Excel Revise in a Month: TEE Human Biology

Tips for TEE examination

Preparation
• One month before the exam, make an organised study schedule that gives the entire course
an even coverage. Organise your notes and coursework into a sequential format, and rewrite
your class notes to make study notes. Working through past papers (especially those from
the last 4 years) can also help in your preparation
• On the night before your exam, read over your study notes, then go to sleep at your regular
time. Don’t stay up excessively late studying. It’s also a good idea to have a plan for how you
will tackle the exam – see the sample plan below for ideas
• On the day of the exam, get up early enough to prepare to go to the exam in a relaxed
manner. Know what time your exam starts, which room it is in and how you are going to get
to school. Wear comfortable clothing, and take the necessary equipment and a drink bottle
• Try to avoid last-minute study, but having a friend quiz you on easy parts of the course will
get your brain into ‘information output’ mode. Don’t stand around in large groups of people
before the exam, especially those who are discussing the exam – it will only make you
nervous
Sample ‘plan’ for the Human Biology TEE exam
• When you enter the exam room, read the front of the exam and make a conscious effort to
relax, calm down and let your brain function
• Spend the first 5 minutes of reading time going through Part II of the paper. Choose the
easiest question to start on and sequence the others in order of difficulty. In the second 5
minutes, read the Part III extended answer questions and choose the two you will be doing.
Start making up a list of key words in your head. DO NOT read the multiple-choice
questions – you will put 120 ‘wrong’ ideas in your head!
• When working time has started, write down your list of key words for Part III. This will
take about 5 minutes
• Answer Part II, starting on the easiest questions first. Part II should take around 70 minutes.
Note the mark allocation – one main idea is normally associated with one mark
• Answer Part III, make sure you stick to the point of the question, give at least 20 ‘points’ to
get the 20 marks and write legibly. Part III should take 50 minutes
• Answer Part I. Once you have read the ‘stem’ of the question, think of the answer based on
your learning and then see if this matches the alternatives given. Once you have chosen an
answer, don’t change it unless you are absolutely sure, and NEVER leave a multiple-choice
question unanswered. This section should take you 50 minutes.
• Spend the last 5 minutes reading through your answers to Parts II and III
• Don’t leave the exam early. It will not improve your mark, and it could stop you from
finding a simple mistake that is easily fixed

INTRODUCTION – Introductory topics

1. Cells that are suited to a particular function are said to be specialised. The body structure
consists of a hierarchy. Tissues are composed of cells, organs of tissues and systems of
organs. Cellular respiration is a process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into
energy for use in bodily functions.
2. The making of new substances is termed synthesis. The building up of large molecules from
simpler ones is termed anabolic synthesis and the breaking down of large molecules into
small is termed catabolic synthesis.
3. Growth is an increase in size of an individual. It is normally brought about by an increase in
cell size and/or number. Increases in cell size are limited by each cell’s surface area to volume
ratio. Increasing the number of cells by the process of mitosis is the major contributor to
growth.
 4. Cells are interdependent, relying on each other for survival. The respiratory system
supplies oxygen and removes carbon dioxide, the digestive system supplies nutrients, the
excretory system removes metabolic wastes and the circulatory system moves these
materials around the body.
5. Humans exist in an amazing variety of environments but in spite of this they maintain a
constant internal environment at an optimal level. Optimal conditions are those that best suit
the cell and therefore the organism. The maintenance of a constant optimal internal
environment in the body irrespective of the external environment is called homeostasis. This
makes the body independent of the external environment.
6. The internal fluid environment of the body consists of intracellular fluid (made up of
cytoplasm and nucleoplasm), intercellular fluid (the fluid between cells), plasma and
lymph. Together, the intercellular fluid, plasma and lymph are called extracellular fluid.
7. To work efficiently, the human body must maintain relatively constant levels of carbon
dioxide, oxygen, temperature, blood glucose and fluid levels. Human cells have become
adapted to operate at their optimum at specific levels of these substances.

NERVOUS AND HORMONAL CONTROL – Homeostasis

1. Humans exist in an amazing variety of environments but in spite of this they maintain a
constant internal environment at an optimal level. Optimal conditions are those that best suit
the cells and, therefore, the organism. The maintenance of a constant optimal internal
environment in the body irrespective of the external environment is called homeostasis.
2. The internal fluid environment of the body consists of intracellular fluid, intercellular fluid,
plasma and lymph. These fluids are constantly being exchanged with each other.
3. For the efficient functioning of the cell, factors in the internal environment must be
maintained at a constant level. These include oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations,
temperature, blood glucose and fluid levels.
4. Control mechanisms function at the level of cells, physiological systems and behaviour, and
compensate for changes in the external environment or internal environment. To maintain
homeostasis, the body requires control mechanisms that operate automatically. These
mechanisms usually occur as steady-state models. Steady-state models are usually presented
as follows:
Stimulus → Receptor → Modulator
↑ ↓
Feedback ← Response ← Effector
The stimulus is the factor that changes and causes the system to operate. The receptor
detects the change in the stimulus and the modulator processes information from the receptor
and sends an electrical (nervous) or chemical (hormonal) message to the effector. The
effector carries out the response, which is the change made by the effector to maintain
homeostasis. The feedback is how the response modifies the stimulus.
5. The nervous system is broken up into the following divisions:
Nervous system

Central Peripheral

Spinal cord Brain Autonomic Somatic

Parasympathetic Sympathetic

HINT: The sympathetic division speeds processes up. Sympathetic and speed both start
with‘s’. Words beginning with ‘para’ (e.g. ‘paralysed’ and ‘paralytic’) relate to the idea of
‘slow’.
NERVOUS AND HORMONAL CONTROL – The central nervous system
1. The nervous system is composed of the central and peripheral nervous systems. The central
nervous system (CNS) comprises the brain and spinal cord.
2. The bones of the skull enclose the brain, and the spinal cord is enclosed in the spinal canal
which is formed by the vertebrae. The brain and spinal cord are also protected by a jacket of
fluid and connective tissue.
3. The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It acts
as a cushion or shock absorber and circulates around the brain and spinal cord, supplying
nutrients and oxygen, and removing wastes. The connective tissue is called the meninges and
is made up of three layers (Dura matter, Arachnoid, Pia matter).
4. The brain’s role in the nervous system is that of a receiver, analyser, coordinator ‘storer’ and
initiator of nerve impulse. The diagram below shows the different parts of the brain.

• The medulla is the control centre for breathing and circulation. It also regulates a
number of other body functions.
• The pons coordinates and transmits information between the cerebral cortex,
cerebellum and spinal cord.
• The pituitary gland sometimes referred to as the master endocrine gland, controls
other endocrine glands by producing hormones.
• The hypothalamus regulates basic body functions such as thirst and hunger. It is
mostly concerned with homeostasis and body temperature control.
• The cerebrum (cerebral cortex) is concerned with memory, reasoning, imagination,
problem solving and ‘higher’ thought processes.
• The cerebellum controls balance, posture, muscle tone and coordination of
movement.
• The thalamus acts as a relay station. All sensory information entering the brain
passes through the thalamus before being relayed to the cerebral cortex (cerebrum).
5. The function of the spinal cord is to receive nervous impulses from sensory neurons and
carry these impulses to the brain. It also carries impulses initiated in the brain to motor
neurons and links together sensory and motor neurons. The diagram below shows the
different parts of the spinal cord.
 • Grey matter is mainly made up of nerve cell bodies and unmyelinated nerve fibres.
• White matter is made up of myelinated nerve fibres 9sensory and motor neurones).
The myelin gives it its white appearance.
• In the brain the white matter is on the inside and the grey matter is outside. In the
spinal cord the white matter in on the outside and the grey matter is inside.
• The ventral root of the spinal cord is mainly composed of the axons of motor
neurons.
• The dorsal root of the spinal cord is mainly composed of sensory neurons, with the
ganglion consisting primarily of sensory nerve cell bodies.

