph shows the steady state minority carrier

Ideal p-n junction current