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BASIC CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

It the branch of engineering which deals with the development designed, construction and
operation of equipments used in chemical industries.
Chemical engineering also deals with the application of manufacturing process in which
chemical and physical changes take place. So that the process may run easily and
economically.
PIPE: -
Pipe is a hollow cylindrical bar which is used for the transportation of fluid from one
place to another place. There is no clear difference between pipe & tube because they are
both circular in cross-section.
Pipe are heavy walled, available in 20 to 40 ft length large in dia meter, can be threaded.
Tubes are thin walled, available in 100 ft length small in dia meter, cannot threaded.
TYPES OF PIPES: -
1- Cast iron pipe 2- Wrought iron pipe
3- Glass pipe 4- Carbate pipe
5- Acid proof stone ware pipe. 6- Chemical proceline pipe.
7 Lead pipe. 7- Copper pipe.
9- Plastic pipe 10- Aluminum pipe.
11- Ampervious pipe.

CAST IRON PIPE: -


These pipes are mainly used for water, gas and also waste and vent. This pipe is heavier
and more expensive than other pipes. The joints of these pipes are less satisfactory. These
pipes are made in 3 inch inside diameter and may be large. The usual length of cast iron
pipe is 12 ft. In steam line cast iron pipes are used for pressure up to 100-150 psi.
CARBATE PIPE: -
These pipes have highly resistance to acids. These pipes are brittle and require careful
fabrication.
CHEMICAL PROCELEIN PIPE: -
These types of pipes are made by non porous material. These pipes have not resistance
for alkali, but have resistance to acids except hydrochloric acid. Working power is 50-
100 lbf/inch2 and standard temperature up to 200C.
LEAD PIPE: -
Lead pipe has highly resistance to the solution containing H2SO4. Elastic limit is very
low. Available in large varieties of weights and diameter.
PLASTIC PIPE: -
They have much corrosion resistance. They are easy to use, cut, fit and light in weight.
WROUGHT IRON PIPE: -
It is the purer form of pig iron. The standard length of this pipe is approximately 20ft.
these pipes are used for temporary construction work.
ACID PROOF STONE WARE PIPE: -
This pipe has highly resistance to the action of acid but has very low strength. Joined by
bush type joints and can easily break by small temperature changes. Specially designed
pipes are joined with flanged coupling.
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GLASS PIPE: -
Glass pipes are stronger than stone ware pipe, having resistance against acids. Except
hydrochloric acid and resistance against alkali.
AMPERVIOUS GRAPHITE PIPE: -
This pipe is used to all acids including HF, salts and other organic compounds. When
these pipes are made by phenolic resist material it is used for strong alkalies and
oxidizing chemicals or material. This material is highly resistance to thermal shocks.
ALUMINIUM PIPE: -
This type of pipe has very low price and light as compare to other pipe. This pipe has
resistance to corrosion.
COPPER PIPE: -
These pipe have specially resistance to all acids accepts HNO3. They have highly
standard. This pipe is special used when other pipe can not be used.
PIPE JOINTS: -
There are many methods to joining the two pieces of pipe for increasing the length but
some important methods are as under.
1- Bell and spigot joints. 2- Welded joint.
3- Union joint. 4- Flanged joint.
5- Socket or coupling joint.