NERVOUS AND HORMONAL CONTROL – The peripheral nervous system

1. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of cranial and spinal nerves and their
associated ganglia. It is divided into the afferent and efferent divisions. It is involved in
transferring information to and from the central nervous system (CNS).
2. The afferent division of the PNS consists of sensory nerve fibres that carry sensory nervous
impulses towards the CNS. The efferent division consists of motor neurons that carry
impulses initiated on the CNS to the body’s effectors.
3. The efferent nerve fibres that convey impulse to the skeletal muscles are termed somatic. The
somatic division is generally involved with voluntary movement of the body. Nerve fibres
that carry impulses to the organs and involuntary muscles are termed autonomic.
4. The autonomic division is involved in movement (e.g. breathing and other processes within
the body such as digestion that are essential for life) and is generally thought of as automatic.
Most parts of the body that are under autonomic control have two types of nerve fibres that
carry impulses from the CNS. These are termed sympathetic and parasympathetic. In
general, the sympathetic division is involved with changes and responses that prepare the
body for increased levels of physical activity. The parasympathetic division is involved in
returning the body to, or maintaining a state of, rest.
5. The sympathetic division of the PNS, under the direction of the CNS, is responsible for what
is called the ‘flight or fight’ response. This response occurs when a person is in a situation
where they feel physically threatened. It increases the body’s ability to fight or to run away
from the threat in order to survive.
6. The following table lists the sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation of selected organs.
Organ Sympathetic stimulation Parasympathetic stimulation
Lungs Bronchioles dilate (increases O2) Bronchioles contract (decreases O2)
Heart Cardiac output increases Cardiac output decreases
Eye Dilation of pupil increases light Contraction of pupil decreases light
Sweat glands Sweating and heat loss increases Sweating and heat loss decreases
Skin blood vessels Vasoconstriction Minimal
Skeletal blood vessels Vasodilation increasing blood flow Minimal
Stomach/intestines Decreased movement Increased movement
Salivary glands Decreased secretion Increased secretion
HINT: ‘Efferent’ sounds like ‘effluent’, which is waste that is removed from a house.
HINT: ‘Autonomic’ sounds like ‘automatic’.
HINT: The prefix ’para’ in words such as ‘paralysed’ and ‘paralytic’ means ‘slow’.
NERVOUS AND HORMONAL CONTROL – The neuron
1. The neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. Neurons consist of
three major parts: the cell body, dendrites and axons.
2. The three main types of neurons are the connector, motor and sensory neurons. Motor
neurons are responsible for transferring impulses from the CNS to the PNS. Sensory
neurons relay impulses from the sensory receptors to the CNS. Connector neurons connect
motor and sensory neurons together in the CNS.

3. The diagram below illustrates a typical motor neuron.

• The cell body contains the nucleus (which control the activities of the neuron),
cytoplasm and organelles.
• The myelin sheath insulates and protects the axon. It speeds up nerve impulses.
 • The gaps in the myelin sheath are called the nodes of Ranvier and the gaps between
the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another are called synapses.
• A membrane called the neurilemma, which helps to repair damaged nerve fibres,
covers the myelin sheath.
• Dendrites carry nervous impulses to the cell body and axons carry nervous impulses
from the cell body.
• Schwann cells are responsible for the regeneration of nerve fibres and the production
of the myelin sheath.
• The motor end plate is the point where an impulse passes to a muscle, causing
contraction. It is joined to an axon by the filament.
4. In some cases, the time it would take for an impulse to travel to the CNS and be processed
and then for an impulse to be sent to an effector would be detrimental. In these cases the body
has incorporated spinal reflexes which reduce the time taken for a response to a particular
stimulus, as there is a decreased distance that the impulse has to travel. This decreases the
chance of injury.
5. In a spinal reflex arc (due to the arrangement of the neurons and the distances involved) a
response occurs before the impulse reaches the brain and causes a sensation. The diagram
below illustrates a spinal reflex arc.

• The receptor detects any change in the external environment.

• The sensory neuron transmits an impulse from the receptor to the connector neuron
in the spinal cord.
• The connector neuron ‘splits’ the impulse and relays it to the brain via the
ascending tract and also directly to the motor neuron.
• The motor neuron transmits the impulse from the connector neuron to the effector.
• The effector receives impulses from the motor neuron and activates the appropriate
response.
HINT: Use the basic shape to identify the type of neuron shown and then remember
‘axon’ and ‘away’ both start with ‘a’: axons carry impulses away from the cell body.

NERVOUS AND HORMOONAL CONTROL – Hormones

1. The endocrine system consists of a collection of endocrine glands that are linked by the
circulatory system. Endocrine glands are ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into
the bloodstream.
2. A hormone is a chemical substance that circulates in the bloodstream and binds to receptor
molecules on target cells, changing the activity of the cell. Only cells with the receptor
molecules can be affected by a particular hormone.

3. The table below lists the differences between nervous and hormonal control.
Nerves Hormones
Speed Fast acting Slow acting
Specificity Specific (one motor neuron General (some hormones are
goes to one muscle or gland) more general than others)
Nature of transfer Electrochemical Chemical (hormones in
blood)
Transport of message Nerve cells Bloodstream
Persistence of action Short term (seconds) Long term (hours/years)

The endocrine system is more effective than the nervous system because hormones in the
plasma can reach all body cells while nerves only reach muscles and glands.
4. The diagram below illustrates the major endocrine glands.

5. Overall control of the endocrine system is achieved through the hypothalamus (part of the
brain) which controls the pituitary gland (master gland), using nerves and releasing and
inhibiting factors.
 6. The posterior pituitary is controlled by nervous impulses, whereas the anterior pituitary is
controlled by releasing and inhibiting factors. Pituitary hormones, in turn, control other
endocrine glands.
The table below lists the anterior pituitary hormones, their target tissues and the function of
each hormone.
Anterior pituitary Target tissue Function of hormone
hormone
FSH (female) Ovaries Stimulates development of follicles and
causes ovary to produce oestrogen
FSH (males) Testes Stimulates the production of sperm
LH (females) Ovaries Causes ovulation
LH (males) Testes Stimulates cells in testes to produce
testosterone
TSH Thyroid Stimulates the production of thyroxine
Prolactin Mammary glands Initiates and maintains milk production
Growth hormone Body cells Increases growth rate of cells
ACTH Adrenal cortex Causes adrenal cortex to produce aldosterone
and cortisol
The table below lists the posterior pituitary hormones, their target tissues and the function
of the hormone.
Posterior pituitary Target tissue Function of hormone
hormone
Oxytocin Uterus and Stimulates the contraction of uterus and
mammary glands mammary glands
ADH kidneys Increases tubule permeability, causing
more water to be absorbed back into the
bloodstream from kidney tubules
7. The table below lists other endocrine glands, their hormones, target tissues and the function of
the hormone.
Gland Hormone Target tissue Function of hormone
Testes Testosterone Body cells development of secondary sex
characteristics
Sperm cells maturation of sperm
Follicle cells Oestrogen Body cells development of secondary sex
characteristics
Uterus builds up endometrium
Corpus luteum Oestrogen Body cells Development of secondary sex
characteristics
Progesterone Uterus Builds up endometrium
Uterus Maintains endometrium
Thyroid Thyroxine Body cells Controls basal metabolic rate
Adrenal cortex Cortisol Body cells Helps the body adapt to stress
Aldosterone Kidney Regulates salt level, reduces
amount of sodium and
increases amount of potassium
in urine
Adrenal medulla Adrenalin Body cells Prepares body for ‘flight or
fight’ response
Noradrenalin Body cells Prepares body for ‘flight or
fight’ response
Islets of Langerhans Insulin Body cells; liver Reduces glucose level in blood
Glucagon Liver Increases glucose level in
blood
HINT: Between the hormone and action there is a ‘target tissue’ for question asking for
naming a gland, a hormone it produces and its function/action.
HINT: All hormonal control starts at the hypothalamus.
NERVOUS AND HORMONAL CONTROL – Feedback loops
1. Levels of particular hormones in the blood may influence the release of similar and in some
cases, different hormones – this is termed feedback. Positive feedback is when the increase
in the concentration of one hormone leads to an increase in the concentration of another
hormone. Negative feedback is when an increase in the concentration of one hormone leads
to a decrease in the concentration of another.
2. Control of the basal metabolic rate is an example of a feedback loop and steady state
control. Metabolism involved all of the chemical reactions occurring in the body when the
body is at rest. Thyroxine is a hormone that is directly involved with the regulation of the
basal metabolic rate.
3. Low metabolic rate is detected by receptors in the hypothalamus, which releases more TSH
releasing factor. This causes the anterior lobe of the pituitary to release more TSH, which then
acts on the thyroid gland to release more thyroxine resulting in body cells increasing their
metabolic rate.

