Digitally controlled wind turbines in megawatt size

with doubly-fed induction generator without position sensor

The technology in wind turbines is in full progress and for every new turbine new
technologies emerge. The purpose of this publication is to describe one of these
technologies, the OptiSpeed TM, both in a popular and a more comprehensive
form.

Most wind turbines use a so-called three-phase generator, also called an

induction generator to generate alternating currents. A reason for choosing this
type of generator is that it is very reliable, and tends to be comparatively
inexpensive. The generator also has some mechanical properties, which are
useful for wind turbines. The rotor of the induction generator with short circuit
rotorwinding comprises a number of copper or aluminium bars, which are
connected electrically by aluminium end rings.The speed of the induction
generator will vary with the rotational force applied to it. In practice, the
difference between the rotational speed at peak power and at idle is very small,
about 1 per cent.

V80-2.0 MW Wind Turbine near Srup

This difference in per cent of the synchronous speed is called the generator's slip.
Thus a 4-pole generator will run idle at 1500 rpm if it is attached to a grid with a
50 Hz current. If the generator is producing at its maximum power, it will be
running at 1515 rpm. This is why the induction generator is called an
asynchronous generator. It operates asynchronous to the synchronous speed. It
is a very useful mechanical property that the generator will increase or decrease
its speed slightly if the torque varies. This means less wear and tear on the
tower, gearbox and other components in the transmission line, i.e. lower peak
torque, which is one of the most important reasons for using an asynchronous
generator rather than a synchronous generator on a wind turbine which is directly
connected to the electrical grid.

The slip in the induction generator, however, is a function of the (DC) resistance
(measured in ohms) in the rotor windings of the generator. The higher resistance,
the higher the slip. So one way of varying the slip is to vary the resistance in the
rotor. In this way one may increase generator slip to e.g. 10%. On motors this is

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usually done by having a wound rotor, i.e. a rotor with copper wire windings
which are connected in star, and connected with external variable resistors, plus
an electronic control system to operate the resistors. The connection has usually
been done with brushes and slip rings, which is a clear drawback over the
elegantly simple technical design of a cage wound rotor machine. It also
introduces parts, which wear down in the generator, and thus the generator
requires extra maintenance. The Vestas OptiSlip function deals with that, avoiding
the problem of introducing slip rings, brushes, external resistors, and
maintenance altogether.

By mounting the external resistors on the rotor itself, and mounting the electronic
control system on the rotor as well, you just have to communicate the amount of
slip you need to the rotor. This communication is done very elegantly, using
optical fibre communications.

The newest stage of the technology of the slip is called OptiSpeed TM , giving
possibility of varying the speed up to 30%. In addition to the fact, that the
previously mentioned advantages are further enhanced, it is also possible to
design special operating strategies, where the possibility of operating at lower
speed is utilised. This feature is used in connection with reduction of noise.
Another advantage of the OptiSpeedTM feature is the possibility to exploit even
more of the energy in the rotor and transfer it to the grid, not forgetting the high
quality of the power delivered to the grid. The following chapters of this
document gives a much more comprehensive description of the OptiSpeed TM
advantages, together with a detailed look into the technology behind.

Ecological aspects

Released by the oil crisis and in view of the limited resources of the fossil sources
of energy, there was set focus on the possible use of renewable energy sources
for production of power. Reactor accidents and problems with the disposal as well
as the irreversible damage of the biosphere by increasing CO2-load did not
strengthen additionally the interest in new and exhaustive energy sources. In the
meantime economical concepts within the area of the solar and wind energy
arose. And the wind power technology had the largest focus, because of the
relatively high efficiency converting the mechanical energy into electricity.

The nature of the wind energy production

With all advantages of the wind energy also disadvantages can be found. On the
one hand it is the small power density of the wind, leading to those wide, material
intensive wind rotors and on the other hand the heavily varying wind supply,
which leads to fast fluctuations of the mechanical load, proportional in 3.rd power
to the wind velocity. In order to be able to perform in both weak winds and
storms, high demands is set, not only for the materials, but also to the dynamics
of the controlling mechanisms. Exploiting wind energy turns up the basic problem
that the power requirements usually do not correspond to the actual production.
This problem can be minimised by feeding the power into a huge grid with
alternative power sources, and in this way be able to match supply and demand.
It becomes problematic however again for wind turbines in the megawatt class,
because they are able to bring the wind gusts to the grid as large energy
portions, causing voltage fluctuations.

