1148 TAYLOR: REVERSE-POWER.

ALTERNATING-CURRENT RELAYS

REVERSE-POWER ALTERNATING-CURRENT RELAYS FOR 3-PHASE

GENERATOR AND FEEDER PROTECTION.*
By G. E. TAYLOR, Associate Member.
{Paper first received 2Zrd February, and in final form 30th June, 1928.)
SUMMARY. to utilize reverse-power relays, and these notes are in-
This paper discusses the behaviour of reverse-power a.c. tended to assist all those engaged in the operation or
relays of the wattmeter and allied types when applied to the construction of such instruments in appreciating the
protection of 3-phase generators and feeders, and it shows: shortcomings of this class of apparatus.
(a) The differences in behaviour produced by various A consideration of the various faults covered by the
systems of connections; requirements discussed in the foregoing paragraphs will
(b) The improper operations inevitable with each system show that reverse-power relays are intended to remain
of connections; inoperative so long as the average value of the power
(c) The difficulties to be overcome in order to produce a transmitted during any one cycle by the apparatus to
reverse-power relay which will be stable with all which they are connected is in the forward direction (i.e.
conditions of forward power and whose operation is being supplied by the generating plant towards the
will yet be certain under all conditions of reverse consuming plant), and operation is required in the event
power. of the power becoming reversed in direction (i.e. fed back
In addition, the paper shows that the most satisfactory towards, or into, the generating plant from the con-
results available with this class of instrument will be obtained suming end).
if the potential coils of the relay be connected between line On any system, however, reversals of small magnitude
and neutral when used for generator protection, or between may be of frequent occurrence, even under normal
line and leading phase when used for feeder protection. operating conditions, and in order to prevent operation
of the relays under these transient conditions the relays
INTRODUCTION. are provided with a scale setting, which is intended to
render the instruments inoperative even when a reversal
Reverse-power a.c. relays were at one time employed of power is present, so long as the magnitude of such
on generators to trip the automatic switch or circuit reversal is less than the value to which the relays are set
breakers in the event of power being fed back from other on the scale. (Such transient reversals and reversals of
synchronous plant connected to the system into the small magnitude may result from faults on other por-
machine owing to a breakdown on the windings of the tions of the system, or from bad synchronizing of an
machine, and, although more satisfactory apparatus is incoming generator, or even from sudden fluctuations in
now available for this purpose, such relays are still fre- load.)
quently employed and are indeed highly essential (if they
can be relied upon) as a means of disconnecting the It is the purpose of this paper to show that the value
machine in the event of its being run as a motor from the of the reverse power necessary to operate these relays
line upon a failure of the prime mover, or in the event of . under many fault conditions does not coincide'with the
the machine being mistakenly switched in when at rest value indicated on the scale; that, owing to this inac-
or not in synchronism. curate characteristic, these relays may frequently cause
the "shut down" of quite healthy plant; and that little
Such relays were also used to protect each of two or reliance can be placed on their powers of discrimination
more feeders serving in parallel and were intended to unless the various points dealt with in this paper are
open the circuit breaker at the consuming end of the complied with.
affected feeder in the event of a fault thereon and thus to
interrupt any flow of current from the consuming end On any phase of an alternating-current system "for-
into the fault and otherwise supplied by way of the ward power" is always obtained so long as the current in
parallel feeder. that phase is not more than 90 displaced with regard to
the voltage impressed on that phase by the apparatus at
As in the case of generator protection, improved the supply end; "reverse power" results, however,
apparatus for performing this function with greater dis- whenever the current and voltage are more than 90
crimination and reliability can now be obtained, but displaced.
such apparatus is very much more expensive than these
simple relays and in most cases involves the use of pilot Turning now to the relays; these are, in principle,
wires, the cost of which on a large system may be pro- simple single-phase wattmeters. In fact, if an ordinary
hibitive. In such cases, therefore, endeavour is still made single-phase wattmeter be equipped with a central zero
and arranged to indicate forward power on the right-
* The Papers Committee invite written communications (with a view to hand side of the zero line and reverse power on the left-
publication in the Journal if approved by .the Committee) on papers published
in the Journal without being'read at a meeting. Communications should reach hand side and be then fitted" with a pair of tripping
the Secretary of the Institution not later than one month after publication of
the paper to which they relate. contacts on the latter side so that when the pointer
 FOR 3-PHASE GENERATOR AND FEEDER PROTECTION.
reaches their positions it completes the tripping circuit,
then an instrument equivalent in all respects to a reverse-
power relay will be obtained, and the behaviour of such
relays can, therefore, readily be followed by considering
them as ordinary central-zero single-phase wattmeters.
Now it is well known that either two or three single-
phase wattmeters can be utilized to indicate the total
power in a 3-phase circuit.
If three instruments be used they are connected as
shown in Fig. 1, the current coils being arranged one in
each line and the potential coils of each instrument being
3 single-phase wattmeters
C \ iA
FIG. 1.Three single-phase wattmeters.
current in phase" A "
fc:
'pa '
: current in series coil of relay " A "
= voltage across phase" A "
voltage across potential coil of relay " A "
: angle of displacement between Ipa and Epa
angle of displacement between Im and Era
connected between the line which carries the associated
current coil and the neutral point.
If only two instruments be used, then the current coil
of the first must be connected in line C and that of the
second instrument in line B, whilst the potential coils of
the instruments must be connected between lines A and
C, and B and A respectively, as shown in Fig. 2.
Reverse-power relays are connected exactly similarly,
both as shown in Fig. 1 and as shown at A and B in
Fig. 2, whilst, in addition, a fourth system was proposed
by Wedmore,* and has also been tried.
The latter method consists in connecting the series coil
See E. B. WEDMORE and H. TRENCHAM : " Switchgear for Electric Power
Control," page 124 ; also British Patent 4595/1915.
VOL. 66.
1149
of the relay in line A and its potential coil across phases
B and C, as shown in Fig. 3, thus giving a 90 phase dis-
placement (at unity power factor in the main circuit)
between the current in the series coil and the voltage
across the shunt circuit, and, to compensate for this, a
condenser is inserted in series with the shunt coils and
serves to bring the pressure actually applied to these
into phase with the current in the series coil.
The behaviour of the relays varies considerably when
under both normal and fault conditions, according to
which system of connections is adopted, and it is the
FIG. 2.Two single-phase wattmeters.
Ipe = current in phase" C "
In = current in series coil of relay " C "
Epc = voltage across phase" C ."
Ere = voltage across potential coil of relay " C "
<f> = angle of displacement between Tpc and Epe
<t>n = angle of displacement between Irc and Erc
intention of this paper to show that none of the systems
results in thoroughly reliable discriminative action under
all conditions, and for ease of reference it is proposed
to refer to the various schemes in the following manner:
When connected as shown in Fig. 1, as "Star connection."
When connected as Relay B in Fig. 2, as "Leading
connection."
When connected as Relay C in Fig. 2, as " Lagging
connection."
When connected as suggested by Wedmore (Fig. 3), as
" Quadrature connection."
Now, although three reverse-power relays are usually
74
1150 TAYLOR: REVERSE-POWER ALTERNATING-CURRENT RELAYS
installed, one in each phase, on any circuit which it is . Pa, Pb or P c = power energizing relay A, B or C.
desired to protect, and although each carries only the Pr = power necessary to operate relay at setting value.
current in a single phase, it is customary to equip these Ira, 1^ or Irc = current in series coil of relay A, B or C.
relays with a scale calibrated in kilowatts in terms of the Era, Eri or Erc = voltage across shunt coils of relay A,
3-phase power in the main circuit, the intention being B or C.
to facilitate their being set for main circuit values without <f>r = angle of phase displacement between Ir and ET.
reference to the effects within the relay itself, and, in Pf power in fault.
order to compare the curves given later on, it is necessary If = current in fault.
to bear this point in mind. Ef = voltage across fault.
Considering now the behaviour of the relays under <f)j angle of phase displacement between / / and Ef.
normal and fault conditions, the actual relationship
BEHAVIOUR ON 3-PHASE LOADS OR REVERSALS..
For star-connected instrument, as in Fig. 1 (a).The
power in the 3-phase main circuit
= P3 = SEpIp cos <f>
and the power energizing each instrument A, B or C
= P = ErIr COS <f>r
but, as will be" obvious, and as is shown on the vector
diagram, Fig. 1 (6),
Er = Ev; I r = I p; a n d (f)r = <f>
Therefore, P = EVIP cos <f>
90 ahead of Epb'JSpc P 3 _ 3EpIp cos (f>
owing to condenser
and the ratio
P EpIpcos<f> ~