Reduced core → Hypothalamus → Increased TSH-rf release → Anterior pituitary

temperature
↑ ↓
Increased heat production ← Increased thyroxine ← Thyroid ← Increased TSH in body
cells
4. High metabolic rate is detected by receptors in the hypothalamus, which release less TSH
releasing factor. This causes the anterior lobe of the pituitary to release less TSH, which then
acts on the thyroid gland to release less thyroxine, resulting in body cells decreasing their
metabolic rate.
Increased core →Hypothalamus → Decreased TSH-rf release → Anterior pituitary
temperature
↑ ↓
Decreased heat production ← Decreased thyroxine ← Thyroid ← Decreased TSH in body
cells
5. A hyperthyroid person has an overactive thyroid gland. This increases the rate of
metabolism causing heat gain (the person feels hot), weight loss and an increased level of
activity.
6. A hypothyroid person has an underactive thyroid gland. This decreases the rate of
metabolism causing heat loss (the person feels cold), weight gain and a decreased level of
activity.
7. The menstrual and ovarian cycles are controlled by the hypothalamus; the hormones are
under cyclic control. The menstrual cycle involves the build up and breakdown of the
endometrium over 28 days. The ovarian cycle involves the development of follicles, ova and
corpus luteum.
8. The diagram below outlines the sequence and events in the menstrual and ovarian cycles as
well as the action of the hormones involved.

9. The sequence of steps in the menstrual and ovarian cycle is as follows:

a. The hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH by releasing FSH-rf.
FSH causes the follicle to develop in the ovary and the follicle secretes oestrogen.
b. Higher levels of oestrogen cause the endometrium to build up and the hypothalamus to
secrete LH-rf. Tis in turn causes the anterior pituitary to secrete LH (positive feedback).
c. The surge in LH acts on the follicle, causing it to burst (ovulation) and releases an ovum.
The remains o the follicle is called the corpus luteum.
d. The corpus luteum continues to produce oestrogen and starts to make progesterone,
which vascalorises and maintains the endometrium.
e. High levels of oestrogen and progesterone from the corpus luteum are detected by the
hypothalamus. It stops releasing FSH-rf and LH-rf (negative feedback) and, as a result,
the anterior pituitary stops releasing LH and FSH.
f. If the ovum is fertilised, the corpus luteum continues to produce oestrogen and
progesterone. This leads to continued negative feedback and, therefore, no further follicle
development.
g. If the ovum is not fertilised, after about seven days the corpus luteum breaks down and
stops producing oestrogen and progesterone.
h. Low levels of oestrogen and progesterone result in no negative feedback on the
hypothalamus, which begins to produce FSH-rf, starting the cycle again.
10.The model below describes the hormonal regulation of the ovarian cycle.

Hypothalam
us
 ↓ ↓
FSH-rf LH-rf
↓ ↓
Pituitary

↓ ↓
Inhibits FSH-rf LH-rf Inhibits
↓ ↓
Follicl Corpus
e luteum
↓ ↓
Oestrogen Progesterone
↓ ↓
Secondary Promotes
sex growth of
characteris and
maintains
11.The contraceptive pill contains high levels of the hormones oestrogen and progesterone
which are detected by the hypothalamus and inhibit the release of FSH-rf and LH-rf
(negative feedback). The anterior pituitary is therefore inhibited from releasing FSH and LH.
Thus no ovarian follicles are developed during the cycle (no ova are released). The
oestrogen and progesterone in the pills replace the hormones normally produced by the
follicle/corpus luteum so that the endometrium develops normally and the secondary sex
characteristics are maintained.

REGULATION – Regulation of the heart

1. The amount of blood that leaves the heart in a minute is called cardiac output. It is
calculated on the basis of heart rate (beats per minute) and stroke volume (in mL).
2. When we exercise a great many changes take place inside our bodies which must, therefore,
adjust to maintain homeostasis. Responses to exercise are generally divided into two stages:
responses before exercise and responses during exercise.
3. As a person is about to begin exercising, there is an anticipatory response brought about by
the cerebral cortex acting through the autonomic nervous system. The sympathetic division
of the ANS stimulates the adrenal medulla to release adrenalin.
Adrenalin causes increased cardiac output, increased breathing rate, redistribution of blood to
muscles away from the intestines, increased blood pressure and the breakdown of glycogen to
glucose.
4. As the demand for energy increases during exercise, so does the rate of cellular respiration.
For this to happen inputs must increase and the removal of waste must also increase.
5. In order to maintain homeostasis, breathing rate and depth increase, heart rate and stroke
volume increase, glycogen and fat are converted into glucose, heat loss mechanisms start to
operate and there is a redistribution of blood.
During exercise the increase in heart rate is maintained by a number of factors. The active
muscles are producing carbon dioxide, blood pressure is increasing and the major joints are
moving.
6. The main stimuli for an increase in heart rate are: a decrease in the pH of the blood due to
an increase in the carbon dioxide concentration in the blood (detected by chemoreceptors in
the medulla/hypothalamus); increased blood pressure (detected by pressoreceptors
(baroreceptors) in the carotid arteries/aorta) and movement in the joints (detected by
proprioceptors (stretch receptors)).
An increased heart rate allows more blood to be pumped to the muscles, supplying oxygen
and glucose and removing carbon dioxide, lactic acid and heat (feedback).
 7. Information from the receptors is passed to the medulla (modulator). The medulla then
acts through the sympathetic nervous system, stimulating the sinoatrial node in the heart
(effector) to increase the heart rate (response).

