Professional Documents
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Standard Terminology
Relating to Quality and Statistics1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E 456; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
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E 456 02e1
many units do (or do not) possess the quality attribute, or cartons that contain boxes or packages within them.
how many such events occur in the unit, group, or area.
completely randomized design, na design in which the
E 2334
treatments are assigned at random to the full set of experi-
average outgoing quality (AOQ)the average percent defec-
mental units. E 1325
tive of outgoing product including all accepted lots or
batches, after any defective units found in them are replaced completely randomized factorial design, na factorial ex-
by acceptable units, plus all lots or batches which are not periment (including all replications) run in a completely
accepted after such lots or batches have been effectively randomized design. E 1325
100 % inspected and all defective units replaced by accept- component of variance, na part of a total variance identified
able units. E 1994 with a specified source of variability.
average outgoing quality limit (AOQL)the maximum of composite design, na design developed specifically for
the AOQs for all possible incoming percentages defective for fitting second order response surfaces to study curvature,
the process, for a given acceptance sampling plan. E 1994 constructed by adding further selected treatments to those
average quality protectiona type of protection in which obtained from a 2n factorial (or its fraction). E 1325
there is prescribed some chosen value of average percent confidence bound, nsee confidence limit. E 2334
defective in the product after inspection (average outgoing confidence coefficient, nthe value, C, of the probability
quality limit (AOQL), that shall not be exceeded in the long associated with a confidence interval or statistical coverage
run no matter what may be the level of percent defective in interval. It is often expressed as a percentage. ISO 3534-1
the product submitted to the inspector. E 1994 E 2334
average run length (ARL)(1) sample sense, nthe aver- confidence level, nsee confidence coeffcient. E 2334
age number of times that a process will have been sampled confidence limit, neach of the limits, T1 and T2, of the two
and evaluated before a shift in process level is signaled, and sided confidence interval, or the limit T of the one sided
(2) unit sense, nthe average number of units that will have confidence interval. E 2334
been produced before a shift in level is signaled. confounded factorial design, na factorial experiment in
which only a fraction of the treatment combinations are run
DISCUSSIONA long ARL is desirable for a process located at its in each block and where the selection of the treatment
specified level (so as to minimize calling for unneeded investigation or combinations assigned to each block is arranged so that one
corrective action) and a short ARL is desirable for a process shifted to
some undesirable level (so that corrective action will be called for
or more prescribed effects is(are) confounded with the block
promptly). ARL curves are used to describe the relative quickness in effect(s), while the other effects remain free from confound-
detecting level shifts of various control chart systems. ing.
average standard deviation, s, narithmetic average of NOTE 5All factor level combinations are included in the experiment.
sample standard deviations. E 2281 E 1325
balanced incomplete block design (BIB), nan incomplete
confounding, ncombining indistinguishably the main effect
block design in which each block contains the same number
of a factor or a differential effect between factors (interac-
k of different versions from the t versions of a single
tions) with the effect of other factor(s), block factor(s) or
principal factor arranged so that every pair of versions
interactions(s).
occurs together in the same number, l, of blocks from the b
blocks. E 1325 NOTE 6Confounding is a useful technique that permits the effective
batch, na definite quantity of some product or material use of specified blocks in some experiment designs. This is accomplished
produced under conditions that are considered uniform. by deliberately preselecting certain effects or differential effects as being
of little interest, and arranging the design so that they are confounded with
NOTE 3A batch is usually smaller than a lot. block effects or other preselected principal factor or differential effects,
while keeping the other more important effects free from such complica-
bias, nthe difference between the expectation of the test tions. Sometimes, however, confounding results from inadvertent changes
results and an accepted reference value. to a design during the running of an experiment or from incomplete
planning of the design, and it serves to diminish, or even to invalidate, the
NOTE 4Bias is the total systematic error as contrasted to random
error. There may be one or more systematic error components contributing effectiveness of an experiment. E 1325
to the bias. A larger systematic difference from the accepted reference
value is reflected by a larger bias value.