If, therefore, the relay is to operate when the value

of the 3-phase reverse power in the main circuit is
Ps, then its tripping contacts must be closed when
its coils are energized by power
Pr = ~ (1)
(The negative sign before the term Ps is used, since
operation is required only when the power is reversed.)
For an instrument with leading-phase connections [as
o *
90nhend of Epa-Epi 90 ahead Relay B in Fig. 2 (a)].As before, the power in the
owing- to condenser owing- to of Epc-Ep
condenser
3-phase main circuit
FIG. 3." Quadrature "-connected reverse-power relays.
Jpa current in phase " A " = P 3 = SEPIP cos <f>
/ r a = current in series coil of relay " A "
Epa = voltage across phase" A " and the power energizing the relay
Ern = voltage across potential coil of relay " A "
$ = angle of displacement between Ipaand Epa
<\>ra = angle of displacement between Iraand Era
= P = ErIT cos <j>r
But here Er = -\/ZEp, Ir = Ip, and (f>r = 30 + <f>, as
between the 3-phase power in the line and the power will be seen from the vector diagram [Fig. 2 (6)].
indicated by a wattmeter (or the power active in a
reverse-power relay) when connected in either of the Therefore P = y/ZEpIp cos (30 -f <f>)
four methods referred to can be calculated as follows: and the ratio
Let
El p p 3E I cos <j> -\/3 cos cf>
P 3 = total power in the 3-phase main circuit.
Ps = power at which the relay is set to operate. P \/3EpIp cos (30 + cf>) cos (30 + <f>)
Ep = voltage across any one phase. so that, fOr any given value of P 3 ,
E = voltage between any two lines (= -\/BEp).
Ip = current in any one phase. cos (30 + <f>)
<f> = angle of phase displacement between Ep and Ip, P =
y/3 cos (f>
considered positive when Ip leads with respect
to Vp, or negative when Ip lags with respect Now obviously a wattmeter type of instrument can
to V.v only move its pointer to a given position when it is
 FOR 3-PHASE GENERATOR AND FEEDER PROTECTION. 1151

energized by a given amount of true power, and each for, although the potential CB (Fig. 3) is normally 90
mark on the scale corresponds to a definite amount behind Ep in phase A, this is compensated for by the
of true power at the instrument terminals. If, there- effect of the condenser which is specially designed to
fore, the instrument be connected with leading-phase produce this result.
potential coils, the above equation shows that, since Therefore
the power P energizing the relay is not dependent P = ^/ZEPIp cos (f>
merely upon the value P 3 , then the indications of a 3EpIp cos
wattmeter will not necessarily be P 3 but may be any 3 = ^
other value, depending upon the power factor. Similarly, cos V

