Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Dynamics:
(ii) Hydrodynamics: Different forms of energy in a flowing
liquid, head, Bernoulli's equation and its application, Energy
line and Hydraulic Gradient Line, and Energy Equation

Dr. Mohsin Siddique

Assistant Professor

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Forms of Energy

(1). Kinetic Energy: Energy due to motion of body. A body of

mass, m, when moving with velocity, V, posses kinetic energy,
1 m and V are mass and velocity of body
KE = mV 2
2

(2). Potential Energy: Energy due to elevation of body above an
arbitrary datum
Z is elevation of body from arbitrary datum
PE = mgZ m is the mass of body

(3). Pressure Energy: Energy due to pressure above datum, most

usually its pressure above atmospheric

PrE = h !!!

2
Forms of Energy

(4). Internal Energy: It is the energy that is associated with the
molecular, or internal state of matter; it may be stored in many
forms, including thermal, nuclear, chemical and electrostatic.

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HEAD

Head: Energy per unit weight is called head

Kinetic head: Kinetic energy per unit weight

KE 1 2 V2 QWeight = mg
Kinetic head = = mV / mg =
Weight 2 2g

Potential head: Potential energy per unit weigh
PE
Potential head = = (mgZ ) / mg = Z
Weight

Pressure head: Pressure energy per unit weight

PrE P
Pressure head = =
Weight
4
TOTAL HEAD

TOTAL HEAD
= Kinetic Head + Potential Head + Pressure Head
V2 P
Z
2g

P V2
Total Head = H = Z + +
2g

5
Bernoullis Equation

It states that the sum of kinetic, potential and pressure heads
of a fluid particle is constant along a streamline during steady
flow when compressibility and frictional effects are negligible.

i.e. , For an ideal fluid, Total head of fluid particle remains
constant during a steady-incompressible flow.

Or total head along a streamline is constant during steady flow
when compressibility and frictional effects are negligible.

P V2
Total Head = Z + + = constt
2g
P1 V 21 P2 V 2 2 2
Z1 + + = Z2 + +
2g 2g
1
H1 = H 2 Pipe

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Derivation of Bernoullis Equation

Consider motion of flow fluid
particle in steady flow field as
shown in fig.

Applying Newtons 2nd Law in s-
direction on a particle moving
along a streamline give
Assumption:
Fluid is ideal and incompressible
Flow is steady
Flow is along streamline
Velocity is uniform across the section and is equal
to mean velocity
Only gravity and pressure forces are acting

Fs = mas Eq(1)

Where F is resultant force in s-

direction, m is the mass and as is
the acceleration along s-direction.

dV dsdV dsdV dV
as = = = =V Eq(2)
dt dsdt dtds ds

7 Fig. Forces acting on particle along streamline

 Derivation of Bernoullis Equation
Fs = PdA (P + dp )dA W sin Eq(3)

Substituting values from Eq(2) and

Eq(3) to Eq(1)
dz
dV sin =
ds
PdA (P + dp )dA W sin = mV
ds
dz dV
dpdA gdAds = dAdsV
ds ds
Cancelling dA and simplifying

dp gdz = VdV Eq(4)

Fig. Forces acting on particle along streamline
Note that VdV =
1
dV 2
2
1 W=weight of fluid W = mg = (dAds )g
dp gdz = dV 2 Eq(5) Wsin( )= component acting along s-direction
2 dA= Area of flow
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ds=length between sections along pipe
Derivation of Bernoullis Equation

Dividing eq (5) by
Hence Eq (9) for stead-
incompressible fluid assuming no
dp 1 frictional losses can be written as
+ gdz + dV 2 = 0 Eq (6)
2
P1 V 21 P2 V 2 2

Integrating Z1 + + = Z2 + +
2g 2g Eq (10)
dp 1 2 (Total Head )1 = (Total Head )2

+ gdz +
2
dV = contt

Eq (7)

Assuming incompressible and

steady flow
Above Eq(10) is general form of
Bernoullis Equation
P 1
+ gz + V 2 = contt Eq (8)
2

Dividing each equation by g

P V2 Eq (9)
+z+ = contt
9 g 2g
Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade line
P V2
+z+ =H
2g
Pressure head + Elevation head + Velocity head = Total Head
Multiplying with unit weight,,
V2
P + gz + = contt
2

Static Pressure : P

Dynamic pressure : V 2 / 2

Hydrostatic Pressure: gZ

Stagnation Pressure: Static pressure + dynamic Pressure
2
V
P+ = Pstag
2

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Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade line

Measurement of Heads

Piezometer: It measures
pressure head ( P / ).

Pitot tube: It measures sum of

pressure and velocity heads i.e.,
P V2
+
2g

11 What about measurement of elevation head !!

Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade line

Energy line: It is line joining the total heads along a pipe line.

HGL: It is line joining pressure head along a pipe line.

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Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade line

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Energy Equation for steady flow of any fluid

Lets consider the energy of
system (Es) and energy of
control volume(Ecv) defined
within a stream tube as shown
in figure. Therefore,
out in
Es = ECV + ECV ECV Eq(1)

Because the flow is steady,

conditions within the control
volume does not change so
ECV = 0 Figure: Forces/energies in fluid flowing in

Hence streamt ube
out in Eq(2)
Es = ECV ECV

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Energy Equation for steady flow of any
fluid

Now, lets apply the first law of thermodynamics to the fluid system
which states For steady flow, the external work done on any system
plus the thermal energy transferred into or out of the system is equal to
the change of energy of system

External work done + heat transferred = change of energy

(flowwork + shaftwork ) + heat transferred = Es Eq(3)
(flowwork + shaftwork ) + heat transferred = ECVout ECV
in
Eq(4)