consumers riskthe probability that a lot whose percentage
defective is equal to the LTPD will be accepted by the plan.
characteristic, na property of items in a sample or popula- E 1994
tion which, when measured, counted or otherwise observed, contrast, na linear function of the observations for which
helps to distinguish between the items. E 2282 the sum of the coefficients is zero.
cluster sampling, nwhen the primary sampling unit com-
NOTE 7With observations Y1, Y2,..., Yn, the linear function
prises a bundle of elementary units or a group of subunits, a1Y1 + a2Y2 + ... + an Yn is a contrast if, and only if (ai = 0, where the ai
the term cluster sampling may be applied.
values are called the contrast coefficients. E 1325
DISCUSSIONExamples of cluster sampling are: selection of city
blocks as primary sampling units; selection of a household as a cluster contrast analysis, na technique for estimating the param-
of people (of which only one may be interviewed); selection of bundles eters of a model and making hypothesis tests on preselected
of rods or pipe from a shipment; and selection, from a shipment, of linear combinations of the treatments (contrasts).
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NOTE 16Because the training of operators, the agreement of different limit. E 2281
pieces of equipment in the same laboratory and the variation of environ- lower tolerance limit (LTL) (lower specification limit), na
mental conditions with longer time intervals all depend on the degree of tolerance limit that defines the lower conformance boundary
within-laboratory control, the intermediate measures of precision are
likely to vary appreciably from laboratory to laboratory. Thus, intermedi-
for an individual unit of a manufacturing or service opera-
ate precisions may be more characteristic of individual laboratories than of tion.
the test method. main effect, average effect, na term describing a measure
for the comparison of the responses at each level (version) of
intermediate precision conditions, nconditions under a factor averaged over all levels (versions) of other factors in
which test results are obtained with the same test method the experiment.
using test units or test specimens (see Practice E 691,2 10.3)
taken at random from a single quantity of material that is as NOTE 18The term 88main effect may describe the parameter in an
nearly homogeneous as possible, and with changing condi- assumed model or the estimate of this parameter. E 1325
tions such as operator, measuring equipment, location within method of least squares, na technique of estimation of a
the laboratory, and time. parameter which minimizes (e2, where e is the difference
item, n(1) an object or quantity of material on which a set of between the observed value and the predicted value derived
observations can be made: (2) an observed value or test from the assumed model. E 1325
result obtained from an object or quantity of material. minimum process capability index, Cpk, nsmaller of the
DISCUSSIONThe second usage in the definition is generally limited upper process capability index and the lower process capa-
to generic descriptions such as in the definition of population. Terms bility index. E 2281
such as observation, measurement, test result, unit, value or minimum process performance index, Ppk, nsmaller of the
yield are more common in specific applications. A set as used here upper process performance index and the lower process
may be one or more variables. performance index. E 2281
level (of a factor), na given value, a specification of mixture design, na design in which two or more ingredients
procedure or a specific setting of a factor. or components shall be mixed and the response is a property
of the resulting mixture that does not depend upon the
NOTE 1788Version is a general term applied both to quantitative and amount of the mixture.
qualitative factors. The more restrictive term 88level is frequently used to
express more precisely the quantitative characteristic. For example, two NOTE 19The proportions of each of the q components (Xi) in the
versions of a catalyst may be presence and absence. Four levels of a heat c
treatment may be 100C, 120C, 140C, and 160C. E 1325 mixture shall satisfy the conditions O # Xi # 1 and ( Xi = 1; and each
i51
experimental point is defined in terms of these proportions.
long term standard deviation, sLT, nsample standard NOTE 20In some fields of application the experimental mixtures are
deviation of all individual (observed) values taken over a described by the terms 88formulation or 88blend. The use of mixture
long period of time. designs is appropriate for experimenting with the formulations of manu-
factured products, such as paints, gasoline, foods, rubber, and textiles.
