SCIENCE - FORM 3

RESPIRATION
HUMAN BREATHING MECHANISM

A. Human respiratory system

1. The human respiratory system consist of:

(i) diaphragm
(ii) ribs
(iii) breathing organs
(iv) intercostal muscles

2. The breathing organs include the nasal cavity (nostril), the breathing channel
(trachea,
bronchus and bronchiole) and the lungs.
3. Alveolus, bronchiole and a part of the bronchus are situated in the lungs.
4. In the lungs, the bronchus branches to form many smaller channels called
bronchiole.
Each bronchiole ends with an alveolus.
5. The function of the nasal cavity is to warm, moisten and filter fine particles like
dust from
the air that pass through it.
6. The trachea is a channel which branches into two. Each branch is called bronchus
which
enters the lungs.
7. Air is taken into our body through the nose or mouth and then into the trachea.
8. Air is inhaled through the nasal cavity and taken through the trachea, bronchus,

bronchiole and finally to the alveolus.

9. The ribs protect the lungs and internal organs like the heart.
10. The diaphragm is a piece of muscle situated at the bottom of the lungs.
11. The intercostal muscles are situated between the ribs. There are two types of
intercostal
muscles, i.e. the internal intercostal muscle and the external intercostal muscle.
The
intercostal muscles contract and relax to help the breathing process.
12. Each alveoulus has a very thin wall which is moist and contains a large network of
blood
capillaries.
B. Breathing mechanism

1. The human breathing mechanism involves two physical processes, i.e. inhalation

(inspiration) and exhalation (expiration) which happen alternately without

stopping.
2. Air from the outside is taken into the lungs through the inhalation process.
3. In contrast, air is expelled from the lungs through the exhalation process.
4. The intercostal muscle raises or lowers the ribs during breathing.
5. The diaphragm changes the air pressure in the thoracic cavity by increasing or
decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity.
6. During inhalation:
(a) the external intercostal muscle contracts. This causes the ribs to rise and
extend
outwards. At the same time, the internal intercostal muscle relaxes
(b) the diaphragm muscle contracts and causes the diaphragm to descend and
become
flat
(c) the volume of the thoracic cavity increases. this causes the air pressure in it
to
become lower than the atmospheric pressure (air pressure on the outside)
(d) this occurence causes the air on the outside to be inhaled into the lungs

7. During exhalation:
(a) the internal intercostal muscle contracts. This causes the ribs to descend and
fall
inwards. At the same time, the external intercostal muscle relaxes
(b) the diaphragm muscle relaxes and causes the diaphragm to curve upwards
(c) the volume in the thoracic cavity decreases. The air pressure in it becomes
higher
 than the atmospheric pressure
(d) this occurence causes the air in the lungs to be pushed out
Comparison between inhalation and exhalation mechanisms
1. Apparatus as shown in figure above is prepared.
2. The handle is pulled down. Observation is recorded.
3. The handle is released from the hand. Observation is again recorded/

1. The parts in the human respiratory system that is analogous to the simple model in
this
activity are as follows:
 (a) Rubber sheet: Diaphragm
(b) Bell jar: Thoracic cavity
(c) Glass tube: Trachea
(d) Y-shaped tube: Bronchus
(e) Balloon: Lung

2. The condition when the handle is pulled down represents inhalation in humans.
3. The condition when the handle is released from the hand represents exhalation in

humans.
4. The condition when the handle is pulled down and released from the hand is
summarised
in the following chart.

1. Inhalation takes place when the diaphragm is flat.

2. Exhalation takes place when the diaphragm curves.

TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN IN THE HUMAN BODY

A. Diffusion of Oxygen from the Alveolus to the Capillaries

1. The exchange of gases occurs by diffusion in the alveoli.

2. The alveoli have very large surface areas and thin walls (only one-cell thick). The
inner
surfaces of the alveoli are always moist.
3. The outer surfaces of the alveoli are surrounded by a network of blood capillaries.
 These capillaries also have very thin walls (only one-cell thick).
4. These characteristics enable oxygen to diffuse through the walls of the alveoli
easily and
efficently.
5. Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region where they are highly

concentrated to a region where they are less concentrated.