Flow work: When the pressure forces acting on the boundaries

move, in present case when p1A1 and p2A2 at the end sections move
through s1 and s2, external work is done. It is referred to as flow
work.
p1 p2
Flow work = p1 A1s1 p1 A1s1 = 1 A1s1 2 A2 s2
1 2
Eq(5)
p p
15 Flow work = gm 1 2 Q 1 A1s1 = 2 A2 s2 = m Steady flow
1 2
Energy Equation for steady flow of any
fluid

Shaft work: Work done by machine, if any, between section 1 and 2
weight energy ds
Shaft work = time = 1 A1 1 hm t
time weight dt
Shaft work = ( 1 A1s1 )hm = ( gm )hm Eq(6)

Where, hm is the energy added to the flow by the machine per unit
weight of flowing fluid. Note: if the machine is pump, which adds energy
to the fluid, hm is positive and if the machine is turbine, which remove
energy from fluid, hm is -ve

Heat Transferred: The heat transferred from an external source
into the fluid system over time interval t is
ds
Heat transferred = 1 A1 1 QH t
dt
Heat transferred = ( 1 A1s1 )QH = ( gm )QH Eq(7)

Where, QH is the amount of energy put into the flow by the external
heat source per unit weight of flowing fluid. If the heat flow is out of the
16 fluid, the value QH is ve and vice versa
Energy Equation for steady flow of any
fluid

Change in Energy: For steady flow during time interval t, the weight of
fluid entering the control volume at section 1 and leaving at section 2 are
both equal to gm . Thus the energy (Potential+Kinetic+Internal) carried by
gm is;

ds1 V12 V12

z1 + + I1 t = ( 1 A1ds1 ) z1 + + I1
in
ECV = 1 A1
dt 2g 2g
V12
in
ECV = gm z1 + + I1 Eq(8)
2g
ds2 V22 V22
z 2 + + I 2 t = ( 2 A2 ds2 ) z 2 + + I 2
out
ECV = 2 A2
dt 2g 2g
V22
Eout
CV = gm z2 + + I 2 Eq(9)
2g

is kinetic energy correction factor and ~ 1

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 Energy Equation for steady flow of any
fluid

Substituting all values from Eqs. (5),(6), (7), (8), & (9) in Eq(4)
(flowwork + shaftwork ) + heat transferred = ECVout ECV
in

p1 p2 V22 V12

gm + ( gm )hm + ( gm )QH = gm z 2 +
+ I 2 gm z1 + + I1
1 2 2g 2g
p1 p2 V22 V12
+ hm + QH = z 2 + + I 2 z1 + + I1
1 2 2g 2g

p1 V12 p2 V22
z1 + + I1 + hm + QH = + z 2 + + I 2 Eq(10)
1 2g 2 2g

This is general form of energy equation, which applies to liquids, gases, vapors
and to ideal fluids as well as real fluids with friction, both incompressible and
compressible. The only restriction is that its for steady flow.

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Energy Equation for steady flow of
incompressible fluid

For incompressible fluids
1 = 2 =

Substituting in Eq(10), we get
p1 V12 p2 V22
z1 + + hm + QH = + z 2 + + (I 2 I1 )
2g 2g

p1 V12 p2 V22
z1 + + hm = + z 2 + + (I 2 I1 ) QH
2g 2g
Q hL = (I 2 I1 ) QH
p1 V12 p2 V22
z1 + + hm = + z 2 + + hL Eq(11)
2g 2g

Where hL=(I2-I1)-QH= head loss. It equal to is gain in internal energy minus

any heat added by external source.

Hm is head removed/added by machines. It can also be referred to head loss
due to pipe fitting, contraction, expansion and bends etc in pipes.
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Energy Equation for steady flow of
incompressible fluid

In the absence of machine, pipe fitting etc, Eq(11) can be written as

p1 2 2
+ z1 + V1 = p 2 + z 2 + V2 + hL Eq(12)
2 g 2 g

When the head loss is caused only by wall or pipe friction, hL

becomes hf, where hf is head loss due to friction

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Power

Rate of work done is termed as power
Power=Energy/time
Power=(Energy/weight)(weight/time)

If H is total head=total energy/weight and Q is the weight flow rate
then above equation can be written as

Power=(H)(Q)= QH
In BG: 1 horsepower=550ft.lb/s
Power in (horsepower)=(H)(Q)/550
In SI:
Power in (Kilowatts)=(H)(Q)/1000

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Reading Assignment

Kinetic energy correction factor

Limitation of Bernoullis Equation

Application of hydraulic grade line and energy line

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 NUMERICALS

5.2.1

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5.2.3

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5.3.2

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5.3.4

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5.3.6

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5.9.6

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Momentum and Forces in Fluid Flow

We have all seen moving fluids exerting forces. The lift force on an aircraft
is exerted by the air moving over the wing. A jet of water from a hose
exerts a force on whatever it hits.

In fluid mechanics the analysis of motion is performed in the same way as in

solid mechanics - by use of Newtons laws of motion.

i.e., F = ma which is used in the analysis of solid mechanics to relate applied

force to acceleration.

In fluid mechanics it is not clear what mass of moving fluid we should use
so we use a different form of the equation.

d (mV )s
F = ma =
dt
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Momentum and Forces in Fluid Flow

Newtons 2nd Law can be written:

The Rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force acting
on the body, and takes place in the direction of the force.

d (mV )s
F =
dt
F = Sum of all external forces on a body of fluid or system s
mV = Momentum of fluid body in direction s

The symbols F and V represent vectors and so the change in momentum must be
in the same direction as force.

Fdt = d (mV )s
30 It is also termed as impulse momentum principle
Impact of a Jet on a Plane

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Impact of a Jet on a Plane

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 Thank you

Questions.

Feel free to contact:

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