Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • Notes 1

    Uploaded by

    rajesh
    2 views31 pages
    notes-1

    Original Title

    notes-1

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document
    notes-1

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    2 views31 pages

    Notes 1

    Uploaded by

    rajesh
    notes-1

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 31
    UNIT Ill PART-A 41.What are the requirements of fis: n process 7 (iThe neutrons emitted in fission must have adequate energy to cause fission of another nuclei. (ii)The produced number of neutrons must be able not only to sustain the fission process but also to increase the rate of fission. Certain loss of neutrons during the process is also to be accounted. (ii) The process must be followed by the liberation of energy (iv)It must be possible to control the rate of energy liberation .i by some means. , the rate of fission 2.What are the essential components of a nuclear reactor? Reactor core Reflector Control mechanism Moderator Coolants Measuring instruments vVvvvvY Page 1 > Shielding 3.What is the function of moderator? The moderator is used to reduce the energy of neutrons evolved during fission in order to maintain the chain reaction. Example: Heavy water and ordinary water ‘4.What is nuclearfission? Itis the process of splitting up heavy unstable nucleus into two equal fragments of equal mass and 2 to 3 neutrons accompanied by the release of large amount of heat. 5.State the fuels in the gas turbine power plants? -; Natural gas Blend gas Kerosene Aviation fuel Residual oil Pulverized coal. Blast fumace gas vVvVYvY 6.What is known as binding energy? Itis difficutt to bring protons together in nucleus of an atoms. Therfore it require same energy to bind those protons. This energy is called binding energy. 7.What is the function of pressuriser in pressurized water reactor? Pressuriser will maintain the pressure at required level. If pressure in primary loop drops, then heater is opened and generates the steam which increases pressure. If the pressure in primary loop increases then the high cold water is sprayed into the stream which reduces the pressure. 8.List the difference between closed cycle and open cycle gas turbine power plant? Closed cycle gas turbine power plant | __ Open cycle turbine power plant The working fiuid_are recycled or The working fluid are exhausted to the Page 2 utilized once again to the compressor by | atmosphere. cooling it. 9.List the four type of radiation associated with nuclear fission? (Alpha radiation(a) (ii)Beta radiation(B) (ii)Gamma radiation( 7 ) (iv)Neutron radiation 10.Define B radiation? Beta radiation consists of electrons or their positively charged counterparts Positrons. It can be penetrate the skin ,but not very far. 11.What is Molten Salt Reactor(MSR)? A molten salt reactor (MSR) is a type of nuclear reactor where the primary coolant is a molten salt. Molten salt refers to a salt that is in the liquid phase that is normally a solid at standard temperature and pressure(STP) PART -B 4.With the help of a neat sketch show all the important part of nuclear reactor. Describe briefly the functions of each part? Nuclear reactor: the nuclear reactor has following components: (i)Reactor core: > The reactor core is that part of a nuclear power plant where fission chain reaction is made to occur and where fission energy is liberated in the form of heat for operating power conversion equipment. The core of the reactor consists of an assemblage of fuel elements ,control rods ,coolant and moderator. > Reactor core generally have a shape approximately to a right cylinder with diameter ranging from 0.5m to 15m.The pressure vessels which houses the reactor core is also considered a part of core. v Page 3 > The fuel elements are made of plates or rods of uranium metal. Enough space is provided in between individual plates or rods to allow free passage of the coolant. i)Reflector: > Areflector is usually placed round the core to reflect back some of the neutrons that leak out from the surface of the core. > Itis generally made up of same material as the moderator. Control mechar Itis essential part of a reactor and serves the following purposes: (i)for starting the reactor.i.e.,to bring the reactor up to its normal operating level. (ii)for maintaining at that level .i.e., keep power production at a steady state. (iiifor shutting the reactor down under normal or emergency conditions. The control system is also necessary to prevent the chain reaction from becoming violent and consequently damaging the reactor. The effective multiplication factor of the reactor is always kept greater than unity in order that the number of neutrons keep on increasing in successive generations. ‘As the number of neutrons