REGULATION – Regulation of breathing

1. To help maintain constant levels of CO2 and O2, the body varies the rate of breathing. These
levels must be maintained as O2 is required by cells for respiration, and CO2 is a waste
product of cellular respiration, which if allowed to accumulate, will decrease the cells
metabolic efficiently.
2. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood lowers the pH which is the main stimulus
for the control of breathing rate. If CO2 levels are high (when exercising) breathing rate
increases. If CO2 levels are low (during rest) breathing rate decreases.
3. The table below highlights the components involved in the control of breathing.
Component How it controls breathing Location
Chemoreceptors Chemoreceptors detect changes Aortic and carotid bodies
in pH and CO2 concentration in
blood
Respiratory centre Controls breathing rate and Medulla
depth
Stretch receptors Overstretching of lungs causes Lungs
expiration (protective function)
4. The control of breathing during exercise (high CO2) can be represented by the following
steady-state feedback model:
Stimulus --------→ Receptor --------→ Modulator
(high concentration (chemoreceptors in the (respiratory centre in the
of CO2 in blood) respiratory centre, aorticmedulla)
↑ and carotid bodies) ↓
Feedback ←-------- Response ←-------- Effector
(lower CO2 in blood) (increased rate and depth (intercostals muscles
of breathing) and diaphragm)
5. The control of breathing during rest (low CO2) can be represented by the following steady-
state feedback model:
Stimulus --------→ Receptor --------→ Modulator
(low concentration (chemoreceptors in the (respiratory centre in the
of CO2 in blood) respiratory centre, aorticmedulla)
↓ and carotid bodies) ↑
Feedback ←-------- Response ←-------- Effector
(higher CO2 in blood) (decreased rate and depth (intercostals muscles
of breathing) and diaphragm)
6. Due to anticipation, breathing rate increases before exercise under the control of the
sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The sympathetic division of
the ANS causes the adrenal medulla to release the hormone adrenalin. Adrenalin is
responsible for increasing the rate of breathing.
7. During exercise the muscles use large amounts of oxygen and glucose producing carbon
dioxide. The high levels of carbon dioxide (which lower the pH of the blood) are detected by
chemoreceptors located in the aortic and carotid bodies, and the medulla.
Chemoreceptors pass on information on carbon dioxide levels via nervous impulses to the
respiratory centre located in the medulla, which acts as the modulator. This then causes the
effectors (intercostals muscles and diaphragm) to increase the rate and depth of breathing
(response).
8. The increased rate and depth of breathing allows the high levels of carbon dioxide to be
removed from the blood and the oxygen level to be increased. This is important, as oxygen is
 required for respiration in the active muscle. Carbon dioxide is a waste product that, if
allowed to accumulate, increases the activity of the blood and can denature enzymes.
9. Hyperventilation is rapid, deep breathing to decrease the amount of carbon dioxide in the
blood (it has little effect on the concentration of oxygen). It is especially dangerous to
hyperventilate and then go under water. Because of the low initial concentration of carbon
dioxide in the blood, it would take a long time for the carbon dioxide to build up to a level at
which the decreased pH of the blood would stimulate the respiratory centre to make you
take a breath. During this time your oxygen concentration may decrease to such a level that
you pass out before the urge to take a breath occurs. Then, when you are forced to breathe,
you will take in water and drown.

REGULATION – Regulation of blood glucose

1. Blood glucose levels must remain fairly constant as glucose is required for metabolic
processes in cells. Glucose is a simple sugar that is used in cellular respiration to produce
energy.
2. Nervous tissue (brain) and the retina (eye) are very sensitive to changes in blood glucose
levels. An excess or deficiency of blood glucose levels for more than a few hours can result in
loss of consciousness and brain damage. Glucose can be converted to glycogen (a ‘stored’
version of glucose), which does not cause harm to tissues.
3. The Islets of Langerhans are special areas in the pancreas which have a number of roles.
They have chemoreceptors that detect the glucose level of the blood.
• If the blood glucose level is found to be low, alpha cells in the Islets of Langerhans
produce glucagon. Glucagon acts in a number of ways to increase the blood glucose
level.
• If the blood glucose level is found to be high, beta cells in the Islets of Langerhans
produce insulin. Insulin acts in a number of ways to decrease the blood glucose
level.
4. The body has a number of ways of increasing blood sugar levels when they are too low. The
main method is glycogenolysis. This involves the breakdown of glycogen into glucose.
Lipolysis can also occur where lipids where lipids are broken down and used directly by
cells. Glucose is saved for the brain cells. Gluconeogenesis can also occur, in which fats and
amino acids combine to produce glucose.
5. The body has a number of ways of decreasing blood sugar levels when they are too high. In
glycogenesis glucose molecules are combined to produce glycogen; in translocation glucose
moves from the blood into cells; and in lipogenesis glucose is converted into lipids (fat). High
levels of glucose can also lead to increased protein synthesis (an anabolic process that uses
up energy) which helps reduce the blood glucose level.
6. A high level of glucose in the blood, for example after a meal, would be controlled in the
following way.
Stimulus --------→ Receptor --------→ Modulator
(high levels of glucose (Islets of Langerhans (beta cells in Islets of
in blood) in pancreas) Langerhans produce insulin)
↑ ↓
Feedback ←-------- Response ←-------- Effector
(lower glucose in blood) (glycogenesis; translocation; (liver; body cells; muscle
lipogenesis) cells)
7. During exercise, blood glucose levels will drop, as the glucose is being used by respiring
muscle cells. This is controlled in the following way:
Stimulus --------→ Receptor --------→ Modulator
(low levels of glucose (Islets of Langerhans (alpha cells in Islets of
in the blood) in pancreas) Langerhans produce
glucagon)
 ↑ ↓
Feedback ←-------- Response ←-------- Effector
(higher glucose in blood) (glycogenesis; (liver; body cells)
gluconeogenesis; lipolysis)
8. During exercise the adrenal medulla is stimulated to produce adrenalin. Adrenalin is a very
fast-acting hormone which behaves in a similar way to glucagon acting to raise blood glucose
levels quickly when required.
9. The hypothalamus controls behaviour (through the cerebral cortex) in response to high and
low blood glucose levels. When blood glucose levels are high, there is a decrease in appetite.
When blood glucose levels are low, appetite increases and a person seeks out food (sugar
cravings).
HINT: Break the word up into parts: ‘gluco’ (glucose), ‘neo’ (new), ‘genesis’ (make).

REGULATION – Regulation of temperature

1. Homeothermic organisms are able to maintain a relatively constant internal body
temperature independent of the extern al temperature. The internal temperature of humans is
37°C.
It is necessary for humans to maintain a constant internal temperature, as the metabolic
reactions occurring in cells require an optimal temperature. At temperatures higher than
37°C enzymes start to denature; lower than 37°C and the chemical reactions in the body
start to slow, possible to a level where cell function is compromised.
2. Conduction is a type of heat transfer in which heat energy moves from a warmer object to a
cooler object when they are in direct physical contact. If you touch an object that is cooler
than your body, heat passes from your body to the cooler object. The reverse happens when
you touch an object that is hotter than your body.
3. Convection is a type of heat transfer in which heat energy is transferred by the movement of
fluids. Warm air (created by contact with a warm body) rises and is replaced by cooler air.
The currents of moving air remove heat energy from the body.
4. Radiation is a type of heat transfer in which heat energy moves from a warmer object to a
cooler object across space: no contact between the bodies is necessary. If your body has a
higher temperature than the environment, it will radiate heat into the environment, which
cools the body. If your body is cooler than the environment then it will gain heat through
radiation.
5. Evaporation occurs when liquid water is converted to water vapour. This process requires
energy which is taken from the body in the form of heat, thus cooling the body. When a
person sweats, the evaporation of the liquid from the skin cools the body.
6. The receptors responsible for changing body temperature are thermoreceptors. They are
located in the skin and hypothalamus. The modulator for temperature regulation is the
hypothalamus. The main effectors for temperature regulation are the skin, blood vessels,
body cells, muscles and sweat glands.
7. As temperature regulation steady-state model for a low body temperature is shown below:
Stimulus --------→ Receptor --------→ Modulator
(low body temperature) (thermoreceptors in skin(hypothalamus)
↑ and hypothalamus) ↓
Feedback ←-------- Response ←-------- Effector
(higher body temperature) (increased metabolic rate; (body cells; muscles;
shivering; vasoconstriction skin blood vessels;
of blood vessels in skin; cerebral cortex)
change in behaviour)
8. A temperature regulation steady-state model for a high body temperature is shown below:
Stimulus --------→ Receptor --------→ Modulator
(high body temperature)(thermoreceptors in skin(hypothalamus)
 and hypothalamus)
↑ ↓
Feedback ←-------- Response ←-------- Effector
(higher body temperature) (decreased metabolic rate; (body cells; muscles;
increased sweating; skin blood vessels;
vasodilation of blood vessels cerebral cortex)
in skin; change in behaviour)
9. Temperature regulation involves a balance between heat loss and heat gain. The table
below outlines how heat gain and loss is modified in hot and cold conditions.
Physiological methods Behavioural methods
Hot conditions
Need to reduce heat gain Reduce metabolic rate Find somewhere cool
Need to increase heat loss Vasodilation of blood vessel in Find somewhere cool, go or a
skin and sweating swim, remove clothing
Cold conditions
Need to increase heat gain and Increased metabolic rate Deliberate movement and
shivering exercise
Need to reduce heat loss Decreased sweating, Increase insulation by putting
vasoconstriction of skin blood on clothing
vessels

REGULATION OF THE COMPOSITION OF BODY FLUIDS – Body fluids and metabolic wastes
1. The internal environment comprises the fluid environment of the body which consists of
intracellular fluid, intercellular fluid and plasma.
2. The diagram below illustrates the relationship between these fluids.