DISCUSSIONA long period of time may be defined as shifts, weeks,
NOTE 21In some applications, the proportions of the components of
or months, etc. E 2281 the mixture may vary between 0 and 100 % of the mixture (88complete
domain). In others, there may be operative restraints, so that at least one
lota definite quantity of a product or material accumulated
under conditions that are considered uniform for sampling component cannot attain 0 or 100 % (88reduced domain). E 1325
purposes. natural process limits (NPL), nlimits which include a
lot quality protectiona type of protection in which there is stated fraction of the individuals in a population.
prescribed some chosen value of limiting percent defective
NOTE 22Natural process limits will not ordinarily be the dimensional
in a lot (lot tolerance percent defective, (LTPD)) and also limits shown on an engineering drawing. They are mostly used to compare
some chosen value for the probability (called the consumers the natural capability of the process to tolerance limits.
risk) of accepting a submitted lot that has a percent defective DISCUSSIONFor populations with a normal (Gaussian) distribution,
equal to the lot tolerance percent defective. E 1994 the natural process limits ordinarily will be at 63 s. If placed around
lot tolerance percent defective (LTPD)the percentage of the standard level, these limits identify the boundaries which will
defective units in a batch or lot for which, for purposes of include approximately 99.7 % of the individuals in a process that is
acceptance sampling, the consumer wishes the probability of properly centered and in a state of statistical control. In many
circumstances (several machines making the same product that serially
acceptance to be restricted to a specified low value, specifi- feed into the process) it is recognized that in addition to the variability
cally 10 % for this practice. This is also referred to by the around a single level, an acceptable zone of standard levels (for the
more general term limiting quality taken at 10 % consumer different machines) is required. Then the NPL may be placed around
risk. E 1994 the Acceptable Process Levels (APL) that define this zone so that the
lower control limit (LCL), ncontrol limit for points below NPL identify the boundaries within which at least 99.7 % of the
the central line. individuals will be included in a process located at the APL, or inside
the zone. It should be noted that there is no assumption made that the
lower process capability index, Cpkl, nindex describing
process levels within the zone are random variables.
process capability in relation to the lower specification limit.
E 2281 nested experiment, nan experiment to examine the effect of
lower process performance index, Ppkl, nindex describing two or more factors in which the same level (version) of a
process performance in relation to the lower specification factor cannot be used with all levels (versions) of other
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factors. Synonym: hierarchical experiment. E 1325 Plackett-Burman designs, na set of screening designs using
non-conforming item, nan item containing at least one orthogonal arrays that permit evaluation of the linear effects
non-conformity. of up to n = t 1 factors in a study of t, treatment
combinations. E 1325
DISCUSSIONThe term defective item is also used in this context.
population, nthe totality of items or units of material under
E 2334
consideration.
observation, n(1) the process of obtaining information DISCUSSIONThe word items may be interpreted in the sense of
regarding the presence or absence of an attribute of a test measurements, or possible measurements, for a single characteristic, or
specimen, or of making a reading on a characteristic or occasionally for multiple characteristics, on all items or units of
dimension of a test specimen, or (2) the attribute or mea- material being considered. The word totality may refer to items not
surement information obtained from the process. (The term available for inclusion in samples as well as those which are available.
88observed value is preferred for this second usage.) E 2334
NOTE 23See Annex A1. E 2282 precision, nthe closeness of agreement between independent
test results obtained under stipulated conditions.
observation, nthe process of obtaining information regard-
NOTE 28Precision depends on random errors and does not relate to
ing the presence or absence of an attribute of a test specimen,
the true value or the specified value.
or of making a reading on a characteristic or dimension of a NOTE 29The measure of precision usually is expressed in terms of
test specimen. imprecision and computed as a standard deviation of the test results. Less
NOTE 24Observation is also associated with the attribute or measure- precision is reflected by a larger standard deviation.