6. Inhaled air which is sucked into the lungs is rich in oxygen. The oxygen
concentration in
the alveolus is therefore higher than the oxygen concentration in the
deoxygenated
blood in the capillaries.
7. The difference in oxygen concentration makes the oxygen diffuse easily into the
blood
capillaries.
8. (a) Oxygen in the alveolus diffuses through the walls into the blood.
(b) Carbon dioxide and water vapour diffuse from the blood into the alveolus.

Diffusion of oxygen from the alveolus to the capillaries

B. Oxygen Transport

1. (a) Through the breathing process, oxygen from the air flows into our
bloodstream.
(b) The heart then pumps the oxygenated blood to supply oxygen to the body cells
which
require them constantly.
2. Body cells need oxygen for cell respiration. Cell respiration is the oxidation of
food to
release energy.
3. To meet this requirement, a special respiratory carrier is needed
(a) Haemoglobin is the special carrier. It transports oxygen from the lungs to all
parts of
the body.
(b) Haemoglobin is a blood pigment. It contains haem (the part which is made up
of ferum)
and globin (the protein part).
4. As the oxygen concentration is high in the alveolus, oxygen diffuses into the
capillaries.
oxygen then combines with haemoglobin in the red blood cells and forms
oxyhaemoglobin.
5. Blood with oxyhaemoglobin is bright red in colour. It is carried to the heart to be
distributed to all the cells of the body.

C. Diffusion of Oxygen from the Capillaries to the Body Cells

1. Oxygenated blood is sent to all the cells in the body by a vast network of blood
vessels.
2. (a) When blood reaches the body cells, oxyhaemoglobin is broken down into
haemoglobin and oxygen.
(b) The oxygen then diffuses through the walls of the capillaries into te cells.
3. Oxygen is then used to oxidese food to release oxygen during cell respiration.
4. At the same time, carbon dioxide from the cells diffuses into the capillaries to be
carried
back to the lungs.
 Oxygen transport in the body

TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN IN THE HUMAN BODY

A. Substances harmful to the respiratory system

Various chemical substances can damage the human respiratory system.

Harmful effects of chemical substances on the human respiratory system
1. The thermometer showed a change in temperature because cigarette smoke is hot.

2. The white cotton wool became darkish yellow because of the presence of tobacco
tar.

3. The hydrogen carbonate indicator which changed from red to yellow shows that
cigarette
smoke is acidic.

Smoking raises the liung temperature, blackens the lungs and corrodes the lung cells.

B. The illnesses of respiratory system

1. Various illnesses affect the respiratory system as a result of inhaling certain

chemical
substances into the lungs.

2. Illnesses affecting the respiratory system include:

(i) lung emphysema
(ii) bronchitis
(iii) lung cancer
(iv) athma
Lung emphysema

Bronchitis

1. Bronchitis is inflammation of the epithelium (cell layer) of the bronchus.

2. Bronchitis is caused by fine particles that float in the air (air pollutant) or that are
found in
cigarette smoke.

3. The breathing channel of the patient will be filled with mucus.

4. The symptoms are:

(a) high fever

(b) breathing difficulty
(c ) chest pains
(d) continuous heavy coughing
(e) patient's phlegm changes colour from white to yellow or green
 (f) tiredness
(g) weight loss

Lung cancer

Asthma

1. Asthma is a type of disease caused by the inflammation of the breathing channel.

2. The breating channel of the patient suddenly becomes narrow causing difficulty in

breathing.

3. This is because the patient's breathing channel is very sensitive to certain

allergens.

4. Asthma may be caused by dust (air pollutant), smoking or cigarette smoke.

5. The symptoms are:

(a) coughing, especially at night or during cold weather

(b) breathing difficulty
(c) wheezing
(d) tightness in the chest

C. Ways to improve air quality

1. Install tall chimneys in factories that emit dangerous smoke and gas so that such
dangerous substances are kept at a higher level in the atmosphere.
2. Install electrostatic precipitators on factory chimneys to remove pollutants before
smoke
is released into the atmosphere.

3. Install catalyst convertors on vehicle exhaust pipes to reduce the release of

dangerous gases like carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide.

4. Use air cleaning system to dissolve toxic gases like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
dioxide in the water before it is released into the atmosphere.

5. Burn garbage in special places like the incinerator.

6. Stop smoking to prevent the release of cigarette smoke into the environment.

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