3. Intercellular (tissue) fluid is found between the cells. Intracellular fluid (cytoplasm) is
found inside the cells. Plasma is the liquid part of the blood within the blood vessels. Blood
plasma plus intercellular fluids is called extracellular fluid.
4. Regulation of the composition of body fluids is needed to maintain the efficient functioning
of cells. The five main components of body fluids are pH, concentration of nutrients,
concentration of wastes, dissolved gas concentrations and water levels.
5. It is important to maintain constant levels of the components of body fluids or the efficiency
of cellular reactions may decrease. A constant pH needs to be maintained, as a build-up of
hydrogen ions will denature enzymes, reducing cell efficiency. Nutrients and oxygen are
required by respiring cells, and so they must remain constant. Wastes are toxic and, if
allowed to accumulate, will slow down cell reactions, reducing cell efficiency. Carbon
dioxide is a waste product that, if allowed to accumulate, reduces the pH of blood denaturing
enzymes, reducing cell efficiency. A decrease in water level will affect chemical reactions
and osmosis/osmotic pressure.
6. Metabolic wastes are products of metabolism that are of no more use to the body. These
wastes need to be excreted, as some of them may be harmful if they are allowed to build up in
the body. The removal of metabolic wastes from the body is called excretion. The removal of
 a substance that was not involved in the body’s metabolism is called elimination (e.g. the
passing of faeces is elimination, not excretion, as it consists mainly of undigested food, not
products of metabolism).
7. There is a constant exchange of materials between plasma, intercellular fluid and intracellular
fluids. The concentration of small molecules in the plasma directly affects concentrations in
the intercellular fluid and, in turn, the cytoplasm. The molecules move from a high to a low
concentration gradient. Nutrients diffuse from the plasma through the intercellular fluid to the
cytoplasm. The opposite occurs for small molecules moving from the cytoplasm to the plasma
(e.g. carbon dioxide). Large molecules such as proteins are limited in their movement
because of the permeability of the walls of the blood vessels and the cell membrane.
8. The table below illustrates the source and excretory pathway for a number of metabolic
wastes.
Type of waste Source of waste Excretory pathway
Carbon dioxide Cell respiration Breathed out from lungs
Water Cell respiration Breathed out from lungs
Sweat from skin
Urine from kidney
Urea, uric acid, creatinine, Occurs in liver Breakdown of proteins
ammonia Breakdown of nucleic acids (deamination)
Removed by kidney
Excreted in urine
Bile salts and pigments Through cells Faeces
Minerals Cell breakdown Urine and sweat
9. As well as carbohydrates and fats, proteins can be used as a source of energy. In the liver, an
amino acid (simplest unit of protein) can have its amino group (NH3) removed, leaving a
carbohydrate-like compound. The removal of an amino group from an amino acid is known as
deamination.
In deamination, the amino group is converted to ammonia, which is highly toxic to the cell.
To avoid this toxicity, ammonia is rapidly converted to a low-toxicity substance called urea.
This chemical change occurs in the liver; the urea is constantly removed from the blood by
the kidneys.

REGULATION OF THE COMPOSITION OF BODY FLUIDS – Structure and function of the

nephron
1. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. There are over one million nephrons in each
kidney. The basic function of the nephron is to filter unwanted material out and then
reabsorb those substances that the body needs to retain.
2. The diagram below illustrates the structure of a nephron.

3. The glomerulus is a knot of capillaries that works in conjunction with the glomerular
capsule to filter the blood. Large substances, such as red and white blood cells and proteins,
that are too large to pass through the membranes of the glomerulus and capsule remain in the
bloodstream. Small molecules, such as water, glucose, slats, amino acids, urea and hormones,
pass through the membrane into the capsule.
4. The proximal convoluted tubule is responsible for the reabsorption into the bloodstream of
glucose, amino acids, sodium and potassium (all selective reabsorption by active transport)
plus water (by passive osmosis).
5. The loop of Henle is responsible for reabsorption (selective by active transport) of sodium
back into the tissue fluid. This helps maintain suitable conditions for the removal (osmosis) of
water from the filtrate as it moves down the collecting duct.
6. The distal convoluted tubule is responsible for the selective reabsorption of sodium by
active transport. It is also involved in the secretion of hydrogen ions, potassium and creatinine
into the tubule. The movement if hydrogen ions helps to control the pH of the plasma and
thus other body fluids.
7. The collecting duct is responsible for the reabsorption of water back into the bloodstream.
This occurs by osmosis and is under the influence of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH). The
high sodium concentration outside the duct helps the water move by osmosis.
8. The afferent arteriole supplies the nephron with blood and forms a ball of capillaries called
the glomerulus. The efferent arteriole takes blood away from the glomerulus. It is smaller in
diameter than the afferent arteriole, resulting in raised blood pressure in the glomerulus, and it
branches into the peritubular capillaries. The peritubular capillaries surround the tubules
and collecting duct. Substances in the tubules requires by the body can be reabsorbed back
into the bloodstream.
9. The formation of urine by the nephrons of the kidneys involves three major processes:
glomerular filtration, selective reabsorption and tubular secretion.
10.Filtration takes place in the glomerulus and glomerular capsule. Blood in the glomerulus is
under high pressure as the afferent arteriole is wider than the efferent and the renal artery is
short and connected directly to the aorta. The high pressure forces small molecules such as
water, glucose, amino acids, urea, sodium, potassium and hormones across the membranes of
the glomerulus and into the glomerular capsule. This fluid is termed filtrate. Large molecules
 like erythrocytes, leucocytes and proteins are too large to pass through the membranes and
remain in the glomerulus. They move out of the efferent arteriole.
11.Many substances in the filtrate are useful to the body and, therefore, are returned to the blood
by selective reabsorption. In the proximal convoluted tubule, glucose, amino acids, sodium
and potassium are selectively reabsorbed by active transport and water is reabsorbed by
osmosis (passive). In the distal convoluted tubule, sodium is reabsorbed by active transport
and water by osmosis under the influence of ADH. In the collecting duct, water is reabsorbed
by osmosis (passive) under the influence of ADH. Urea is not reabsorbed and passes out as
urine.
12.Tubular secretion occurs in the distal convoluted. Unwanted substances such as H+, NH3 and
drugs are added to the filtrate.
13.The movement of particles in glomerular filtration, selective reabsorption and tubular
secretion rely on the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport. Diffusion is the
movement of particles (or molecules) from areas of high concentration to areas of low
concentration. Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from an area of high
concentration of water (low concentration of ions) to an area of low concentration of water
(high concentration of ions) through a semi-permeable membrane. (A semi permeable
membrane allows the movement of some molecules through it but not others.) Substances are
moved from areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration (against the
concentration gradient) by active transport. It occurs across cell membranes and is an active
process requiring energy in the form of ATP.

REGULATION OF THE COMPOSITION OF BODY FLUIDS – Water balance

1. The level of water in the plasma and tissue fluid is regulated by varying the amount of water
taken into the body (drinking) and the amount reabsorbed from the filtrate in the nephron
tubules.
2. Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect the osmotic potential of the blood. The
hypothalamus controls the secretion of anti-diuretic hormone from the posterior pituitary.
3. Water is reabsorbed from the filtrate in the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct.
Some of the water moves naturally because of concentration gradients (e.g. obligatory
reabsorption). Some water reabsorption is controlled by the level of ADH in the blood e.g.
facultative reabsorption.
4. ADH increases the amount of water reabsorbed from the tubular filtrate back into the plasma.
This is achieved by increasing the permeability of the walls of the distal convoluted tubule
and the collecting duct.
5. Water levels in body fluids can change the osmotic pressure of the blood. The following
steady-state control models show how water levels are returned to normal.