BELL AND SPIGOT JOINT: -


The pipe used for this joint having one end like bell and other end plane or spigot. The
plane or spigot end of one pipe is pushed in the bell of and other pipe cement or other
material fitted in the bell for tightness.
WELDED JOINT: -
This method is applied for those materials which can be easily welded. In this method
two pieces of pipes are welded by using welding electrodes. This type of joint is
permanent.
UNION JOUNT: -
In this method union is used to join the two pieces of pipe. By this joint, it is easy to open
or close the connection again and again. Coupling and union joint are also called screw
joint. The screw joint are not considered as good in above the 2inch or 2.5 of pipe.
FLANGED JOUNT: -
Flanged joint is universal method of connecting the two pieces of pipe of any size or 2 to
2.5 diameter pipes. Different types of flanges are used which are attached with pipes by
welding or screwing.
SOCKET OR COUPLING JOINTS: -
Socket is a short piece of pipe threaded internally at both ends. This method is easy and is
commonly used to joining the two pieces of pipe. By this method pipes are joints fastly.
FITTINGS: -
Fittings are used in pipe line for following purposes.
1. To join two pieces of pipe (socket, union, flange).
2. Change the direction of pipe line (elbow, band).
3. Change the diameter of pipe line (reducer).
4. Connecting the branch line from the main line (tee, y bend, and cross).
5. Stop or close the end of pipe line (plug).
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VALVES: -
The device used to control or regulate the flow rate of fluid in a pipe line is called valves.
Different types of valves are used for different purposes. They are classified as below.
1. Plug cock valve
2. Gate valve
I Rising stem gate valve II Non rising stem gate valve
3. Globe valve
4. Needle type globe valve
5. Check valve
I Swing check valve II Bell check valve
6. Butterfly valve
7. Safety valve

PLUG COCK VALVE: -


Plug cock valve provides the simplest of regulating the flow of fluid in pipe line. It
consist of a body in which conical plug is fitted. Packing material is also inserted around
the stem to prevent the leakage. it uses universally in the small pipe line for air, steam,
and water. This type of valve is limited for temperature up to500 F. disadvantages of plug
valve is that if the sides of the plug valve are nearly parallel. This plug is easily wedged
in the body so that it is difficult to turn. If the plug is tapered too much it is easy to turn.
GATE VALVE: -
Gate valve is widely used in main line in industries. In service it is generally either fully
open or completely closed. The pressure drop by this valve is minimum. It consists of
three parts.
1- Body 2- Bonnet 3- Trim
Gate valve is divided into two types.
1. Rising stem gate valve
2. Non rising stem gate valve
RISING STEM GATE VALVE: -
In rising stem gate valve, the upper part of stem is threaded and connected with handle,
wheel, solidly with nut and held in the yoke by thrust collars. As hand wheel goes upward
the valve is open, as it goes down ward it is closed. The disadvantage is that it requires
great space when open but it is preferred because stem position indicate that either valve
is open or close.
NON RISING STEM GATE VALVE: -
In this type the lower part of stem is threaded and screws into the disc. The vertical
motion of stem is controlled by thrust collars. The gate rises and falls with rising and
falling of stem. It is preferred where space is limited. The disadvantage of this valve is
that we cannot judge at once it is open or closed.
GLOBE VALVE: -
The globe valve named due to globular body. it consist of horizontal internal partition in
which fluid flows in circular passage and change direction several times. The
disadvantage of this valve is that, the pressure drop by this valve is maximum. it is used
in branch line of steam, water and air. it is used in small size pipe lines under two inches .
Over two inches diameter globe valve is not good to use.
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NEEDLE TYPE GLOBE VALVE: -