the fact that power to the value P 3 flows in the main and = P3/y'3
circuit is no guarantee that the moving element of a Therefore, if the instrument be set to operate at a
reverse-power relay will reach the tripping position. value of P 8 , the power required in the relay circuit
Manufacturers, however, universally equip their must be Pr = P/-\/ 3 a n d this will always be pro-
instruments with scales which indicate the position duced by power P s regardless of power factor.
reached by the moving element when power to the
value stated thereon is present in the 3-phase main BEHAVIOUR UNDER SINGLE-PHASE FAULT CONDITIONS.
circuit and is accompanied by unity power factor (i.e.
when <f> = 0) and therefore, if the instrument be set to Turning now to the behaviour of the relays undei
operate at a value of 3-phase power equal to P 3 , the fault conditions, and treating first the case of single-
power required to operate the relay will be phase faults to earth, then:
With a star-connected relay.The value of the power
cos (30 + cf>) in the fault circuit
P 3
V3 cos
<f> Pf = Eflf cos (f>
and, since <j> = 0 at unity power factor, we have
The value of the power in the relay circuit
cos30 0-866 P = ErIr cos <j>r
F732 and it will be seen from Fig. 4 (a) that
It will be obvious,' however, that this immediately
introduces an undesirable feature into the operation of Er = Ef) Ir = Ij; a n d <j>r = <f>
the instrument, for if reverse power of value" P 3 Therefore P = EfIf cos </>/
become present and be accompanied by a value of <p
Pf = EfIf cos <f>f = 1
which is not zero (i.e. if the power factor of the reversal
be other than unity), then the power fed to the relay P EfIf cos 0/
is no longer equal to P 3 but will be and P = Pf
cos (30 + </)) The relay was, however, set for a value Pr = ^Ps
-P, and, therefore, the power P in the relay circuit, due to
cos
Pf, must equal this value P r if the relay is to be operated.
This latter figure must, however, be equal to the Therefore, writing Pf = $PS we have that the
value Pr before the relay will operate, and therefore, fault must cause the power to be negative or " reversed "
writing P 3 cos (30 + </>)/(V3 c o s $) ~ ~ \^s, we have and requires to be one-third, gi_the-setting^yalue of the
relay in order to cause operation. ^
_ P _ _ p V 3 cos <j> 0 866 cos <f>
With a relay having leading connections.As before,
3 S = - P,
2 cos (30 + </>) cos (30 + cf>)
the power in the fault
and the value of the power in any reversal must, there- Pf = EfIf cos fa
fore, be P 8 (0-866 cos 0)/{cos (30 + cf>)} before the and the power in the relay
relay will be operated, and this value is not constant
but varies with the power factor. P = ErIr cos cf>r
For an instrument with " lagging phase " connections but, as will be seen from Fig. 5 (a) and from the vector
[as Relay C in Fig. 2 (a)\.This case is similar in all diagram Fig. 5[{b),
respects to the preceding one, except that <f>r now equals
(30 cf)), as will be seen from the vector diagram, Er = ^/3Ef; Ir = / / ; and ^ = 30 + <j)f
Fig. 2 (b), and in consequence the power Pr necessary to Therefore P = y/ZEfIf cos (30 + <f>f)
operate the relay when set at a value Ps is not merely
Ps but is actually p cos (j>f COS (f>f
0-866 cos <f> and -j = cos Cos
3
cos (30 - <f>) and therefore the power P in the relay circuit due to a
For an instrument with " quadrature " connections (as fault to earth of magnitude Pf is
in Fig, 3).Here r _ P/V3 cos (30 + <f>f)
Er = IT = I v\ and COS <f)f
1152 TAYLOR: REVERSE-POWER ALTERNATING-CURRENT RELAYS
But the relay was set to operate with a value of point of operation, since it is impossible to foretell what
P = Pr = PS, therefore when the value produced by the power factor of the fault will be.
Pf reaches this magnitude the relay will trip. Thus, With a relay having lagging connections.Reference to

Reverse

FIG. 4.Single-phase fault to earth. Star-connected relays.

Ep = phase voltage Ip = phase current <>
/ = angle between En and /.
p p p p
E/ = voltage across fault If = fault current <j>/ = angle between Ef and If
Er = voltage across potential coil of relay Ir = current in series coil of relay <j>r = angle between E, and Ir

Fault

tends to
become
60+ <f>f

(6) (c)
Voltage maintained Voltage collapsed

FIG. 5.Single-phase fault to earth. " Leading phase " connections to relay potential coils.
voltage across fault / / = fault current (j>f = angle between Ef and If
voltage across potential coil of relay " A " Ira = current in series coil of relay " A " <j:ra = angle between Era and !

(6) (O
Voltag-e maintained Voltage collapsed

FIG. 6.Single-phase fault to earth. " Lagging phase " connections to relay potential coils,
Ef voltage across fault / / = fault current <f>f = angle between Ef and It
Era voltage across potential coil of relay " A " Ira = current in series coil of relay " A " <j>ra = angle between Era and In

writing P/\/S cos (30 -f- <^y)/cos <f>f = %Ps, a n d solving Figs. 6 (a) and 6 {b) will show that in this case
for Pj, we find (f)r = (30 <J)f) instead of (30 + (f>f) as is the case with
COS <j)f 0-288 cos 4>f leading connections, and in consequence the power in
; S =,"- p., the fault Pj necessary to produce operation is
2V3 cos (30 + <f>f) ' * "COG (30 + <pf)
_ _ 0-288 cos 4>f
and it is seen that the magnitude of the fault necessary 1 s
to operate the relay depends upon the power factor, and ~ cos (30 - (f>})
that the actual seating is of little value in fixing the With a relay having quadrature connections.Referring
 FOR 3-PHASE GENERATOR AND FEEDER PROTECTION. 1153
to Figs. 7 (a) and 7 (b) and proceeding as in the previous rru x r Eflf COS <f>f)
cases, it will be seen that Therefore Pn = -^- V3
cos \ / 3 cos
and p =
as in the case of a star-connected instrument. a {EfIf cos (30 + </)}/V3 ~ cos (30 +

BEHAVIOUR UNDER CONDITIONS OF FAULT BETWEEN and _

c o s <f>f
Two PHASES.
The behaviour of the relays when a fault involving The relay is set to operate when energized by power
two phases develops has now to be considered, and having a value Pr = $PS; therefore, when the above

Fault

Era

(6)
Voltag'e maintained Voltage collapsed

FIG. 7.Single-phase fault to earth. " Quadrature " connections to relay potential coils.
voltage across fault If = fault current <f>f = angle between Ej and / /
Era voltage across potential coil of relay " A " Ira = current in series coil of relay " A " <bra = angle between Era anc ^ In