Low water level:

Stimulus --------→ Receptor --------→ Modulator
(low plasma water (osmoreceptors in (posterior pituitary
level resulting in increased the hypothalamus) releases more ADH)
osmotic pressure)
↑ ↓
Feedback ←-------- Response ←-------- Effector
(decrease in the (increased reabsorption (increase in the
 osmotic pressure) of water into permeability of
capillaries) DCT and CT walls)
6. High water level:
Stimulus --------→ Receptor --------→ Modulator
(high plasma water (osmoreceptors in (posterior pituitary
level resulting in decreased the hypothalamus) releases less ADH)
osmotic pressure)
↑ ↓
Feedback ←-------- Response ←-------- Effector
(increase in the (decreased reabsorption (decrease in the
osmotic pressure) of water into permeability of
capillaries) DCT and CT walls)

HINT: ADH increases the permeability of the tubule walls.

HINT: Alcohol and caffeine are diuretics.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF INFECTION – Causes and prevention of infection

1. An antigen is a ‘foreign’ substance that can cause a specific immune response within the
body. In many cases, antigens consist of ‘molecules’ on the surface of invading micro-
organisms
2. An antibody is a specific protein that is produced within the body and can combine with its
‘matching lock/key’ antigen. Once combines into an antigen/antibody complex, the antigen or
antigen-carrying micro-organisms can be removed or deactivated.
3. An antibiotic is a chemical substance produced by bacteria or fungi. It is able to suppress,
inhibit or kill the growth o other micro-organisms without causing harm to human cells.
4. A vaccine is an antigen (prepared in a relatively harmless form) which is used to develop
immunity by activating the immune system to produce memory cells and antibodies.
5. A vaccination introduces a vaccine into the body as the primary stimulus to develop the
immune memory for a particular disease (pathogen). It increases the speed at which the
pathogen is detected in subsequent exposures.
6. There are three main types of vaccines: dead pathogens, living pathogens and toxoid
vaccines.
7. In dead pathogen vaccines the pathogen has been ‘killed’ so that it cannot reproduce but it
still contains the surface antigens that are detected in the plasma. While the antigens start the
immune response, the pathogen is not able to cause any harm. These vaccines are used for
dangerous diseases, such as cholera and typhoid.
8. In living pathogen vaccines, the pathogen is still living but it has been modified (attenuated)
so that it cannot reproduce. The antigens are recognised and the immune response occurs but
symptoms of the disease do not occur. (If the disease is contracted the symptoms are not
severe). The majority of vaccines are of this type (e.g. polio, tuberculosis and rubella).
9. With toxoid vaccines pathogens cause a disease by releasing toxins into the body. The
pathogens are cultured in an artificial medium and the toxins are obtained by filtration. The
toxins are then modified so that they do not cause disease symptoms but are still detected by
the body, leading to an immune response. These vaccines are used where the toxin is the
major cause of the disease (e.g. tetanus and diphtheria).
10.Immunity is the ability to combat a particular antigen should it enter the body. Immunity can
be classified as natural or artificial, and active or passive.
11.Natural immunity occurs without any human intervention. Artificial immunity occurs
following human intervention. It results from being vaccinated with antibodies or an antigen
that triggers the immune response. Passive immunity results from introducing ready-made
antibodies to the body. The body does not produce its own antibodies. Active immunity
occurs when the body produces its own antibodies in response to an antigen.
 12.Active natural immunity occurs when, you are able to make your own antibodies against a
disease because of a previous unplanned exposure to a particular pathogen/antigen (e.g. once
you have had chickenpox/measles you rarely will get it again).
13.Passive artificial immunity involves injecting antibodies against a particular antigen directly
into the bloodstream. There is no future ability to produce these antigens again (e.g. anti-
venee for snake/spider bite).
14.Active artificial immunity occurs when you are able to make your own antibodies against a
particular antigen/pathogen because you had a vaccination of that particular antigen
(pathogen).
15.Passive natural immunity is a special case where babies obtain their mother’s antibodies via
the placenta or breast milk. A breastfeeding baby will have the same antibodies as the mother.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF INFECTION – Prevention and control of infection 2

1. Antibody-mediated immunity (humoral response) is based around
B-lymphocytes. These are produced and mature in bone marrow and
then migrate to the lymph nodes and tissues. They recognise
pathogens by their antigens and produce antibodies.
2. Lymphocytes are able to distinguish between different invading
pathogens which have different antigens on their surface. An antigen
is any substance that can trigger the production of antibodies. Each
antibody is specific to its antigen.
3. As antigens flow through the lymph nodes they encounter thousands
of B-lymphocytes. On the surface of these B-lymphocytes are
antibodies, which will combine with a ‘matching’ antigen located
on a pathogen. This combination gives the B-lymphocyte the signal
to divide and form clones.
4. Some clone cells change into plasma cells and begin to produce
antibodies, which are released via the lymphatic system into the
plasma. Antibodies destroy the pathogens by combining with them
and inactivating them, by agglutination and by helping phagocytes
remove them. Other cells remain as B-lymphocytes and become
memory cells. They can quickly develop into plasma cell to produce
antibodies if they recognise the same antigen again.
5. The diagram below illustrates the process outline in points 3 and 4.

6. The response of the antibody-mediated immunity (humoral

response) on its first contact with an invading organism is called the
 primary response. The secondary response is triggered by a
reintroduction of the pathogen/antigen at a later time. The secondary
response is due to the immune memory comprising memory cells
called lymphocytes. During the primary response, those lymphocytes
sensitive to the particular antigen divide creating more memory cells.
Should a second infection occur, a large population of memory cells
is primes to change rapidly into plasma cells. These persist longer
and are capable of more rapidly producing higher concentrations o
antibodies.
7. The graph below illustrates the difference in speed of production and
number of antibodies produced in plasma after a first and second
exposure to antigens.

8. Cell-mediated immunity is also specific and exhibits an immune

memory but, unlike antibody-mediated immunity, it does not employ
antibodies. It is based around T-lymphocytes, which are produces on
bone marrow, mature in the thymus and then migrate to the lymph
nodes and tissues.
9. The initial antigen recognition process for cell-mediated immunity
is similar to that for antibody-mediated immunity. Once a T-
lymphocyte encounters a ‘matching’ antigen it is sensitised, enlarges
and divides into clones. Some of the clones become killer T-cells.
They leave the lymph nodes and migrate around the body, actively
seeking pathogens with the ‘matching’ antigen/ Some T-cells remain
as memory cells which can recognise the original invading antigen id
it re-enters the body at a later time and initiate a much faster
response.
10.The diagram below illustrates the process outline point 9.

11.Killer T-cells can encourage phagocytosis by macrophages, attract

macrophages by chemotaxis, sensitise more lymphocytes, and
 attach to the pathogen and destroy it. Cell-mediate immunity is
associated with graft rejection (organ transplants), and fighting
cancer cells and AIDS.