It is also the type of globe valve. This type of valve has a small tapered seating area. The
end of stem is needle type. The needle fits in the tapered seats accurately and valve is
closed. it is generally used for instrument gauges and meter line services. It is used to
stop the flow completely and also used in high pressure and temperature pipe lines.
CHECK VALVE:-
Check valve is used when unidirectional flow is desired, because it is designed to prevent
back flow. Check valve is open by the pressure of fluid in one direction and when flow
stops, the valve closes automatically by gravity or by the spring pressing against the disc.
The valves are operating automatically.
The standard types of check valve are given.
1. Ball check valve
2. Swing check valve
BALL CHECK VALVE: -
The disc of ball check valve like a ball hence it is called ball check valve. When fluid
entered in the valve the pressure of fluid pushes the ball in upward direction and valve
becomes open. When fluid flows in unidirectional the pressure of coming fluid is drop the
ball comes down ward due to gravity and valve become closed. This has no extra
stemmed and hand wheel.
SWING CHECK VALVE: -
It has a disk called flapper. A spring is attached with flapper and body. When fluid is
flowing in pipe line, the pressure of fluid tends to push the flapper upward and valve is
opened. When the pressure of coming fluid is dropped the spring pushes the flapper sown
ward and valve is closed.
SAFETY VALVE: -
Safety valve is designed to protect the equipment from excessive pressure. This valve
must have large diameter and suitable setting of spring to compress the stem. When
pressure increase in pipe line and it pushes the valve disc upward position and valve is
opened till the excessive pressure is released. When pressure drops the valve is
automatically closed by spring force. Some time instead of spring lever or weight. This
valve is used in boiler, pressure air tanks and pressure line of natural gases. This valve is
used where excessive pressure is too released. These valves are set at a pressure 25%
more than the normal pressure.
RELIEF VALVE: -
These valves are used at liquid series. The essential element in relief valve is a disc which
is held against a seat by heavy spring.
POP VALVE: -
It is used at high pressure application of gases.
BUTTERFLY VALVE: -
It is low pressure valve extremely simple design which is used to control and regulate the
flow. These valves occupy less space in the line than other valve. They require only a
quarter turn from close to full open position. Butterfly valves are not used from pressure
tight service.
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Steam traps
Steam traps are used to remove condensate from steam.
Types of steam traps: -
1. Inverted bucket steam traps
2. Thermostatic steam trap
3. Float and thermostatic steam traps
4. Disc type steam trap
Inverted bucket traps: -
These traps use an upside-down bucket that is normally submerged and floats only when
steam is present. The bucket sinks when the volume of condensate exceeds a
predetermined liquid level. When the bucket sinks, the valve at the top of the trap opens.
Condensate enters the trap and flow under the bottom of the bucket to fill the trap body.
Thermostatic traps: -
Thermostatic traps operate on the temperature difference between steam and cooled
condensate and air. On start-up condensate and air are pushed ahead of the steam, directly
through the trap. Inside the trap is a temperature-sensitive element. This element may be
bimetallic, but is most often a sealed bellows partially filled with a liquid, such as
distilled water. The liquid-filled bellows is normally contracted, leaving the valve open.
Float and thermostatic traps: -
This type of steam trap combines the actions of two principles, thermostatic and density.
The traps operation is relatively simple. A valve with a ball float actuator drains
condensate when the liquid reaches a predetermined level in the trap. When the flow of
condensate diminishes, the float drops, partially closing the valve to accommodate the
flow rate.
Disc traps: -
Disc traps are small and lightweight, and therefore, easy to install. But their operating
characteristic should also be considered. Under normal operating conditions, disc traps
operate as a function of velocity. Condensate and air enter the trap and pass through an
inlet orifice, a control chamber, and in some designs, an insulating chamber. This
chamber is designed to isolate the trap against the effects of the environment.
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PUMPS

What is pump: -
A device which is used to increased pressure & transportation of fluid from one place to
another place.
TYPES OF PUMP: -
They are classified into two groups.
1- Those having no moving parts.
I- Air jet lifts pump. II- Jet ejectors.
2- Those having moving parts.
1- Centrifugal pumps.
2- Positive Displacement pump.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP: -
A pump that works on the basis of centrifugal force is called centrifugal pump. It is used
to move large volumes of liquid with low pressure.
Operating In Parallel: -
Pumps that discharge into the same line are called operating in parallel. In parallel
capacity is increased.
Operating In Series: -
When discharge of one pump is fed into the suction of another pump, the two pumps are
said to operate in series. Discharge head is increase in series.
TYPES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP: -
1- Multistage centrifugal pump.
2- Propeller pump.
3- Turbine pump.
MULTISTAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP: -
A pump with two or more than two impeller installed on shaft in series. It has two
stuffing boxes and it is used for higher discharge head. Multistage centrifugal pumps are
provided for water at high pressure for application such as boiler.

PROPELLLER PUMP: -
In this pump a propeller wipes and adds energy to liquid instead of impeller. Liquid
leaves the impeller in same direction as it enters. It can handle large capacities but
increase less pressure. Liquid leaves the propeller in the same direction as it enters.
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TURBINE PUMP: -
It is the mixture of propeller and impeller pump. It can be single or multistage. It is used
for big volumes and high pressure.
How Centrifugal Pumps Rated: -
If a pump can deliver 100 gallons per minute (GPM). This pump has a rated capacity of
100 GPM. Capacity is usually a factor in rating a pump. Suction and discharge pressure
also effect rating of pump.
CAPACITY: -
It is the amount of liquid that a pump moves in a given length of time. It is measured in
GPM. Close clearance is kept between impeller and casing to avoid excessive leakage
from discharge to suction side. Wear rings are used to protect impeller and casing from
rubbing.