Fault

-X-

Reverse
power
relays

(a) (6) / % (C)

Voltag-e maintained Voltage collapsed

FIG. 8.Fault between phases " A " and " B." Star-connected relays.
voltage across fault / / = fault current <j>f = angle between Ef and If
voltage across potential coil of relay " A " Ira current in series coil of relay " A " <j>ra = angle between Era and / ,

here, as in the previous cases, the power in the fault is, value for Pa becomes equal to this setting, the relay will
of course, Pf = Eflf cos </>/; but now Ef is the voltage close its tripping contacts. Thus, writing
between lines instead of the phase voltage, and is there-
fore greater in magnitude than the latter and is removed Pf cos (30 + (f>f) _ .
therefrom by 30. The power energizing the relay circuit \/3'Cos (bf
under the fault conditions will again be ErIr cos cf>r
and the relationship between these two values will, of and solving for Pf, we have
course, vary according to the scheme of connections
adopted, and these variations will now be shown, the V 3 ( Ps) cos $] COS <f)f
fault being assumed to be between phases A and B.
1
3 cos (30 + = _ V 3 cos 30
( + <f>f)
For star-connected relays.Figs. 8 (a) and 8 (b) will
show that, with regard to relay A (in phase A), and in this case also the magnitude of the fault per-
missible is seen to depend on the power factor. It will
Era = J
ra = If, and <j)m = 30 + </./ be apparent also from Figs. 8 (a) and 8 (b) that the relay
1154 TAYLOR: REVERSE-POWER ALTERNATING-CURRENT RELAYS

w
Fault

A Reverse
ff.fr

ra tends to
li power
relays
become

(6) (C)
(a)
Voltag-e maintained Voltag-e collapsed

FIG. 9.Fault between phases " A " and " B . " " Leading phase " connections to relay potential coils.
Ef = voltage across fault If = fault current <j>/ = angle between Ef and / /
En, = voltage across potential coil of relay " A " Ira = current in series coil of relay " A " <ra = angle between Era and Ira

ute
beco

to) (6) (C)

jyAi\J| Voltage maintained Voltag-e collapsed

FIG. 10.Fault between phases " A " and " B." " Laggingfphase " connections to relay potential coils.
Ef = voltage across fault / / = fault current (j>f = angle between Ef and / /
Era = voltage across potential coil of relay " A " Ira = current in series coil of relay " A " $m = angle between Era and /

approaches <f>f

(6) (c)
Voltag-e m a i n t a i n e d Voltag-e collapsed

FIG. 11.Fault between phases " A " and " B . " " Quadrature " connections to relay potential coils.
Ef = voltage across fault If = fault current <j>f = angle between Ef and / /
Era = voltage across potential coil of relay " A " Ira = current in series coil of relay " A " <j>ra angle between Em and IT
Erb = voltage across potential coil of relay " B " Irb = current in series coil of relay " B " <\>rb angle between E,t, and /,*
 FOR 3-PHASE GENERATOR AND FEEDER PROTECTION. 1165
B on phase B will also be affected and that the current Relay B, however, requires that the power in the fault
in its series coils will be If, as in relay A and as in the shall be
fault, but, since its direction in phase B must be opposite
= p s
to its direction in phase A, the vector representing this P ; f
- cos (60 - fa)
current in the diagram, for relay B must be moved
through 180 with regard to its direction in the diagram For relays with quadrature connections.
for relay A, and thus <j)rb = 30 <f>j, as will be seen from
Fig. 8(6). Relay A.From Figs. 11 (a) and 11 (b) we have:
Erb = Etfy/Z and Irb = If Era = Ef (in magnitude) ; Ira = If; faa = (30 +
__ EfIf cos (30 - fa) and Pa = Eflf cos (30 + fa)
Therefore
Pf Eflf cos <f>f cos fa
Eflf cos fa -\/3 co Pa Eflf cos (30 + fa) cos (30 + fa)
Pb cos (30 - </)}/V3 c o s ( 3 0 ~ cos (30 + fa)
and a
~ }. cos fa
_ _ cos (30 - fa)
and-
\/3 cos fa
Letting - Ps = p cos (30 + fa)
Pr, however, has been shown to be equal to \PS.
V3 f
cos fa
Therefore, when Pr^f
J
^JnL =
3 cos
-s the relay will COS fa
V 0 / 3 then Pf= - p,
cos (30 + fa)
operate, and the value of Pf necessary to produce this
is obtained by solving this equation for Pf. Relay B.In a similar manner it will be found that
Therefore Pr= -P. cos fa cos fa
cos (30 fa) P,= -
V 3 cos (30 - fa)
For. relays with leading-phase connections.
Relay A.From Figs. 9 (a) and 9 (b) we have: EFFECT OF COLLAPSE OF VOLTAGE.
Era = Ef\ ITa = If] faa = (60 + fa) In addition to the effects so far considered, it may
and Pa = Eflf cos (60 + fa) happen that a fault having very low impedance may
develop in any one of the cases given, and in such an
Pf Eflf cos fa cos fa event the voltage across the fault (and therefore across
Pa (60 + <f)f) ~ cos (60 + <f>f) the potential coils of the relay) may collapse owing to
cos (60 + fa) the inability of the generating plant to maintain its
*
1
? voltage when delivering the current demanded by the
COS (pf short-circuit, and also owing to the drop produced in the
The relay is set to operate when the power in the relay line by the passage of this abnormally high current.
circuit = Pr = | P S . In such a case it will be obvious that, since the voltage
Therefore, letting across the potential coils of the relay has been lowered,
cos (60 + cf>f) considerably more current than normal must flow in
~ *Ps ~ f
cos fa the series coil if the necessary power is to be produced
to operate the relay; and, in addition, reference to the
COS
we have vector diagrams, Figs. 4 (c), 5 (c), 6 (c), 7 (c), 8 (c), 9 (c),
10 (c) and 11 (c), will show that a displacement of up to
Relay B.From Figs. 9 (a) and 9 (6) we have: 30 from normal may also be brought about in the phase
Erb = Ef ; Ira = If; faa = fa; and Pb = EfIf cos fa relationship of the voltage applied to the terminals of
the potential coil.
Pf = Eflf cos fa = j
In cases where the fault is directly across the lines
Pb EfIf cos fa to which the terminals of the relay potential coils are
Pb = Pf and PTb = - \ connected it is possible that, if the voltage falls to a
Tb
Therefore low enough value, the relay will become inoperative,
\P8 = Pf even with abnormally high current values. Where,
and therefore the relay will operate at 50 per cent of the however, relays are connected with their potential coils
setting value, regardless of power factor, so long as the across two lines, at least one of any two affected will
power be reversed. retain "l/-\/3 of its normal voltage, unless the collapse
For relays with lagging-phase connections.Proceeding be on all three phases. Owing to the phase displace-
as in the previous case, it will be seen from Figs. 10 (a) ment previously referred to and shown in the figures
and 10 (6) that, for relay A, Pf = %PS and this mentioned above, the calculations previously made
relay also is thus seen to operate at 50 per cent of the require modification in some cases. These will be
setting value, regardless of power factor, and only on obvious from the diagrams, and it is not, therefore,
true reverse power. proposed to consider them in detail.
1156 TAYLOR: REVERSE-POWER ALTERNATING-CURRENT RELAYS
SUMMARY OF FOREGOING RESULTS.
A summary of all the foregoing results is given in
3 -e- Table 1. The modifications for voltage collapse have been
made in this table where necessary, and these modified
equations are given in their appropriate columns, with
suitable notes showing to what extent the voltage
collapse may necessitate increase of current.
If now various values be inserted in each of the equa-
tions given in the table for <f> and <j)f and the setting value