The technical challenge

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Due to the fast wind speed variations the demand rises for generators featuring
variable speed. The result of such a feature, varying the rpm around the nominal
point (e.g. 1500 rpm), is that no large additional portions of energy is put into
the grid. The high varying wind energy (turbulence) can be stored for seconds as
potential energy in the rotor blades, by changing their speed within an admissible
area. This increased number of revolutions prevents fluctuations on the grid and
relieves all the turbine mechanics. Furthermore, the load on the mechanism
turning the blades angle of attack (pitch mechanism) is reduced. By changing the
angle of the blade, this pitch control changes the impact of the wind on the rotor
in such a way that it remains at the desired number of revolutions. The pitch
mechanism must then go active only, if the rotor threatens to leave the
admissible speed range. There are two technically relevant generator types
meeting the request of varying number of revolutions. Both types are represented
on the market.

Synchronous generator

Synchronous generator is connected with its stator to DC-link converter system.

The principle is a generator, which supplies a voltage and a frequency dependent
on the number of revolutions. Since these do not fit directly a rigid grid, the
output voltages from the generator must be transformed over a bridge rectifier
into DC voltage (intermediate circuit). By means of a converter these DC voltages
are transformed to AC and shaped regarding amplitude, frequency and phase into
a voltage suitable for the grid. This principle enables a power production starting
from a low number of revolutions up to the maximum speed. This wide speed
range means a high energy yield. The entire amount of energy to the grid must
be led however by one or more parallel operating converters. In order to control
and limit the power output to the grid, the rotor field has to be controlled from its
own converter through a set of slip rings. The complexity of this construction, and
thereby the expenditure, affects the efficiency unfavourably.

Figure 1: Synchronous generator on grid

Doubly-fed asynchronous generator

Doubly-fed three-phase generator is connected with its rotor to DC-link converter

system and with its stator to the grid. The advantage is that the slip is

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proportional to the power flowing through the intermediate circuit. In order to
prevent excessive load of the frequency converter, only speed fluctuations within
the range of +/-30 % (slip s) around the rated speed (n 0 = 1500 rpm) are
allowed. The generator deliver over-synchronised (s < 0, n > n0) as well as
under-synchronised (s > 0, n < n0) energy to the grid.

Active power at stator connectors:

PS = (1+s) Pmech
Active power at rotor connectors:
PR = -s PS
Active power sum:
PS + PR = Pmech
Slip:
s = (G PS m)/G
(PS = stator pole pairs)

Except from the losses, the main part of the energy is transferred to the grid via
the stator terminals. Thus the static frequency changer can be designed
substantially smaller. In order to minimise the loss due to the rotor efficiency PR,
the rotor energy is supplied to the grid through the intermediate circuit and a
controllable electric rectifier. By a relatively simple construction effort, a very high
efficiency is obtained.

Figure 2: Double-fed 3-phase generator.

Reason for the choice of the double-fed three-phase generator

The OptiSlip concept was mentioned in the introduction. The OptiSlip concept is
based on the induction generator with wound rotor circuit, and external rotor
resistors mounted on the shaft. This concept has successfully been used on
several thousands of turbines. At the OptiSpeed TM concept the same type of
generator is used. The only difference is that the external resistors are replaced
by highly reliable slip-rings. All the experience from the previous years of
operation is retained, so a highly reliable generator system with wound rotor

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circuit is utilised in the OptiSpeedTM system. One new and very powerful feature
in the OptiSpeedTM system is the active transmission oscillation damping system.
This system constantly monitors oscillations in the speed of the generator, and if
needed active damping of this is performed. This system helps to increase the
lifetime of the drivetrain.

System configuration

Fig. 3 depicts that Vestas structured the generator system according to the
configuration presented in fig. 2. The shown directions of the voltages and
currents are in conformity with the following pictures.The stator of the generator
can be switched to the grid both in star and in delta mode. It keeps the current in
the stator relatively low also at high yield. Up to approx. 800 kW the system
operates in star mode, and above and up to 2 MW in delta mode. This 2-way
operation mode demands frequently connecting and disconnecting to the grid, for
the system to configure either star or delta mode. This switching process can
occur quite frequently in the middle of the capacity range, and it proves the
advantage of being able to switch on an off rapidly. The present system is able to
switch off in 3 grid periods and on again. In practice such quick switch on and off
is prevented by invoking a hysteresis mechanism.

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Figure 3: Electrical system configuration

Control hardware

The complexity of the software solution made it necessary to utilise a 3-

processor hardware construction (Fig 4). The host processor dedicated to the
main functions and communication is supported by very fast DSPs in
Master/Slave configuration for the control functions. Although the DSPs are
floating point computers and programmed in C, the master DSP calculates and
controls the rotor connected converter with a sample frequency of 5 kHz
(switching frequency 2.5 kHz) and 10 kHz (switching frequency 5 kHz) for the
converter on the grid side. In order to support necessary bandwidth for the
reduction of current harmonics, the automatic controllers for the grid converter
(Slave DSP) have an extra high clock frequency.