and hence the neutrons and hence the neutron flux density increases ,the temperature also increases. Page 4 | af ‘The Main components of Nuclear Power Plant ~—~Heal exchanger ——————— Concrete shieiaing [/ Fuelyods pressyrizer Turbine Non racioactve ‘water loop Radioactive water loop ure 3.8 : The main components of Nuclear Power Plant The main components of Nuclear Power Plant are (Figure 3.8) + Fuel Rods * Control Rods * Reactor + Heat Exchanger * Steam line + Pump * Turbine * Generator * Containment * Cooling Water Tower * Radioactive Non-radioactive water loop (iv)Moderator: > Ina nuclear reactor the function of a moderator is (1)To slow down the neutrons from the high velocities and hence high energy level which they have on being released from the fission process. Neutrons are slowed down most effectively in scattering collisions with nuclei of the light elements such as hydrogen graphite, beryllium. (2)To slow down the neutrons, but not absorb them. The desirable properties of a moderator in a reactor are high slowing down power low parasite capture non corrosiveness machinability high melting point for solids and low melting point for liquids. chemical and radiation stability vv vvvv Page 5 > high thermal conductivity > abundance in pure form (v)coolants: The function of a coolant is to remove the intense heat produced in the reactor and to bring out for being utilized. The desirable charteristics for a reactor coolant are: v low parasite capture low melting point high boiling point chemical and radiation stability low viscosity non toxicity non corrosiveness minimum induced acti high specific heat high density vv vvy vvvy (vi)Measuring instruments: > Main instrument required is for the purpose of measuring thermal neutron flux which determines the power developed by the reactor. (vii)shielding: shielding is necessary in order to > Protest the walls of the reactor vessel from the radiation damage > protect operating personnel from exposure to radiation. 2.Explain the nuclear fission ? In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into smaller parts (lighter nuclei), often producing free neutrons and photons (in the form of gamma rays). The two nuclei produced are most often of comparable size, typically with a mass ratio around 3:2 for common fissile isotopes. Page 6 Most fissions are binary fissions, but occasionally (2 to 4 times per 1000 events), three positively-charged fragments are produced in a temary fission. The smallest of these ranges in size from a proton to an argon nucleus. Fission is usually an energetic nuclear reaction induced by a neutron, although it is occasionally seen as a form of spontaneous radioactive decay, especially in very high-mass-number isotopes. The unpredictable composition of the products (which vary in a broad probabilistic and somewhat chaotic manner) distinguishes fission from purely quantum-tunneling processes such as proton emission, alpha decay and cluster decay, which give the same products every time. Fission of heavy elements is an exothermic reaction which can release large amounts of energy both as electromagnetic radiation and as kinetic energy of the fragments (heating the bulk material where fission takes place). In order for fission to produce energy, the total binding energy of the resulting elements must be less than that of the starting element. Fission is a form of nuclear transmutation because the resulting fragments are not the same element as the original atom. 4,Draw and explain the parts of nuclear power plant ? (AU NOV 12) Nuclear power is the use of sustained Nuclear fission to generate heat and do useful work. Nuclear Electric Plants, Nuclear Ships and Submarines use controlled nuclear energy to heat water and produce steam, while in space, nuclear energy decays naturally in a radioisotope thermoelectric generator. Scientists are experimenting with fusion energy for future generation, but these experiments do not currently generate useful energy. nuclear power provides about 6% of the world's energy and 13— 14% of the world's electricity, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for about 50% of nuclear generated electricity. Also, more than 150 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion have been built. Page 7 Just as many conventional thermal power stations generate electricity by hamessing the thermal energy released from burning fossil fuels, nuclear power plants convert the energy released from the nucleus of an atom, typically via nuclear fission. When a relatively large fissile atomic nucleus (usually uranium-235 or plutonium-239) absorbs a neutron, a fission of the atom often results. Fission splits the atom into two or more smaller nuclei with kinetic energy (known as fission products) and also releases gamma radiation and free neutrons. A portion of these neutrons may later be absorbed by other fissile atoms and create more fissions, which release more neutrons, and so on. This nuclear chain reaction can be controlled by using neutron poisons and neutron moderators to change the portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fissions. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to shut the fission reaction down if unsafe conditions are detected. Three nuclear powered ships, (top to bottom) nuclear cruisers USS Bainbridge and USS Long Beach with USS Enterprise the first nuclear powered aircraft carrier in 1964. Crew members are spelling out Einstein's mass-energy 2 equivalence formula E = mc? on the flight deck. There are many different reactor designs, utilizing different fuels and coolants and incorporating different control schemes. Some of these designs have been engineered to meet a specific need. Reactors for nuclear submarines and large naval ships, for example, commonly use highly enriched uranium as a fuel. This fuel choice increases the reactor’s power density and extends the usable life of the nuclear fuel load, but is more expensive and a greater risk to nuclear proliferation than some of the other nuclear fuels. A number of new designs for nuclear power generation, collectively known as the Generation IV reactors, are the subject of active Page 8 research and may be used for practical power generation in the future. Many of these new designs specifically attempt to make fission reactors cleaner, safer and/or less of a risk to the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Passively safe plants (such as the ESBWR) are available to be builtand other designs that are believed to be nearly fool-proof are being pursued. Fusion reactors, which may be viable in the future, diminish or eliminate many of the risks associated with nuclear fission. There are trades to be made between safety, economic and technical properties of different reactor designs for particular applications. Historically these decisions were often made in private by scientists, regulators and engineers, but this may be considered problematic, and since Chernobyl and Three Mile Island, many involved now consider informed consent and morality should be primary considerations. cooling system: A cooling system removes heat from the reactor core and transports it to another area of the plant, where the thermal energy can be hamessed to produce electricity or to do other useful work. Typically the hot coolant will be used as a heat source for a boiler, and the pressurized steam from that boiler will power one or more steam turbine driven electrical generators. Flexibility of power plants It is often claimed that nuclear stations are inflexible in their output, implying that other forms of energy would be required to meet peak demand. While that is true for the vast majority of reactors, this is no longer true of at least some modern designs. Nuclear plants are routinely used in load following mode on a large scale in his output 15 % per minute between 40 and 100 % of it's nominal power. Boiling water reactorsnormallyhaveload- following,capabiliy implemented by varying the recirculation water flow, 5.What are advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power reactor? Advantages Page 9 The reactor vessel and associated components operate at a substantially lower pressure (about 75 times atmospheric pressure) compared to a PWR (about 158 times atmospheric pressure). Pressure vessel is subject to significantly less irradiation compared to a PWR, and so does not become as brittle with age. Operates at a lower nuclear fuel temperature. Fewer components due to no steam generators and no pressurizer vessel. (Older BWRs have external recirculation loops, but even this piping is eliminated in modern BWRs, such as the ABWR.) Lower risk (probability) of a rupture causing loss of coolant compared to a PWR, and lower risk of core damage should such a rupture occur. This is due to fewer pipes, fewer large diameter pipes, fewer welds and no steam generator tubes. NRC assessments of limiting fault potentials indicate if such a fault occurred, the average BWR would be less likely to sustain core damage than the average PWR due to the robustness and redundancy of the Emergency Core Cooling System (ECCS). Unlike PWRs, BWRs have at least a few steam-turbine driven systems that can be directly operated by steam produced after a reactor Measuring the water level in the pressure vessel is the same north and emergency operations, which results in easy and intuitive assessment of emergency conditions. Can operate at lower core power density levels using natural circulation without forced flow. A BWR may be designed to operate using only natural circulation so that recirculation pumps