TJ
200

Rela r ha v\ng p o t ;ntia 1 coils

160

:)o. a :ros : lag: phas

120
T
ower
a. i
80-
a
i
Forvva
40

i \

I\
- 1 -I iC 3 m
Zero
2

40
i y/
A
ower

\
8 0 - 0. J . Star-and- quad rature
\ connected
\ ^potential coils
% / \
-e- V I \
120 X 1
\

160 1 I

Phag e dis>plac emerit (d<.gree sfbe "weer volt age

and current in mam, circuit g>
"<jj 30 60 co 60 30 30 60 60 30
-- <s Forward ^ Reverse Reverse v Forward
_ (leading) c (leading-) S (lag-ging-) _

FIG. 12.Operating curves for reverse-power relays. Three-

phase load or fault.

Ps be kept constant, values can be obtained for P or

Pf, as the case may be, and these will show what value
of 3-phase power or of fault power will be necessary to
operate the relay with any given setting. If these values
be plotted, curves similar to those in Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15
and 16 will be obtained.
In the case of between-phase faults, it must be remem-
bered that two relays will be affected with instruments
having between-phase connections to the potential coils,
and, since the operation of either relay is sufficient to
trip the circuit breaker, the value of the power necessary
to accomplish this will be that needed by the relay
calling for the least value of Pf, and the more stable
 FOR 3-PHASE GENERATOR AND FEEDER PROTECTION. 1157

conditions of the second relay will, of course, be useless.
This fact has been taken into account in compiling the
curves in Figs. 14, 15 and 16.
From these curves it will be seen that, no matter
how the relays may be connected, certain conditions,
either of fault or of normal running, can in every case
produce irregular operation of the relays, causing either
(a) The relay to remain stable when reverse power
in excess of the setting value flows in the circuit,
or
(b) The relay to operate even when forward power is
being supplied by the circuit.
200
and incoming machines, and these currents may be
considerably out of phase with the machine e.m.f.'s.
At the instant of paralleling, the machine is excited
to produce line voltage with no load on the machine
and is, therefore, under-excited for load conditions. If
the machine immediately picks up load it will give for-
ward power with leading current, whereas if it be
motored from the line it will absorb reverse power
with lagging current.
Now, it will be seen from Fig. 12 that under these
conditions a relay having its potential coils connected
to the leading phase is definitely unstable and tends to
zoo
R( lay ( n ph ase" 3"
po tent al c<>ils
-- CO nnec ted eithe r
160 ar o Qutid rat ure

Rel \y on pha se A
do.
120

power
80
Forwar

40

t
If 1
i \
R jlay witl-
CO
oltag"e ^;ollaf
V
dra "ure
nnecl ions./only and

jjj s &
0
\
80 a
iverse

\
/

PS
120 / \

/1 \

1 Cft \i 1
1
?00
CJ
Phase displa :emeiit (d
ac ross atid' ct rren fiT faul
i
30 60 tn 60 30
1
s)ib
30 |60
etwe

30 60 60 30
ts Reverse ii Forward
a. (leading-) J (lag-g-ing)
c g
FIG. 13.Operating curves for reverse-power relays, Single-
phase fault.
It is thus necessary to look closely into the conditions
which are to be guarded against, in order to decide
which type of connection is the most suitable for any
given case.
PROTECTION OF GENERATORS.
Let us consider first the question of generator pro-
tection. Now it is well known that at the instant of
synchronizing an incoming generator there 'is usually an
exchange of synchronizing currents between the running
m 60 30
r
g % Forward 2 Reverse Reverse <8 Forward
s (leading C (lag-g-ing;) _ (leading) g (lading)
%
C
FIG. 14.Operating curves for reverse-power relays. Poten-
tial coils star- or quadrature-connected. Fault between
two phases.
operate with practically no load, and thus synchronizing
must be done with great exactitude if the circuit breaker
is to remain closed. This method of connecting the
relays is, therefore, undesirable for these particular
conditions.
The lagging-phase connection is also undesirable,
since it, too, produces instability in the relay under
conditions of hunting, which may occur due to any
surge arising out of, say, a sudden fluctuation in load,
or to a fault on some remote part of the system. In this
1158 TAYLOR: REVERSE-POWER ALTERNATING-CURRENT
case, since the machine is excited for about full load, it
is over-excited during those periods of hunting, when it
tends to become motored by the remaining machines.
In consequence its power factor will be very low, and if
it continues to give forward power this will be accom-
panied by low, lagging power factors, whereas if it be
motored the reverse power consumed will have a low,
leading power factor, and reference to Fig. 12 will show
that under these conditions a relay connected across
the lagging phase tends to operate with practically no
RELAYS
at the moment of synchronizing an incoming machine
always resulted in the incoming machine being tripped.
Both these effects might, however, be overcome by
fitting a time delay in the instrument, but this would, of
course, be detrimental to the action of the relays under
fault conditions and is not, therefore, a real solution to
the difficulty.
Stability up to the setting value of the relay is thus
seen to be essential for generator protection and, 'there-
fore, the star or quadrature connections offer the best