Figure : General components of a Centrifugal Pump


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HOW CENTRFUGAL PUMP WORKS: -


When the impeller of pump rotates at high speed Liquid enters in
impeller through suction eye of impeller. Vanes of pump increase
the velocity of liquid. The energy changes occur by virtue of two
main parts of the pump, the impeller and the volute or diffuser. The
impeller is the rotating part that converts driver energy into the
kinetic energy. The volute or diffuser is the stationary part that
converts the kinetic energy into pressure energy.
PARTS OF CRNTRUFUGAL PUMP: -
1. Impeller
2. Shaft
3. Shaft sleeve
4. Bearings
5. Stuffing box
6. Oil seal, mechanical seal or gland packing
7. Coupling
8. Wearing rings
9. Volute casing
10. Diffuser

IMPELLER: -
It is used to increase the velocity of liquid entering in to it. It has three important
portions.
1- Eye, 2- Vanes, 3- Tip diameter.
Fluid enters through the eye of impeller. vanes increase the velocity and leave it out of
the tip diameter. Impeller changes the direction of liquid at 90 degree as it enters.
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According To Flow Impeller Are Three Types.


1. Axial flow impeller liquid leaves the impeller 180 degree.
2. Mixed flow impeller
3. Radial flow impeller liquid leaves the impeller at 90 degree.
Function of Impeller: -
Take suction and discharge. Increase velocity of liquid.
Rotation opposite to the vane, angle can be changed according to liquid property.

TYPES OF IMPELLER: -

OPEN IMPELLER: -
This impeller not easily clogged by solid material. It is useful for sewage, slurry, dirty
and containmend liquid. They are less efficient in create pressure.
SEMI OPEN IMPELLER: -
They are structurally stronger than open impeller. These are used for viscous materials
and sanitation.
CLOSE IMPELLER: -
Single suction or double suction impeller. It is used for high pressure and fine liquid. The
vanes of this type impeller easily clogged by foreign material.
These are used for thin and light liquids.
IMPELLER THRUST: -
During operation pressure in the discharge portion of pump casing is greater then the
pressure in suction portion. The imbalance force acting on the impeller, cause the
impeller and shaft pushing toward suction side. This pushing of impeller toward suction
is called the impeller thrust. It can be balanced either making holes through the impeller
or by back vanes on the impeller in other way of thrust balancing is by balancing drum or
disc.
BALANCING DRUM: -
When all impellers are installed in same direction on the shaft, thrust may be reduced
with balancing drum. Thrust acts towards the suction side used on multi impeller pumps.
It avoids the load on thrust bearing.
FORCES ON THE IMPELLER: -
Redial forces.
Axial forces.
RADIAL FORCES: -
In the volute casing the velocity of liquid is converted to pressure, because the pressure
increase in the direction of discharge nozzle, the redial forces on the impeller increase
continuously as it moves towards the outlet. It exerts a bending force on the shaft, there
by applying a heavier load the bearings. The following methods are used to neutralize
these redial forces.
1. Diffuser 2. Double volute.
AXIAL FORCES: -
When a pump is in operation axial forces are also exerted on the impeller. These axial
forces arise because pump liquid from discharge side exerts a pressure on both sides of
impeller. On the inlet side there is a suction pressure, which can be positive or negative.
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AXIAL BALANCING: -
When the resultant is small it can be taken up by the bearings. In many cases steps have
to be taken to limit axial forces to a minimum. The following methods are used for this
purpose.
1. Wear rings to seal + relief holes.
2. Ribs on the back of impeller (back vanes).
3. Inlet flow form both side.
4. Hydraulic balance.