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ment information obtained from the process. The term observed value is NOTE 3088Independent test results means results obtained in a
manner not influenced by any previous result on the same or similar test
preferred for this second usage. E 2281 object. Quantitative measures of precision depend critically on the
observed value, nthe value obtained by carrying out the stipulated conditions. Repeatability and reproducibility conditions are
particular sets of extreme stipulated conditions.
complete protocol of the test method once, being either a
single test determination or an average or other specified probability sample, na sample of which the sampling units
combination of a specified number of test determinations. have been selected by a chance process. At each step of
selection, a specified probability of selection can be attached
NOTE 25See Annex A1. E 2282 to each sampling unit available for selection. E 1402
observed value, nthe value obtained by making an obser- probability sample, na sample of which the sampling units
vation. E 2281 have been selected by a chance process such that, at each
orthogonal array, na table of coefficients identifying the step of selection, a specified probability of selection can be
levels, or some weight associated with the levels, for each attached to each sampling unit available for selection.
factor to be used in the analysis of specified effects, which NOTE 31These probabilities of selection need not be equal. If equal,
are arranged in such a manner that each effect will be see simple random sample. See the general termsample. Also, see
independent of the other effects. E 1325 Practice E 1052 in this volume.
orthogonal contrasts, ntwo contrasts are orthogonal if the
process capability, PC, nstatistical estimate of the outcome
contrast coefficients of the two sets satisfy the condition that,
of a characteristic from a process that has been demonstrated
when multiplied in corresponding pairs, the sum of the
to be in a state of statistical control. E 2281
products is equal to zero. See contrast and contrast analy-
process capability index, Cp, nan index describing process
sis. E 1325
capability in relation to specified tolerance. E 2281
outliersee outlying observation. E 178
process performance, PP, nstatistical measure of the out-
outlying observation, nan observation that appears to devi-
come of a characteristic from a process that may not have
ate markedly in value from other members of the sample in
been demonstrated to be in a state of statistical control.
which it appears. E 178
E 2281
partially balanced incomplete block design (PBIB), nan
process performance index, Pp, nindex describing process
incomplete block design in which each block contains the
performance in relation to specified tolerance. E 2281
same number k, of different versions from the t versions of
random error of result, na component of the error which,
the principal factor.
in the course of a number of test results for the same
NOTE 26The arrangement is such that not all pairs of versions occur characteristic, varies in an unpredictable way.
together in the same number of the blocks; some versions can therefore be randomization, nthe procedure used to allot treatments at
compared with greater precision than others. E 1325 random to the experimental units so as to provide a high
partially nested experiment, na nested experiment in degree of independence in the contributions of experimental
which several factors may be crossed as in factorial experi- error to estimates of treatment effects.
ments and other factors nested within the crossed combina- NOTE 32An essential element in the design of experiments is to
tions. provide estimates of effects free from biases due to undetected assignable
causes within the experimental space. Randomization is a process to
NOTE 27It is not unusual to find that experiments consist of both minimize this risk. The operational procedure for assignment 88at random
factorial and nested segments. See nested experiment. E 1325 involves the use of random numbers or some similar method for assuring
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that each unit has an equal chance of being selected for each treatment. within-laboratory standard deviation. (See within-laboratory standard
E 1325 deviation.)
randomized block design, na design in which the experi- reproducibility, nprecision under reproducibility condi-
tions.
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the F-statistic for comparing variances may be an indicator of lack of 0.10 estimation of the precision of an estimator should take account of this
normality rather than a simple variance comparison. magnitude of f. See finite population correction.
ruggedness, ninsensitivity of a test method to departures sampling with replacement, na procedure used with some
from specified test or environmental conditions. probability sampling plans in which a selected unit is
DISCUSSIONAn evaluation of the ruggedness of a test method or
replaced after any step in selection so that this sampling unit
an empirical model derived from an experiment is useful in determining is available for selection again at the next step of selection,
whether the results or decisions will be relatively invariant over some or at any other succeeding step of the sample selection
range of environmental variability under which the test method or the procedure.
model is likely to be applied. E 1169 screening design, na balanced design, requiring relatively
minimal amount of experimentation, to evaluate the lower
ruggedness test, na planned experiment in which environ-
order effects of a relatively large number of factors in terms
mental factors or test conditions are deliberately varied in
of contributions to variability or in terms of estimates of
order to evaluate the effects of such variation.
parameters for a model.