200

160

\
120 -\- r Rela y on pha se "A Vo tag-e maintained \-
collapsed
t
\ I Voltaere maintained
It0 \
n
L1T^~- collapsed
\ \ |
2*
1
gin
40 n
A
I
y
\ V

Y\ Relay o: n pha se"B

a \N \ A
o
\ \
80 0111 \
in \
<U

I \
\
\
\
l
i Phase d splacem nt (degrees) between voltag-.
Pha:>e di splac,etne i t j(d eg-'re ss) h etwe :n v< 'tag- I I across and current in fault - fa | |
7.00
across and current in fault <pr j 30 60 <g 60 30 v 30 60 <g 60 30
1
30 60 in 60 30 CO0) 30 60 60 30 Forward *> Reverse J Reverse .2 Forward J
Forward Reverse Reverse Forward (leading-) (lag-g-ing-) o. (leading-) (lag-g-ing) -g.
(leading-) a
(lag-g-ing) 1 (leading-) Uag-g-ingO g? c 0 c
I c I
FIG. 15.Operating curves for reverse-power relays. Poten- FIG. 16.Operating curves for reverse-power relays. Poten-
tial coils connected to leading phase. Fault between tial coils connected to lagging phase. Fault between
two phases. two phases.

power, and the healthy machine may in consequence be
cut off from the bars.
The author has attempted to run a large traction
station with the generator reverse-power relays arranged
first with lagging phase connections and later with
leading phase connections. With the first arrangement,
any fault on the system invariably caused at least one
machine to be tripped off the bars, although the relays
were set at 40 per cent of the full-load rating of the
generators, and the relays were, therefore, almost useless
as protective devices against faults in the generator;
whilst, with the second arrangement, any drop in load
solution (as will be seen from Fig. 12). Even these
connections do not, however, demand constant power
with between-phase faults, as will be seen from Fig. 14,
but this is of no importance, since, if the machine be
really faulty, the earlier operation of the relay at low
power factors becomes an advantage.
Furthermore, in the case of faults outside the station
and calling for forward power at low power factor, if the
fault be a 3-phase symmetrical one there is no tendency
for the relays so connected to operate (see Fig. 12),
whereas with leading or lagging connections the relays
may require but little power to trip the machine.
 FOR 3-PHASE GENERATOR AND FEEDER PROTECTION.
This advantage is-even more marked in the case of
single-phase faults (see Fig. 13) and, since these are
perhaps the most frequent type of failure, this fact alone
is sufficient reason for the adoption of the star or quadra-
ture system of connection.
With between-phase faults beyond the relay, even
star or quadrature relays may be in danger of operating,
but, again, they have the advantage over relays with
leading or lagging phase connections, since the danger
point is not reached until the power factor has dropped
to a much lower value than that which renders the latter
types unsafe, and this advantage becomes more marked
if the voltage tends to collapse.
A further examination of Figs. 12, 13 and 14 will show
that the quadrature type of connection has little advan-
tage to offer over the simple star connection, except
in the case of a short-circuit between two phases with
collapse of voltage. This is only of importance,-
however (in the case of generators), if no other pro-
tection gear be installed; and, where such additional
1159
any extra power which the relay may prove to need will
sdon be forthcoming.
Apart, however, from the desirability of limiting the
fault to the smallest magnitude consistent with the
satisfactory " surge " setting of the relay, there must
also be considered the question of the effect on the relays
on other parts of the system.
Most systems using reverse-power relays on feeders
usually employ overload and earth leakage relays at the
" supply " end of the feeder, in order to cut out a faulty
cable at that end, and Fig. 17 shows the arrangement in
diagrammatic form.
Now suppose a single-phase fault to develop on
feeder " A " (Fig. 17) at the point indicated, then the
earth leakage relay "a." will operate, thus cutting off
the direct supply to the fault; power will, however,
continue to be fed thereto by way of the parallel feeder
" B , " and will thus cause the necessary reversal at " R "
and tend to produce operation. There is, however,
a tendency also for the earth leakage relay " b " to

TABLE 2.

Values below which reverse-power relays must be set if they are to operate
before earth leakage, relay " b "
Current to operate Power factor of fault Power in fault (single-
earth leakage relay circuit (lagging
current) phase, voltage G 350) Leading Lagging
Star or quadrature cos (SO P cos (80-^/)
s
0-2SScos$/ * 0-288 cos ^ /

amps. kVV kW kVV kW

14-25 1-0 271-5
90-5 271-5 271-5
14-25 0-866 235-2
78-4 3130 156-5
14-25 0-5 135-75
45-25 271-5 Zero