GENETICS – Mechanisms of and evidence for evolution

1. Evolution is the statistical change in the
gene pool of a population over time. It
results in a gradual change in the
characteristics of a species over many
generations.
2. There are four main principles involved in
evolution: Variation – each individual of a
species differs slightly in behaviour,
structure and function (due to sexual
reproduction, gene mutations, and
chromosome mutations); Competition – a
population that produces more offspring than
can survive and reproduce. This results in
competition between individuals for limited
resources. Selection – individuals with
variations that are better suited to a
particular environment have a better chance
of surviving. Reproduction – successful
individuals with favourable characteristics
reproduce with similar individuals and pass
the genes for these characteristics on to their
offspring. This increases the number of
favourable genes in the population this
changing the gene frequency.
3. An example of natural selection is the
change in the skin colour of a population
over time. The original population has
variation in skin colour from light to dark
(variation). In a new environment with high
levels of UV radiation, competition for
survival takes place with skin colour being
the selecting mechanism (competition).
Dark-skinned individuals who are less likely
to burn and are less likely to get skin cancer
therefore have a greater chance of survival
(selection). Dark-skinned individuals
reproduce together increasing the number of
dark-skinned individuals and genes in the
population (reproduction).
4. The most common misconception about
evolution is that an organism can change
during its lifetime to suit its environment.
When they are produced, organisms have a
set genetic makeup and cannot change. What
does happen is that when an organism
reproduces, its offspring will show a range
of variation and those that are best suited to
the environment will have a greater chance
of surviving.
5. In general, the gene frequencies of a large
population do not change from one
generation to the next unless natural
selection favours or removes particular
genes.
6. In small populations, a change in the gene
frequencies may occur by chance (i.e. a
random, non-directional change) due to the
small size of the population (random
genetic drift). An example is the Dunkers, a
small German group that lived and bred in
the USA in isolation from the general
population. They show a statistical variation
in characteristics such as blood group, ear
lobes and L/R handedness.
7. Sometimes a small sample of a large
population can become isolated, having
migrated to a new area. On some occasions,
due to the small initial gene pool, some gene
frequencies become more prevalent in the
population as it increases in size in
comparison with the original population.
This is called the ‘founder effect’.
8. There are many different pieces of evidence
that support the theory of evolution. These
can be classified into those that deal with
gross morphology (e.g. the study of fossils,
anatomy and embryology), and those that are
based on a microscopic level (e.g. protein
and DNA analysis).
9. Fossils of extinct organisms (particularly
bones) enable scientists to follow the
evolution of organisms by tracing structural
similarities in organisms back to a common
ancestor.
10.By determining the type and sequence of
amino acids that make up proteins,
scientists can compare various species for
evolutionary relationships. Species that are
more closely related have more similar
proteins (type and sequence of amino acids)
than those of distantly related species.
11.The study of DNA sequences can be used to
compare evolutionary relationships. The
more similar the DNA, the more closely
related are the species under consideration.
12.By comparing homologous similarities in
anatomy between different species of living
organisms, scientists can work out
evolutionary relationships. Species that have
similar structures can be assumed to have a
common ancestor. For example, the human
hand, whale flipper, and the wing of a bat all
have similar bone structure, suggesting a
common ancestor/origin.

13.By comparing the development of organisms

in the embryo stage, scientists can show that
many organisms, particularly vertebrates,
 have many structural similarities at the
embryo level, which suggests that they share
a common ancestor. For example, the cow,
pig, human, fowl, and fish all look very
similar in certain stages of embryo
development.

HUMAN EVOLUTION – Fossilisation and dating methods

1. A number of key ‘dates’ are important when studying human
evolution:
• Age of the earth – 4.6 billion years
• First life – 3.5 to 4 billion years
• First vertebrates – 470 million years
• First mammals – 200 million years
• First primates – 65 million years
• First hominids – 2 million years.
2. Palaeontology is the science of the study of fossils. A fossil is
preserved trace or remains of past living organisms (bone, teeth,
footprints, faeces). Archaeology is the study of the study of artefacts.
An artefact is an object that was man made (e.g. pottery, tools,
weapons). A kitchen midden is an accumulation of materials (e.g.
fossils, artefacts, food wastes) that is evidence of hominid occupation
of a particular site. Fossils, artefacts and kitchen middens help us to
interpret the past lifestyles of hominids. Fossils give us an indication
of hominid structure; artefacts provide information about tools used
and lifestyle; kitchen middens give indications about foods eaten and
behaviour.
3. Fossilisation is a process where the following steps usually occur.
The organism dies and is quickly covered by sediments (alkaline soil
with no oxygen). Minerals replace the organic matter in the bones
(mineralisation). The bone is now fossilised. Most fossils are found
in old lake, sea and river beds as suitable conditions for fossilisation
are usually found in these areas.
4. The fossilisation of organic body tissue (e.g. skin/flesh) occurs in
wet, acidic soils where there is little or no oxygen present. These
particular conditions are not conductive to bacterial growth, as the
bacteria that would normally decompose the tissues are not present.
These conditions are very rare and most commonly occur in peat
bogs.
5. Very few animal remains are fossilised, as the conditions required for
fossilisation are rare. Very few fossils are found as very few fossils
are produced in the first place. Many remain buried in sediment and
those that are uncovered are very difficult to identify, especially to
an untrained observer.
6. The dating of fossils is an important tool in the study of the
evolution of humans. There are two general types of dating.
Absolute dating gives an actual age in years with reference to the
present. Relative dating compares the age of a specimen/sample to
another which is older or younger.
7. Index fossils were only present on the earth for a short period of
time and were widely distributed. Their appearance in rocks helps to
correlate rock strata from different places. Once an index fossil has
 been identified in a particular layer of sediment, all other fossils in
that layer can be inferred to the same age.
8. Stratigraphy is a dating method based on the principle of
superposition. According to this theory, layers (strata) located below
others are older in origin and layers that contain the same type of
fossil (index fossil) are the same age. Stratigraphy involves studying
strata either using core examples or investigating cliff faces. Fossils
of unknown age below fossils of known age are said to be older.
Strata can also be studied for index fossils of known age. Fossils
associated with these must be the same age while fossils above are
younger and those below are older.
9. Radiocarbon (carbon-14) is a dating method based on the theory
that carbon-14 is continuously produced in the upper atmosphere by
the action of cosmic rays on nitrogen. All living things contain
radioactive carbon-14. When an organism dies, it no longer takes in
radioactive carbon-14 but continues to decay at a fixed rate to
nitrogen. Radiocarbon dating involves obtaining organic material
contained in or around the fossil and assessing it for the ratio of
carbon-14 to carbon-12 (normal carbon). With the known half-life of
carbon-14 being 5730 years, the age of the fossil can be determined.
Every 5730 years the amount of carbon-14 in a fossil will halve.
10. The table below compares stratigraphy and radiocarbon dating.
Dating Relative Time Material Source of Advantages/
technique or limits used material disadvantages
absolute
Stratigraphy Relative None Sedimentary Core samples Disadvantages –
rock Cliff faces Folding/faulting of strata
Rock strata Mine
Radiocarbon Absolute Up to Carbon Radioactive CO2 Disadvantages – Material must
(carbon-14) 70, 000 containing Incorporated contain carbon.
years compounds during Time limits.
photosynthesis Advantages – Gives an
absolute age

HUMAN EVOLUTION – Comparison of hominids and pongids

1- 4. The table below outlines the differences between hominids and pongids with respect to the
vertebral column, pelvis and femur carrying angle.
Characteristic Pongid Hominid Advantage to Hominid
Vertebral C – shaped curve S-shaped curve Allows for the centre of gravity to pass
column through the knee and foot.
Skull can balance on column with little
muscle support.
Large processes Small processes on Allows for increased neck movement.
on neck vertebrate neck vertebrate
Pelvis Long and narrow Short, broad, bowl- Short and broad for muscle attachment
and tilted forward shaped and upright of leg muscles.
Bowl-shaped to support abdominal
organs.
Femur/ Femurs come Femurs angle in from Creates a carrying angle and brings the
carrying angle straight down pelvis knees closer together.
from pelvis Thus it is easier to transfer weight
from one foot to another when
walking.
5 – 9. The table below outlines the differences between hominids and pongids with respect to the
hand and foot.
Characteristi Pongid Hominid Advantage to Hominid
c
Hand Long finger and a Shorter fingers. Allows for precision grip.
short thumb. Larger thumb with
Limited mobility of increased mobility.
 thumb.
Foot Longitudinal arch Longitudinal and Produces a spring action and acts as a
transverse arch shock absorber when walking.
Opposable big toe Large big toe Acts to give push off when walking
alongside other as it transfers energy.
Small calcaneus toes Bears impact of body’s weight.
Large robust
calcaneus
10 – 12. The table below outlines the differences between hominids and pongids with respect to
their centre of gravity and stance.
Characteristic Pongid Hominid Advantage to
Hominid
Centre of gravity Centre of gravity Centre of gravity Less effort required
passes in front of the passes through the standing upright as the
knee and feet knee and feet body is balanced over
the knees and feet
Stance Semi-erect knuckle Fully erect bipedal Frees hands for
carrying things and
manipulating objects.
Stands taller to see
food and predators.
13 – 15. The table below outlines the differences between hominids and pongids with respect to
the skull, jaw and teeth.
Characteristi Pongid Hominid Advantage to Hominid
c
Skull Capacity 400 cm3 Capacity 1300 cm3 Larger brain capacity, higher brain
functions. Increased learning and more
complex behaviour.
Small forehead Large forehead Little muscle support required.
Large brow ridge Small brow ridge Skull balances easier.
No chin Chin Strengthens jaw.
Prognatic face Flat face Balances skull.
Foramen magnum Foramen magnum Allows skull to balance on the vertebral
at back of skull at centre of base column without the need for large neck
muscles.
Allows for better vision.
Dentition/ Jaw U-shaped jaw Horseshoe jaw Better grinding action.
Heavy jaw Light jaw Smaller muscles required and increased
Larger canines with Smaller canines ability for speech.
diastema with no diastema Increased mobility of jaw with better
grinding action increased ability to eat a
range of foods.
Simian shelf No simian shelf Reinforces front of mandible in ape (not
required in hominids).
Helps reduce weight of skull.