DISCUSSIONSince there usually are many environmental factors that
NOTE 46In screening designs, the term lower order effects is some-
might be considered in a ruggedness test, it is customary to use a
times limited to first order terms such as linear components of main
screening type of experiment design (see screening design) which
effects, but often includes both first order terms and second order terms
concentrates on examining many first order effects and generally
such as two factor interactions and quadratic curvature components of
assume that second order effects such as interactions and curvature are
relatively negligible. Often in evaluating the ruggedness of a test main effects. E 1325
method, if there is an indication that the results of a test method are
short term standard deviation, sST, nthe inherent variation
highly dependent on the levels of the environmental factors, there is a
sufficient indication that certain levels of environmental factors must be present when a process is operating in a state of statistical
included in the specifications for the test method, or even that the test control, expressed in terms of standard deviation.
method itself will need further revision. E 1169 DISCUSSIONThis may also be stated as the inherent process varia-
run, n(1) an uninterrupted sequence of occurrences of the tion. E 2281
same attribute or event in a series of observations, and (2) a significant digit, nany of the figures 0 through 9, except
consecutive set of successively increasing run-up or succes- leading zeros and some trailing zeros, which is used with its
sively decreasing run-down values in a series of variable place value to denote a numerical quantity to some desired
measurements. approximation
DISCUSSIONIn control chart applications, some variable measure- NOTE 47The digit zero may either indicate a specific value or indicate
ments are treated as attributes in determining runs. For example, a run place only. Zeros leading the first nonzero digit of a number indicate order
might be considered a series of a specified number of consecutive of magnitude only and are not significant digits. For example, the number
points above or below the central line.3 0.0034 has two significant digits. Zeros trailing the last nonzero digit for
numbers represented with a decimal point are significant digits. For
sample, na group of items, observations, test results, or
example, the numbers 1270. and 32.00 each have four significant digits.
portions of material, taken from a large collection of items, The significance of trailing zeros for numbers represented without use of
observations, test results, or quantities of material, which a decimal point can only be identified from knowledge of the source of the
serves to provide information that may be used as a basis for value. For example, a modulus strength, stated as 140 000 Pa, may have
making a decision concerning the larger collection. as few as two or as many as six significant digits.
To eliminate ambiguity, the exponential notation may be used. Thus,
DISCUSSIONThe sample may be the units of material themselves or 1.40 3 105 indicates that the modulus is reported to the nearest 0.01 3 10
the set of the observations collected from them. The decision may or 5 or 1000 Pa.
may not involve taking action on the units of material, or on the Use of appropriate SI prefixes is recommended for metric units to
process. It is necessary to describe whether the sample is to be selected reduce the need for trailing zeros of uncertain significance. Thus, 140 kPa
on a simple random, a stratified random, or other specified basis. and 0.140 MPa each indicate that the modulus is reported to the nearest 1
Probability samples, that is, samples selected by chance using appro- kPa or 1000 Pa, while 140 kPa may again have two or three significant
priate randomization, are required to make confidence interval state-
ments and similar statistical inferences about the parameters of the
digits. E 29
sampled population. E 2334 special cause, nsource of intermittent variation in a process.
sample size, nthe number of units in a sample or the number ISO 3534-2
of observations in a sample. E 2334 DISCUSSIONSometimes special cause is taken to be synonymous
sampling fraction, f, nthe ratio f of the number of sampling with assignable cause. However a distinction should be recognized.
units selected for the sample to the number of sampling units A special cause is assignable only when it is specifically identified. Also
available. a common cause may be assignable.