are eliminated entirely. (The new ESBWR design uses natural circulation.) BWRs do not use boric acid to control fission burn-up, leading to less possibility of corrosion within the reactor vessel and piping. Page 10 (Corrosion from boric acid must be carefully monitored in PWRs; it has been demonstrated that reactor vessel head corrosion can occur if the reactor vessel head is not properly maintained. See Davis- Besse. Since BWRs do not utilize boric acid, these contingencies are eliminated.) BWRs generally have N-2 redundancy on their major safety- related systems, which normally consist of four "trains" of components. This generally means that up to two of the four components of a safety system can fail and the system will stil perform if called upon. Due to their single major vendor (GE/Hitachi), the current fleet of BWRs have predictable, uniform designs that, while not completely standardized, generally are very similar to one another. The ABWRIESBWR designs are completely standardized. Lack of standardization remains a problem with PWRs, as, at least in the United States, there are three design families represented among the current PWR fleet (Combustion Engineering, Westinghouse, and Babcock & Wilcox), within these families, there are quite divergent designs. Disadvantages Much larger pressure vessel than for a PWR of similar power, with correspondingly higher cost. (However, the overall cost is reduced because a modern Complex calculations for managing consumption of nuclear fuel during operation due to "two phase (water and steam) fluid flow" in the upper part of the core. This requires more instrumentation in the reactor core. The innovation of computers, however, makes this less of an issue. BWR has no main steam generators and associated piping.) Contamination of the turbine by short-lived activation products. This means that shielding and access control around the steam turbine are required during normal operations due to the radiation Page 11 levels arising from the steam entering directly from the reactor core. This is a moderately minor concer, as most of the radiation flux is due to Nitrogen-16, which has a half-life measured in seconds, allowing the turbine chamber to be entered into within minutes of shutdown. Though the present fleet of BWRs are said to be less likely to suffer core damage from the "1 in 100,000 reactor-year" limiting fault than the present fleet of PWRs are (due to increased ECCS robustness and redundancy) there have been concems raised about the pressure containment ability of the as-built, unmodified Mark | containment — that such may be insufficient to contain pressures generated by a limiting fault combined with complete ECCS failure that results in extremely severe core damage. In this double failure scenario, assumed to be extremely unlikely prior to the Fukushima | nuclear accidents, an unmodified Mark 1 containment can allow some degree of radioactive release to occur. This is supposed to be mitigated by the modification of the Mark | containment; namely, the addition of an outgas stack system that, if containment pressure exceeds critical set points, is supposed to allow the orderly discharge of pressurizing gases after the gases pass through activated carbon filters designed to trap radionuclide's. A BWR requires active cooling for a period of several hours to several days following shutdown, depending on its power history. Full insertion of BWRs control rods safely shuts down the primary nuclear reaction. However, radioactive decay of the fission products in the fuel will continue to actively generate decay heat at a gradually decreasing rate, requiring pumping of cooling water for an initial period to prevent overheating of the fuel. If active cooling fails during this post-shutdown period, the reactor can still overheat to a temperature high enough that zirconium in the fuel cladding will react with water and steam, producing hydrogen gas. Page 12 6.State the advantages and disadvantages of gas turbine power plants over diesel and thermal power plants? Advantages: > v v v > ‘Smaller in size and weight as compared to an equivalent steam power plant, Natural gas is very suitable fuel The gas turbine plants are subjected to less vibration The initial cost is lower than an equivalent steam plant The installation and maintenance cost s are less compared to thermal power plants. There are no stand by losses in gas turbine plants. It requires less water as compared to a steam plant. Any quality of fuels can be used in gas turbine plants. It can be started quickly The exhaust of the gas turbine is free from smoke. Gas turbines can be built relatively quicker and requires less space. Disadvantages: » Part load efficiency is poor > The unit is operated at high temperature and pressure ,so special