gear is provided, the author considers the additional
expense and complication incurred by reason of the
condenser to be unjustified and he recommends the
adoption of simple star connections for generator
protection.
PROTECTION OF FEEDERS.
Turning now to the protection of parallel feeders, in
this case two conditions are of primary importance:
(1) The relays must remain inoperative in the event
of small 3-phase reversals, such as might result
from a surge, regardless of the power factor
accompanying such surge, or otherwise the
protected feeder will be put out of action with
surges of only small magnitude, provided the
power factor is low enough.
(2) The relays must operate at their setting value and
must not require any excess of power above this
figure (regardless of power factor).
This second requirement may not at first sight appear
to be of much importance, and it may be felt that a fault
which- permits the passage of power equal to the setting
value will very soon develop to such proportions that
operate, and it depends entirely upon the value of the
power required to operate " R " to decide which relay
shall operate first.
Let feeder " B " be assumed to be a 0-2 sq. in. 11 000
volt 3-phase cable and the earth leakage relay to be
set to operate at 5 per cent of normal full load (i.e.
5 per cent of 285 amperes, E.R.A. rating), then a leakage
of 14-25 amperes will be necessary to produce operation.
If this current be present and the fault circuit be assumed
for the moment to be non-inductive, then the value of the
single-phase reverse power which tends to affect relay
" R " on the faulty phase will be 6 3 5 0 x 1 4 - 2 5
= 90-5 kW.
Now it has been shown (see Table 1) that the power
in the fault (Pf) necessary to operate a star- or quadra-
ture-connected relay = P / = %PS- Therefore P8 = 3P/
and the relay must therefore be set at less than 3 X 90-5
= 271-5 kW if it is to operate before the leakage relay " b . "
Had the potential coils of the relay been connected
across the leading phase, then, since
0-288 cos 0 /
s
'cos (30 + <f>f)
cos
cos (30 +
+ 6r)
6r)
Pss must be made equal to Pt
J n nnn ^j-
^ 0-288 cos (f>f
1160 TAYLOR: REVERSE-POWER ALTERNATING-CURRENT RELAYS
and since we are, for the moment, dealing with unity
power factor, <f> = 0, and Ps must equal P/cos 30/0-288
= P/X 0-866/0- 288 = 3 X 90-5 = 271-5 kW as before.
Now it is extremely unlikely that the power factor
of the fault will be unity, and, therefore, if some other
value be assumed, say 0-5(0/ = 60) or 0-866(0/ = 30)
(both lagging), then Table 2 will show the values below
which the reverse-power relays must be set if they are
to operate without affecting the earth leakage relay " b."
A study of Table 2 will show that the power required
to operate relays having leading-phase connections to
the potential coils is a more constant function of the
earth leakage current throughout the range of power
Generators
ow
OOverload relays6
Earth leakage relays^|
Fault
RQ~-Reverse-power relaysT|S
loverloadi
O relays VJ
fc-Earth \
leakage
relays
factors usually accompanying a single-phase fault than
is the case with either star-, quadrature- or lagging-
connected instruments, and it is, therefore, more nearly
possible to obtain properly correlated settings between
earth leakage relays and reverse-power relays if the
latter have their potential coils connected to the leading
phase.
With regard to stability under conditions of momen-
tary 3-phase reversals, it will be seen from Fig. 12 that
star- or quadrature-connected instruments are definitely
stable up to the setting value throughout the entire
range of power factor, but reference to Table 2 will show
that relays so connected may not be set at so high a
value as is possible with leading-phase instruments, if
satisfactory discrimination in respect of earth faults is to
be obtained.
To obtain absolute reliability with power factors
of between unity and 0 5 lagging, star- or quadrature-
connected instruments may be set at only 50 per cent
of the setting permissible with instruments having
leading-phase connections. Thus the tendency of the
latter type of instrument to become unstable with low
power factors is largely offset by the higher setting
permissible; in fact, this connection has the advantage
in this respect for power factor values between unity
and 60 lagging (reverse power).
It will thus be seen that for feeder protection the
leading-phase connection gives the most satisfactory
behaviour possible, so far as single-phase faults and
stability are concerned.
Considering between-phase faults, it will be appre-
ciated that these do not affect the earth leakage relays,
and in consequence the faulty feeder is not disconnected
at the supply end until the overload relays come into
action; thus a considerable amount of power may be fed
to the fault, and power may also be fed back thereto from
any synchronous plant beyond the fault, such as the
synchronous motors " X " and " Y " in Fig. 17.
Under these circumstances, relays " 1 " and " m "
will also have a tendency to operate, in addition to relay
" R," and forward power (influenced largely by the
power factor of the fault) will flow past relay " S."
The effect of these conditions upon relays connected
according to the four methods under discussion will be
as given in Table 3, the current in the fault being assumed
to lag behind the fault voltage.
The most important requirements demanded by these
conditions are that relay " R " should definitely be
operated and that relay " S " should remain stable.
Thus, so far as relay " S " is concerned, the leading
connection is again the most suitable, since it fulfils this
condition under all conditions of voltage. In the case
of relay " R," this connection results in very sensitive
operation and is, therefore, satisfactory, but there is
danger of the relays " 1 " and " m " also being caused to
operate with very low values of power if this type of
connection be used. It is true that this undesirable
feature could be obviated by the use of the lagging-phase
connection (or, if the voltage collapse, by the use of the
quadrature connection also), but, from what has been
said before, this would result in very poor behaviour
under the conditions considered earlier on, and therefore
cannot be obviated. Thus, although the leading-
phase connection gives the best possible means of
utilizing this type of relay for feeder protection, the
behaviour leaves a considerable amount to be desired,
and a further advance in the design is thus seen to be
desirable.
CHANGING CONNECTIONS.
It is perhaps necessary to point out at this stage that
the potential coils of a relay cannot be changed indis-
criminately from one system of connection to another,
for the following reasons:
From what has been said earlier on, it will be seen
that, if the connections of the potential coils of a given
relay were to be changed from star to either the leading
or lagging phase, then the setting values marked on the
scale would automatically become untrue, for with
star-connected potential coils the pointer must reach
 FOR 3-PHASE GENERATOR AND FEEDER PROTECTION. 1161

the setting value when energized by only one-third of
the 3-phase power in the main circuit, whilst for leading
or lagging connections the pointer (i.e. the moving con-
tact for the tripping circuit) is influenced by half of the
total 3-phase power. (The latter statement is true only
for unity power factor load in the main circuit, but it is
for this condition only that the scale of an instrument
of tripping contacts shall be closed or not. At first
sight this appears to be a very near approach to a true
a.c. reverse-current device. Consider the instrument
as an ammeter capable of indicating correctly the main
current and having tripping contacts in series with
those of a central-zero wattmeter, the latter contacts
being fixed at the first division on the reverse side

TABLE 3.