HUMAN EVOLUTION – Evolution of humans

1 – 3. Australopithecines
Alternative name - Southern Ape
Geographical location - Southern Africa
Time period - 4 to 1 million years Before Present (BP)
Cranial capacity - 400 cm3
Skull and jaw - Large brow ridges, low forehead, prognatic jaw and large molars
Culture - Loosely organised into groups
- May have used very simple tools but did not make them
Other - Gracile and robust forms
4 – 5. Homo habilis

Alternative name - Handy Man

Geographical location - Africa
Time period - 2 to 1.5 million years BP
Cranial capacity - 600 cm3 to 800 cm3; average 700 cm3
Skull and jaw - Larger brain and smaller jaw than Australopithecines
Culture - Made and used simple stone tools (primary flakes)
- Used tools as cutters and scrapers
- No cooperative hunting (were scavengers)
- Increased meat in diet
- Larger family groups practised food sharing and division of labour
- Temporary living shelters
- Possible simple speech (large Broca’s area)
6 – 8. Homo erectus

Alternative name - Java Man, Peking Man, Upright Man

Geographical location - Africa, Europe, Asia
Time period - 1.8 million to 300,000 years BP
Cranial capacity - 850 cm3 to 1150 cm3; average 1050 cm3
Skull and jaw - Heavy brow ridges, thick skull, low flat forehead, heavy chinless jaw,
Prognatic upper jaw, small more modern teeth, occipital bun, central
foramen magnum
 Culture - First to use fire for cooking, warmth and protection
- Made and used more complex pebble tools with secondary flaking
- Used stone hand axes
- Cooperative hunting for larger animals which suggests complex
language (expansion of Broca’s area) for communication (tools found
with bones at butchering sites)
- Division of labour: women gathered food (nuts, fruits, roots and berries)
while men hunted
- Constructed seasonal home sites and also lived in caves; increased use
of home bases
Other - S-shaped spine/carrying angle

9 – 11. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis

Alternative name - Neanderthal Man

Geographical location - Europe and Middle East
Time period - 125,000 to 30,000 years Before Present (BP)
Cranial capacity - 1500 cm3 average
Skull and jaw - Long, low cranium, sloping forehead, reduced brow ridges and large occipital
bun, no chin and large nose
Culture - Complex pebble tools with tertiary flaking
- Wood and stone tools (spears)
- Cooperative hunting of large game (mammoths/bison) with butchering and
transfer of meat
- Complex language
- Division of labour
- Wore simple clothing (animal skin) for protection against cold
- Increased reliance on home base and fire for warmth and protection
- Evidence of religious rituals and burials of dead (bear cult)
- Care of sick and disabled
Other - Large nose moistened and heated cold air
- Possessed all the adaptations required for bipedalism
12. Homo sapiens sapiens

Alternative name - Humans

Geographical location - World-wide
Time period - 100,000 years BP to present day
Cranial capacity - 1350 cm3 average
Skull and jaw - Chin, high vertical forehead, no brow ridge, unspecialised small jaw,
rounded cranium
Culture - Builds more complex, permanent shelters
- More elaborative clothing
- More complex tools including use of bone, horn and ivory to make needles,
hooks and harpoons
- Very advanced stone tools
- Visual art, cave paintings, bone carvings and clay statues, jewellery
- Fishing with nets
- Abstract thinking
- Complex language

HUMAN EVOLUTION – Culture and lifestyle

1. There has been a number of physical trends in the evolution of
humans:
• There was a progressive increase in size of the brain capacity from
Australopithecines (375 to 530 cm3) to Homo sapiens sapiens 1360 cm3.
• There was a reduction in the size and degree of specialisation of the teeth.
• The jaw became progressively smaller and more horseshoe-shaped.
• The foramen magnum moved progressively towards the base of the centre o the
skull.
• All hominids were thought to be bipedal and they became progressively more erect.
2. In any population, over an extended period of time changes occur in
the lifestyle, customs and beliefs of the people in an area. There are
usually gradual changes. This process is called cultural evolution.
3. A number of characteristics were prerequisites for the development
of culture:
• Ability to communicate allowed transmission of customs, ideas and knowledge
within groups and between generations.
• Hand, precision grip allowed toolmaking excellence and the ability to record and
retain culture.
• Large cerebral cortex allowed abstract thought, logic, perception and
communication skills.
• Social organisation and division of labour, allowed time for some to indulge in
cultural pursuits (e.g. tools, technology and ideas).
A number of trends were evident in the evolution of culture in hominids:
• Tool type – simple to complex (e.g. pebble tools such as choppers/scrapers) → hand
axe → needles/spearheads → agricultural tools).
• Materials – stone → bone/antler/wood → metal.
• Use – casual → butchering → hunting → making other tools/agriculture.
• Lifestyle – nomadic hunter/gatherer → subsistence agriculture → small-scale
agriculture (bartering) → commercial agriculture (specialised) → towns (secondary
sector) → urbanisation (tertiary sector) → general increase in specialisation.
• Communication – oral/signs → simple speech → complex speech →art → written
word.
• Learning – personal experience → demonstration/copy → oral → written/recorded.
5. Food gathering increased the availability of food which led to the
more efficient use of time (not everyone was needed for food
gathering all of the time). This allowed more free time to develop
aspects of culture like toolmaking. Food sharing also led to
increased parental care and learning.
6. The agricultural revolution resulted in a great increase in food
production and a relief from food gathering. This increased the time
available for cultural development (inventing) and allowed for
specialisation.
7. In addition to the physical and intellectual evolution of hominids, the
evolution in culture can be classified into three main cultural
periods. These are the Palaeolithic (Stone Age) period, the
Mesolithic (transitional) period and the Neolithic (modern) period.
8. During the Palaeolithic period the culture was based on stone tools
(Stone Age), which became increasingly sophisticated as it
 progressed. These hunter-gatherer-based societies became more and
more reliant on the use of fire while art (cave paintings, carvings)
became prevalent.
9. The Mesolithic period was the transitional period from the Stone
Age to societies based on agriculture. Sophisticated stone tools were
produced as well as tools make from antler/bone/wood. Shelters were
semi-permanent and complex in design and clothes made from
animal skins were introduced. Small communities of non-related
individuals started to develop.
10.During the Neolithic period agricultural-based societies
domesticated animals and plants. Metallurgy based on the use of
copper, bronze and iron was developed. There was increased
urbanisation, the development of organised trading and specialisation
of labour. Increased leisure time resulted in the development of
writing, music and drama.