metals are required to maintain the unit. > Major parts of the work (about 66% ) developed in the turbine is used to drive the compressor. > The devices that are operated at high temperature are complicated. Page 13 7.Explain the importance of nuclear waste management? The nuclear wastes are classified on the basis of half life time as well as on the basis of the intensity of radiation as low, medium and high level radioactive wastes. The waste produced from the reactor operations includes: > fission products > actinides > the neutron activation products Effects of nuclear radiation: Biological damage: Biological effects upon living tissues exposed to a radiation field result from the interaction of the radiation and tissue. The interaction between radiation and tissue is manifested in three ways. They are : > ionisation > displacement > adoption of neutrons by nuclei of tissue. Genetical changes: The expose of the nuclear radiations will affect the genes of the unborn children which directly affects the central nervous system in early pregnency. High rate of decay: some of the radioactive elements have high rate of decay which may Page 14 cause harmful radiations throughout their life time. From the above effects ,it is well known that any form of nuclear waste should be disposed safely some of the nuclear waste disposal methods are: > Underground system > Encapsulation system > Geological formations > Harvest process > AVM process 8.Explain with the neat sketch the working of fast breeder reactor plant ? Fast Breeder Reactor ‘This reactor has the remarkable ability to both generate heat and create additional nucee fuel while it is operating. A fast breeder reactor differs from other reactors because it can extract more of the aval able energy in the nuclear fuel. It possesses a central core containing fissionable plutonium-28 (Pu). The core is surrounded by a blanket composed of substances containing non-fissionable uranium-238. No moderator is used; consequently the high speed neutrons generated by fis Page 15 ing Pu bombard the non-fissionable ures atoms of SU. This nuclear reaction produces two _ The heat released i, : Fe eats ie Sesoning cor can be tdi driv aseam terbnn soo ing Besionable Spa enePe blanket, capture the ying neutrons thereby the time goes by, the blanket of i sutdoraand waste products, The of non-isionable *U i gradually transmuted to fission ae " the substances cont is periodically removed and the materials are pro- ed Og a beat aul to prednts ate ee lees feel recovered ie placed is She = jo gener wear saa ‘more fuel in a newly relined blanket of sub- ‘This process can be repeated until nearly 80% =~ u of the available i ted. This is much more efficient than the 2 per cent now being. Forel tmp reactors. 14.208 gongs Rot 1298 comet noe SB. gee Bioneers ese 3" Pig. 5.9 Figure 5.9 _ [tise small vessel in which enriched uranium or shows the fast breeder reactor. It 88. by a fairly thick blanket of miskat without a madera. Saree i ‘eranjum, The fertile material absorbs neOt quid metal. U-288 can be Page 16 converted to Pu-239. The latter energy density per kg of fuel is very the coolant should possess good thermal properties and hence for fast breeding. reactor (FBR) consists of 20% plutonium plus ‘The coolant, liquid sodium, leaves the reactor at 660°C at atmospheric pressure. The hea, transported is led toa secondary sodium circuit which transfers it to a heat exchanger toga? ate steam at 540°C. Figure 5.10 shows the schematic diagram of fast breeding reactor, = si hrm as as high and so the core is small. It is, therefore, necessary, liquid sodium is used, Then ‘8% uranium oxide, A nuclear powerplant using fast breeder reactor (FBR) of 40 MW capacity has been bg FBR ecology ie exected to reduce the ent feet energy 0 8 to compare fog, with that of conventional thermal plants. Page 17 EZ pt f ZZ AO ont 9\State the advantages and disadvantages of gas turbine power plants over diesel and thermal power plants? Advantages: > Smaller in size and weight as compared to an equivalent steam power pint. > Natural gas is very suitable fuel > The gas turbine plants are subjected to less vibration. > The initial cost is lower than an equivalent steam plant. > The installation and maintenance cost s are less compared to thermal power plants. > There are no stand by losses in gas turbine plants. > Itrequires less water as compared to a steam plant. > Any quality of fuels can be used in gas turbine plants. > Itcan be started quickly > The exhaust of the gas turbine is free from smoke. > Gas turbines can be built relatively quicker and requires less space Page 18 > Part load efficiency is poor v The unit is operated at high temperature and pressure ,so special metals are required to maintain the unit. > Major parts of the work (about 66% ) developed in the turbine is used to drive the compressor. > The devices that are operated at high temperature are complicated. 