DISCUSSIONA special cause arises because of specific circumstances
NOTE 45For the simple random sample case, f = n/N where n is the which are not always present. As such, in a process subject to special
sample size and N is the number of sampling units available. When f > causes, the magnitude of the variation from time to time is unpredict-
able. E 2281
3
Other examples may be found in references such as Nelson, L. S., Interpreting
specification limits, nsee tolerance limits.
Shewhart X Control Charts, Journal of Quality Technology, Vol 17, No. 2, April stable process, nprocess in a state of statistical control;
1985. process condition when all special causes of variation have
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E 456 02e1
been removed. ISO 3534-2 developed for non-integer N/k to overcome sampling bias. See Jessen.4
Estimation of the precision of an average computed from a
DISCUSSIONObserved variation can then be attributed to random systematic sample is a difficult problem that has no generally satisfac-
(common) causes. Such a process will generally behave as though the tory solution. Independent replicate systematic samples provide an
results are simple random samples from the same population. approach to variance estimation, but have been rejected by some
DISCUSSIONThis state does not imply that the random variation is writers. In some ASTM situations where replicate samples may be
large or small, within or outside of specification, but rather that the obtained on a routine basis, the technique may be useful. See Cochran5
variation is predictable using statistical techniques. for an extended discussion of variance estimation for systematic
DISCUSSIONThe process capability of a stable process is usually sampling.
improved by fundamental changes that reduce or remove some of the
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of probability considerations. Tolerance limits may be in the form of a upper control limit (UCL), ncontrol limit for points above
single (unilateral) limit (upper or lower) or double (bilateral) limits the central line.
(upper and lower). Double, or two-sided limits occur more frequently. upper process capability index, Cpku, nindex describing
Double limits are often stated as a symmetrical deviation from a stated
value, but they need not be symmetrical. Frequently the term specifi-
process capability in relation to the upper specification limit.
cation limits is used instead of tolerance limits. While tolerance limits E 2281
is generally preferred in terms of evaluating the manufacturing or upper process performance index (Ppku), nindex describ-
service requirements, specification limits may be more appropriate for ing process performance in relation to the upper specification
categorizing material, product, or service in terms of their stated limit. E 2281
requirements. upper tolerance limit (UTL) (upper specification limit),
tolerance specification, nthe total allowable variation na tolerance limit applicable to the upper conformance
around a level or state (upper limit minus lower limit), or the boundary for an individual unit of a manufacturing or service
maximum acceptable excursion of a characteristic. operation.
variables, method of, nmeasurement of quality by the
DISCUSSIONThe determination of the amount of variation to be method of variables consists of measuring and recording the
allowed involves the product or service requirements and consideration
numerical magnitude of a quality characteristic for each of
of process capability (see natural process limits), measurement
variability, and other appropriate elements or some compromise among the units in the group under consideration.
these. NOTE 57This involves reference to a continuous scale of some kind.
treatment, na combination of the levels (versions) of each variables data, nmeasurements which vary and may take
of the factors assigned to an experimental unit, synonym any of a specified set of numerical values.
treatment combination. E 1325
DISCUSSIONThe term random variable or variate is often used
treatment combination, nsee treatment. E 1325
to indicate that each of the specified set of values is associated with a
trueness, nthe closeness of agreement between the popula- specified relative frequency or probability, and that each is a random
tion mean of the measurements or test results and the sample from a continuous or a discrete, or discontinuous, population
accepted reference value. encompassing the specified values.
NOTE 53The measure of trueness usually is expressed in terms of variance, na measure of the squared dispersion of observed
bias. Greater bias means less favorable trueness. values or measurements expressed as a function of the sum
NOTE 5488Population mean is, conceptually, the average value of an of the squared deviations from the population mean or
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indefinitely large number of test results.
sample average.
NOTE 55Trueness is the systematic component of accuracy.