Relay " S " Relays " 1 , " "m" and ' R"

Type of connection
Behaviour Operating Power required Behaviour Operating Power required
limits limits

degrees % of setting % of setting

Star May operate 60-90 Inf.-zero Operate Throughout Zero to 66
Quadrature (voltage maintained) .. May operate 60-90 Inf.-zero Operate Throughout Zero to 66
Quadrature (voltage collapsed) Stable Operate Throughout 57
Leading (voltage maintained) Stable Operate Throughout Zero to 50
Leading (voltage collapsed) Stable Operate Throughout Zero to 50
Lagging (voltage maintained) May operate 45-90 Inf.-zero Operate Throughout 50
Lagging (voltage collapsed) May operate 45-90 Inf.-zero Operate Throughout 50

Required condition Stability " 1 " and " m " to be ; stable.

'' R " to operate.

working with either leading or lagging connections is of the wattmeter scale. It would now appear that, so
true.) long as the power is forward, the ammeter may reach
Now, where relays are energized by potential trans- the tripping value and close the contacts and yet not
formers, this effect is subject to a still further variation,
since, in order to keep the voltage across the coils at the
value for which they were designed, the ratios of the
transformers must be different.
For star-connected relays the ratio must be:
Main phase voltage/relay coil voltage.
For relays whose potential coils are between phases
the ratio must be: , "RELAY R E Q U I R E D \ x> Y
, TO BE STABLE W H I L S T X ^ N
Line voltage (i.e. -\/3 x main phase voltage) CURRENT VECTOR OCCUPIES"
THIS SEMICIRCLE UNOER
' relay coil voltage. CONDITIONS lOF 3-PHASE
NORMAL |WORKING
AND WITH SINGLE-PHASE FAULT
TO EARTH
DIRECTIONAL A.C. RELAYS.
RELAY REQUIRED TO OPERATE
So far, consideration has been given only to true IF CURRENT VECTOR
wattmeter-type relays, but the same arguments can OCCUPIES THIS SEMICIRCLE
be applied to almost all classes of so-called reverse-power UNOER ABOVE
CONDITIONS
relays.
In a later type of instrument the disadvantages of non-
opsration due to failing voltage are claimed to have been
overcome by applying the scheme outlined below.
An overload mechanism, operated purely by current, is
arranged under the same cover as an extremely sensitive
directional element, and each of these devices is fitted
with tripping contacts wired in series. The directional FIG. 18.Diagram showing conflicting requirements in
element is not required to be quantitative, but is merely behaviour of reverse-power relays when under normal
required to close its tripping contacts when the power is or fault conditions.
" reversed," and it can, therefore, be made so that only
1 per cent or less of the normal voltage will produce open the switch, since the wattmeter contacts are not
discriminative action, and it then remains for the quanti- yet closed. Furthermore, in the event of reverse power,
tative, current device to decide whether the second set even if the voltage be reduced almost to zero, it will
1162 TAYLOR; REVERSE-POWER ALTERNATING-CURRENT RELAYS.
require but little current to bring the wattmeter finger
over to the operating position, equal to, say, only
10 watts, and thus, if the current ever reaches the figure
at which the ammeter contacts are closed, the switch
will be tripped, since then the tripping circuit will be
completed at both sets of contacts. The instrument
thus appears to be remarkably efficacious, yet a little
consideration will show that, as in the case of wattmeter-
type relays, the directional element will not operate
correctly with single-phase, 2-phase and 3-phase faults,
no matter how connected, but will in some cases close
the contacts with forward power, so that, if the current
be of sufficient magnitude, inaccurate operation will
result, whilst also, in some cases of reverse power, the
directional element will still remain open in exactly
the same manner as has been shown to occur with
wattmeter-type instruments. This obtains, no matter
what scheme of connections is adopted, and the points
at which incorrect operation can be produced are exactly
as given in Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16 for wattmeter-
type instruments; the power values indicated by the
curves require modification, however, and the current
curve is a straight line having a value equal to the
setting of the overloador ammeterelement for all
values of power factor and voltage collapse.
The instrument does represent a marked advance,
and enables correlated settings with earth leakage relays
to be made with great accuracy, but the wattmeter
element is still responsible for incorrect discrimination.
That the problem is a difficult one will be appreciated
from the following epitomized statement of the con-
ditions :
For 3-phase and single-phase conditions the relays
must remain stable so long as the vectors representing
phase current and phase voltage are not displaced by
more than 90, and must operate at the setting value
when this displacement is exceeded.
For between-phase faults, however, stability is
required so long as the vector representing fault
current is not displaced by more than 90 from the
vector representing fault voltage. The voltage across
a fault between phases may, however, be either 30
ahead of or 30 behind the phase voltage (according
to which of the two remaining phases is involved
in the fault) and thus three sets of conditions are seen
to call for consideration in any one relay, and, more-
over, the requirements of each case are opposed to each
other at power factors of less than 0 5.
This is shown in Fig. 18, where the full lines repre-
sent the conditions under single-phase and 3-phase
operation, the chain-dotted lines representing condi-
tions involving the leading phase, and the plain
dotted lines showing the conditions when the lagging
phase is concerned.
In view of these conflicting requirements, it is small
wonder that the simple instruments treated of in this
paper fail to give the degree of protection really necessary,
but if due consideration be given to the points which
the author has attempted to set out in this paper much
can be done to obtain more satisfactory results than
appear to be common.
In conclusion, the author would like to express his
appreciation of the assistance so readily afforded him
in the preparation of this paper by his colleague, Mr.
H. C. Smith.