10.Explain the importance of nuclear waste management? The nuclear wastes are classified on the basis of half life time as well as on the basis of the intensity of radiation as low, medium and high level radioactive wastes. The waste produced from the reactor operations includes: > fission products > actinides > the neutron activation products Effects of nuclear radiation: Biological damage: Biological effects upon living tissues exposed to a radiation field result from the interaction of the radiation and tissue. The interaction between radiation and tissue is manifested in three ways. They are > ionization > displacement > adoption of neutrons by nuclei of tissue. Genetical changes: The expose of the nuclear radiations will affect the genes of the unborn children which directly affects the central nervous system in early pregnency. High rate of decay: some of the radioactive elements have high rate of decay which may cause harmful radiations throughout their life time. From the above effects it is well known that any form of nuclear waste should be Page 19 disposed safely some of the nuclear waste disposal methods are: > Underground system Encapsulation system Geological formations Harvest process vvvy AVM process 14.Explain the operation of boiling water reactor and gas cooled reactor with neat diagram ? 1g Water Reactors (BWR) heat water by generating heat from fission in the to boil water and create steam, which turns the generator. In both types of sm m is turned back into water and can be used again in the process. naboiling water reactor. light water (HO) plays the role of moderatorand coolant. veil Partof the water boils away in the reactor pressure vessel, thus amixture of water Sgsteam leaves the reactor core (Figure 3.11). Figure 3.11 the Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) The so generated steam directly goes to the turbine. therefore steam and moisture ‘must be separated. Steam leaving the turbine is condensed in the condenser and then fed back to the reactor after preheating. ‘Water that has not evaporated in the reactor vessel accumulates at the bottom of the vessel and mixes with the pumped back feed water. __ Since boiling in the reactor is allowed, the pressure is lower than that of the PWRs. kis about 6 to 7bars. The fuel is usually uranium dioxide. Enrichment of the fresh fuel is ‘normally somewhat lower than that in a PWR. ‘The advantage of this type is that- since this type has the simplest construction - the building costs are comparativel, 5 mparatively low. 22.5% of the total power of presently operating, | nuclear power plants is given by BWR, Page 20 Gas cooled reactor : ‘Advanced Gas-Cooled Reactor (AGR) is the (Figure3.13) reactors, using graphite moderator and jsuranium oxide pellets, enriched to 2.5-3.5%, in sti Second generation of gas-cooled arbon dioxide as coolant. The fuel inless steel tubes, rol rods [=~ Concrete pressure vessel ee Fuel elements ‘Graphite moderator, The carbon dioxide circulates through the core, reaching 6500°C and ter steam generator tubes outside it, but still inside the concrete and sieel pressure = Control rods penetrate the moderator and a secondary shutdown system involves inject niogeno the coolant. They use natura uranium ful nme form Page 21 12.Explain with neat diagram the operation of pressurized water reactor ? 35,1 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) Nuclear power plants run on uranium fuel. In the reactor, uranium atoms are split through a process known as fission. When atoms are spilt, they produce a large amount of energy that is then converted to heat. The heat boils water, creating steam that is used to tumturbines, which spins the shaft of'a generator. Inside the generator, coils of wire spin in magnetic field and electricity is produced. The Nuclear power plants use two types of rerctors to achieve this process boiling water reactors (BWR)and pressurized water reactors(PWR). The pressurized water reactor belongs tothe light water type the moderator and ‘coolant are both light water (H,O). The cooling water circulates in two loops, which are fully separated from one another. Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR) keep water under pressure, so the water heats but does not boil even at the high operating temperature (Figure 3.10). Constant pressure is ensured with the aid ofthe pressurizer, Ifpressure fallsin the primary circuit, water in the pressurizers is heated up by electric heaters, thus raising the colder cooling water is injected to the pressurizer. sin NL te eae eae Cae ‘he small tubes of the steam generator. it cooles down” lower temperature. ah conmmentercie —

    You might also like