NOTE 58The sample variance, or variance of a sample of n observed
uncertainty, nan indication of the variability associated with values, is computed as s2 = [1/(n 1)][((yi y)2]. The sample standard
a measured value that takes into account two major compo- deviation s is the positive square root of the sample variance. The
nents of error: (1) bias, and (2) the random error attributed to population variance s2 = *R (y )2f (y)dy, where R is the region over
the imprecision of the measurement process. which the random variable y is defined, and where f (y) is the probability
density function and is the population mean of y. The population
DISCUSSIONQuantitative measures of uncertainty generally require standard deviation (s) is the positive square root of the population
descriptive statements of explanation because of differing traditions of variance.
usage and because of differing circumstances. For example: (1) the bias DISCUSSIONA listing of the sample variance s2 should always be
and imprecision may both be negligible; (2) the bias may not be accompanied by the degrees of freedom on which it is based. The
negligible while the imprecision is negligible; (3) neither the bias nor degrees of freedom for the sample variance described above are (n 1).
the imprecision may be negligible; (4) the bias may be negligible while
the imprecision is not negligible. within-laboratory standard deviation, nthe standard de-
viation of test results obtained within a laboratory for a
unit, nan object on which a measurement or observation single material under conditions that may include such
may be made. elements as different operators, equipment, and longer time
DISCUSSIONThe word unit is commonly used in the sense of a intervals.
unit of product (service, etc.)the entity of product inspected in order
NOTE 59Because the training of operators, the agreement of different
to determine its classification or its measurements. This entity may be
pieces of equipment in the same laboratory and the variation of environ-
a single article, a set of like articles treated collectively, a subassembly,
mental conditions with longer time intervals depend on the degree of
a stated quantity of material, etc. The unit of product or service need not
within-laboratory control, the within-laboratory standard deviation is
be the same as the unit of purchase, supply, production, or shipment.
likely to vary appreciably from laboratory to laboratory.
universe (population), nthe totality of the set of items, Youden square, na type of block design derived from
units, or measurements, etc., real or conceptual, that is under certain Latin squares by deleting, or adding, rows (or
consideration. columns) so that one block factor remains complete blocks
NOTE 56This definition of universe is being revised to incorporate the and the second block factor constitutes balanced incomplete
concept of including one or more populations. Use with caution. blocks. E 1325
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E 456 02e1
ANNEX
(Mandatory Information)
A1.1 A test method often has three distinct stages: (1) the test method specifies that only one test determination is to be
direct observation of dimensions or characteristics, (2) the made, then the test determination value is the test result of the
combining of the observed values to obtain a single test test method. Some test methods require that several determi-
determination, and (3) the combining of a number of test nations be made and the values obtained be averaged or
determinations to obtain the test result of the test method. The otherwise combined to obtain the test result of the test method.
term measurement may be applied to any one or more of these Averaging of several determinations is often used to reduce the
stages of the measurement process. effect of local variations of the property within the material.
A1.2 In the simplest of test methods a single direct
observation is also the test determination and the test result. A1.3 Precision statements for ASTM test methods are
For example, a test observation required by a test method may usually based on test results, not test determinations or obser-
be the mass of a test specimen prepared and weighed in a vations. If for some compelling reason an ASTM committee
specified way. The observation would also be the test determi- wished to address the issue of variation between test determi-
nation of the mass of the test specimen, and if only one nations (in addition to the variation among test results), the
specimen is to be weighed, the observed weight would also be committee can do so with a clear declaration (of what is being
the test result of the test method. Another test method may done) to avoid confusion. Sampling plans and product speci-
require the measurement of the area of the test specimen as fications should specify the sample size in terms of the number
--`,,,````,,````,``,,```,,`,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
well as the mass, and then direct that the mass be divided by of replicate test results. A test method should specify the
the area to obtain the mass per unit area of the test specimen. required observations to obtain a test determination and the
The whole process of measuring the mass and the area and number of test determinations to be averaged or otherwise
calculating the mass per unit area is a test determination. If the combined to obtain a single test result.
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