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Figure 4: Structure controller board

The dual port RAMs permits very effective communication between all processors.
Over a RS232-interface the DSP system and thus the control for test and line-up
can be operated independently of the host and the ArcNet connection. To be able
to keep all parameters and variables in case of power failures, all data are stored
in a static RAM. Time-critical monitoring and control functions are supported by
means of logic devices (LSI). By a LSI the sample timing of the ADC is
synchronised with the switch frequency and thereby the control frequency. This
ensures a minimum self- and mutual disturbance of the measured values. The
host communicates in the dual port RAM over an asynchronous handshake
protocol with the master DSP.

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Theoretical basis of the control structures

The two following pictures show the electrical circuit diagrams of the generator,
the grid connected frequency converter with the choke coil, the transformer and
the grid. Additionally the current and voltage vectors with the appropriate angles
are drawn in. Thus the basis for the development of the control algorithms is
determined.

Figure 5.a) Vector scheme at generator

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Figure 5.b) Vector scheme at grid side inverter

Over a PLL from the mains voltage UL the phase angle is the basis for the
rotating stator field co-ordinate system. Within that, red drawn rotor current
components IRd and IRq are defined (Fig. 5a). This stator field chart is identical to
the mains voltage chart in Fig. 5b. The shift of these co-ordinate systems around
/2 opposite G leads to the fact that in the rotating co-ordinate system all active
sizes in the q-axis and all reactive values in the d-axis are represented. Thus it is
forming the basis for the control of the converter. The measured rotor current IR
runs with slip frequency R and the angle off the mechanically rotating rotor and
therefore always an AC with variable frequency is also stationary. With a rotor
position giver the slip angle is found; from and G or is calculated (formula in

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Fig. 5a) and thus could the measured rotor current of the components I Rd and IRq
be determined.

Control of the static rotor side inverter

Without rotor position sensor the slip angle needed for the transformation can be
calculated from the difference of The electrical angle is simply calculated
from the measured rotor current values IRa, IRb (the sliprings carry this
mechanical transformation out), while the angle from the rotor current values
measured in the rotor vector chart only can be calculated indirectly over the
generator model (Fig. 6). The generator model supplies the rotor current values
ISd, ISq with detailed stator current values IRd, IRq in the rotary stator field chart.
From these it is easy to calculate . Fig. 5b depicts the chart for the grid-side
rotary frequency converter and for the stationary earth connection. Both co-
ordinate systems have their congruent correspondences in the rotary stator-field
and stationary stator co-ordinate system in Fig. 5a. The equality of the co-
ordinate systems leads to using the same angle and makes it very easy to
calculate the levels of the controls distributed on different processors together.

Figure 6: Rotor side inverter control structure

The feeding power into the grid is regulated via the rotor current (Fig. 6 on the
right above). The control of the rotor current takes place in the co-ordinate
system rotating with slip frequency R, according to its transformation of the slip
angle . Since the measured rotor currents have the slip frequency as electrical

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frequency likewise, it leads to the fact that the automatic controllers in the
stationary position see only direct currents and the automatic controller
interpretation thereby becomes very simple. The allocation of the rotor current in
field building d-component and a moment building q-component enables the
cascade overlay to the rotor current control with a grid effect, e.g. an automatic
grid reactive power controller (PMG, QMG).

In the lower half of fig. 6 is seen the calculation of the slip angle SIGMA from the
grid, indispensable of the co-ordinate conversion to the rotor current (IL, IR). Due
to the relatively high level of harmonics in the rotor current, the angle calculation
is filtered. This leads to a substantial phase shift, which is dependent on the slip
frequency. By means of a differentiating the feedback of the calculated slip angle
SIGMA the slip frequency OMEGAR is calculated and after priority of these with
the filter time constants TI_IR, an arc tangent operation leads to the current
angle of the phase shift. Via addition to the calculated angle value (EPS) a
compensation of the tracking caused by the filter takes place. In order to
calculate the stationary angle LAMDA, the stator current must be calculated. From
this the rotor current IRQ_SNL, IRD_SNL in stator field co-ordinates can be
calculated by means of a simple generator model (in fig. 5a it is the red drawn
components IRq und IRd). These currents may not be equated with IRQ and IRD in
the fig. 6, since IRQ and IRD are components of the rotor slip angle co-ordinate
system.

Control of the static grid side inverter

The control of the grid side static frequency inverter (Fig. 7) takes place in the
Slave DSP. Apart from the entry of the grid and the stator voltage angle (G,S)
the intermediate circuit voltage UDC on constantly 800 V is controlled here.
According to Fig. 5b the difference in phase angle of current and mains voltage
is regulated to zero. The active power is thus transported in both directions power
by the grid side static frequency inverter. The control operates in mains voltage
co-ordinates, so that the automatic controllers have to do it in the stationary
status only with equal sizes. Over a superior control also directed reactive power
over IRD_REF can be placed and be implemented through reactive power
compensation (phase shifters).

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Figure 7: Grid side inverter control structure

Synchronising to the grid without rotor position sensor

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Before the generator can be switched to the grid, it shall be ensured that the
voltages correspond regarding amplitude, frequency and phase. The larger the
deviation at the connecting is, the higher balance current flows. It can lead to
monitoring the current and to power-off of the system. In order to avoid any
disturbance of the grid, the differential voltage between generator stator and the
grid is kept on an insignificant level. This is not easy to implement due to the
harmonics in the generator voltage. Fig. 8 depicts steps in synchronisation to the
grid. In order to enable the synchronisation, the voltages between the lines 1 and
2 of the grid and the stator (UL12, US12) is compared regarding amplitude,
frequency and phase position. UD12 show the instant differences; the amplitude
difference delta U, the frequency difference delta f and the angle difference
between these two voltages DELTA_GAMMAGS. At the beginning of the
synchronisation
process the stator
voltage usually
deviates regarding
amplitude and
frequency from the
mains voltage. Point
(1) in Fig. 8 depicts
how the amplitude
equality is obtained by
an amplitude control.
The frequency of the
stator voltage US12 is
unknown, since it
consists of the
unknown mechanical
rotational frequency m
and the given electrical
slip frequency R. As
soon as the stator
voltage reaches
sufficient amplitude,
the frequency s of the
stator voltage can be
determined by zero
crossovers and the
difference to the
frequency G on the
controllable value for
the slip frequency can
be added (2). Thereby
the frequency
difference becomes 0.
In reality the zero crossover recognition reflects also the harmonics in the
generator voltage, so it becomes a measuring error regarding the basic frequency
of the stator. The switching of the frequency differences causes however at least
that the angles difference slowly changes. Thus the angle difference in a further
step can be diminished (3). Even if it could be diminished within one scanning
step, the reduction is slowly carried out, in order to avoid voltage steps in the
rotor. These would release natural oscillations in the rotor and would delay
reaching the steady bias point before connecting to the grid (4).

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 Figure 8: Function of grid synchronisation

Due to the harmonics contents of the amplitude-, frequency-phase controllers

during the entire synchronisation process, the process becomes more difficult
when operating without rotor position sensor. A reason for that is mutual
influencing in the controllers. By optimisation of the parameters in the controllers,
a synchronisation time between 0.2 and 0.3 seconds could be achieved despite
these circumstances.

Reduction of the current-harmonics caused by the generator

With an extension in the grid side inverter control the 5th and 7th grid harmonics
together with the slip harmonics are significantly reduced until the THD value of
the line currents reaches a value less than 1%.

Measurements at the 2 MW prototype

Feeding performance independently of fast wind modifications

A variation of the supplied wind energy from the factor 8 (proportionally to the
3rd power of the wind velocity) remains the feeding performance of the generator
into the grid constantly on the desired value. These substantial energy
fluctuations are converted into rotation energy, whereby the adjustment of the
angle the rotor blades (pitch angles) ensures that the generator rate cannot run
out of the bias point (1680 rpm).

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Figure 9: Feeding performance independently of the wind fluctuations

Dynamics and stiffness of the power adjustment at 1 MW operating point

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Figure 10a) 150 KW active power change (Ch1: PMG_REF, Ch2: PMG,
Ch3: QMG)

Figure 10b) Speed variation with 200 rpm (Ch1: PMG, Ch2: QMG, Ch3:
SPEED)

The very good performance of the wind turbine is reflected also in a stable and
fast power adjustment under extreme conditions. Fig. 10a depicts that the power
adjustment has a response time of approx. 40 ms equal to approx. two grid
periods. Thus a stable operation is ensured also at weak grids. Fig. 6a depicts
that the decoupling of active and reactive power is very effective. Fig. 6b depicts
that even with the change from under- to over-synchronous operation the power
output can be kept constant and the reactive power with 0 kVA is kept constant,
which corresponds to a power factor of 1. This fast power adjustment enables a
fast response to wind turbulences or changes in the grid load, so that a stable
operation is obtained, even under extreme wind or grid conditions, with the grid
reactions remaining insignificant.

Grid Synchronisation and Connection

Fig. 11 depicts the sequence where the generator is connected to the grid. The
line current IL1 is the total of stator current and grid side static frequency
converter current. It is seen that no significant current spikes or inrush current is
present during grid connection, when K500 is switched from 0 to 1.

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Figure 11: Synchronisation and connection (Ch1: US12, Ch2: UL12, Ch3:
IL1, Ch4: connector)

Effect of the harmonics reduction

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Figure 12 a: Without harmonics reduction

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Figure 12 b: With harmonics reduction

The two plots demonstrate the effectiveness of the compensation up to the 10 th

order of the generator and grid harmonics.

Figure 13 a: Flicker suppression in active power

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Figure 13 b: Flicker suppression in reactive power

As it can be seen at Fig. 13 power fluctrations are controlled effectively so that

external disturbances ex. the blade/towerssage is not present in the power signal.
Due to this effective powercontrol flicker can be kept at a low level. Alltogether
the OptiSpeedTM concept results in high power quality.

Operation, safety and maintenance concept

The operation strategy is as follows. At very low wind speeds the blades of the
turbine will be placed in 45 and the rotor will start rotating. At increased wind
speed the rotor will accelerate and grid connection of the generator in Star
connection will happen very smoothly. The OptiTip control will now bring the
angle of the blades to an optimum angle, and speed of the rotor and the power to
the grid will follow a power versus speed reference curve. If the wind speed
increases further then the speed of the rotor will increase and hence the power
led to the grid will increase also. Operating in Star connection of the stator
winding means reduced losses in generator, but Star connection is not possible at
nominal power, so at a certain power the generator must switch from Star to
Delta connection. This is due to the fast and effective control of the rotor currents
possible to do within just a few seconds. At nominal wind and at nominal power
the power is no longer increased when the wind speed increases. Here the pitch
control combined with the buffering effect of the inertia in the rotor enables the
power to be controlled constant.

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The safety strategy for the OptiSpeed TM system is the same as known from the
V29, V29, V39, V42, V44, V47, V63 and V66 turbines. For turbines with
individually controlled and actuated pitch system for each blade this concept
includes three completely separated control systems. Just one of these is able to
bring the turbine out of operation in a controlled manner. The mechanical brake is
not a safety component and its function is to help the pitch system to stop
rotation completely. For smaller turbines with one common pitch system for the
three blades in the rotor, here the brake is a safety component. When such a
turbine has to be stopped both the pitch system and the brake is utilised.

The speed of both the rotor and the generator is monitored by the turbine
controller. Further a separate and external over speed guard is present. Both of
these independent systems constantly monitor the wind turbine. Every six
months the turbine needs a scheduled service check. Additionally the turbine is
capable to contact Vestas Service department if anything extraordinary happens.
This is done through the remote control system connected to almost any Vestas
wind turbine. The service department is then capable of checking all sensors in
the turbine. This always enables Vestas to bring the wind turbine back in
operation within very short while.

Summary and overview

The OptiSpeedTM system is an optimal and powerful system which makes a Vestas
wind turbine even more efficient, more flexible with regards to acoustic noise,
and the power quality is excellent. The OptiSpeed TM system is offered in the
turbines: V52-850kW, V66-1.75/2.0MW, V80-2.0MW. A V80-3.0MW turbine
OptiSpeedTM turbine is under development. The above mentioned turbines will not
be offered in the USA and in Canada. Here the OptiSlip system is offered. In the
coming years Vestas Wind Systems expects to erect turbines all over the world.
In the countryside, in mountains, offshore any place where utilisation of the wind
energy is economically feasible. The physical dimensions of the turbines seems to
be without any limits. Therefore the turbines will grow in size and in power.
Technically the OptiSpeedTM is the most optimal and powerful technology ever
launched by Vestas Wind Systems.

The contents of the above application description was written, togeher with
Vestas Wind Systems, in the following publication

Ehrenberg, J.; Andresen, B.; Rebsdorf, A.:

Windkraftanlagen fr den Megawattbereich, Digitale Steuerung eines doppelt
gespeisten Asynchrongenerators ohne Lagegeber, Teil 1
Magazine Elektronik 2001, Issue 18, p 60 ... 67

Ehrenberg, J.; Andresen, B.; Rebsdorf, A.:

Windkraftanlagen fr den Megawattbereich, Digitale Steuerung eines doppelt
gespeisten Asynchrongenerators ohne Lagegeber, Teil 2
Magazine Elektronik 2001, Issue 19, p 78 ... 87

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