SHAFT: -
Shaft is component on which all rotary parts are installed. It is equipped with bearing and
coupling. Prime movers are coupled with it. It enters the casing through stuffing box.
Bearing support the shaft and allow it rotate with very little fraction.
STUFFING BOX: -
Against the casing and around the shaft is called stuffing box. Leakage along the shaft
casing can be stopped by installing a mechanical seal or gland packing in this stuffing
box. Shaft protecting sleeve is also used to protect shaft from rubbing of gland packing.
MECHANICAL SEAL / SHAFT PACKING / OIL SEAL: -
To prevent the leakage through the shaft used for seal or shaft packing.
Parts of Mechanical Seal: -
1. Spring holder 2. Coil spring 3. Rubber ting for friction eliminator.
4. Gas kit rubber seal 5. Carbon ring 6. Stainless steel ring
Turning friction is held at the surface between carbon ring and stainless steel ring.
Causes of Mechanical Seal Failure:-
1. Shaft bend 2. Bearing failure
3. Improper fitting 4. Vibration
WEAR RING AND BALANCING HOLE: -
A wearing (seal ring) is fitted between the impeller and pump casing. The space between
this ring and casing is connected to suction side through holes in the impeller. So that the
pressure inside this wear ring is equal to the suction side. There is also a wear ring on the
suction side of impeller. This prevents losses due to leakage from discharge side to the
suction side.
SUCTION AND DISCHARGE NOZZLE: -
The suction and discharge nozzles are part of the casings itself. They commonly have the
following configurations.
1. END SUCTION/TOP DISCHARGE: -
The suction nozzle is located at the end and concentric to the shaft while the discharge
nozzle is located at the top of the casing perpendicular to the shaft. This pump is always
of an overhung type and typically has lower NPSHr because the liquid feeds directly into
the impeller eye.
2. TOP SUCTION TOP DISCHARGE NOZZLE: -
The suction and discharge nozzles are located at the top of the casing perpendicular to the
shaft. This pump can either be an overhung type or between-bearing type but is always a
radially split case pump.
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3. SIDE SUCTION / SIDE DISCHARGE NOZZLES: -


The suction and discharge nozzles are located at the sides of the case perpendicular to the
shaft. This pump can have either an axially or radially split case type.

Figure : Suction and Discharge Nozzle Locations

BEARING: -
A device which support shaft and allow it to rotate with very little fraction and align the
shaft in pump casing is called bearing.
Cause of Bearing Damage: -
Shafts bend.
Due to lack of lubrication
Improper oil
Vibration
Looseness of base bolt
Misalignment

PACKING: -
Packing must be low fraction material which is not damage the shaft. Packing use for
sealing purpose for non toxic or corrosive liquid. Normal gland leakage of 40-60 drops
per minute.
Packing Material: -
Asbestos, graphite, Teflon, nylon
LATERN RING: -
To lubricate and cool the packing. Latern ring is also used in a pump operating at less
than atmospheric pressure, when the pump operates under vacuum, air may be pulled
during operation.
THROAT BUSHING: -
It minimizes the pressure on stuffing box and also called pressure reducer ring.
WATER JACKET: -
Jacket used to cool the packing or bearing housing.
SHAFT SLEEVE: -
To prevent the wear of shaft due to packing.
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CASING: -
Casing is the enclosed space where the impeller rotates with the shaft. Fluid enters in it
through suction end and leaves through discharge end. Stuffing box is also provided in
the casing.
Casings are three types
1. Split casing (horizontal & vertical).
2. Volute casing
3. Diffuser casing
One of the main purposes of a volute casing is to help balance the hydraulic pressure on
the shaft of the pump. However, this occurs best at the manufacturer's recommended
capacity. Running volute-style pumps at a lower capacity than the manufacturer
recommends can put lateral stress on the shaft of the pump, increasing wear-and-tear on
the seals and bearings, and on the shaft itself.
DIFFUSER: -
The diffuser is stationary ring with guide vanes. It decreases velocity and increase the
pressure.
VOLUTE: -
In this casing passage increases gradually towards the discharge nozzle. It can easily with
stand vertical forces caused by weight.

Figure : Cut-away of a pump showing volute casing

DOUBLE VOUTE CASING: -


A double volute casing comprises inner and outer volute. Double-volute casings are used
when the radial thrusts become significant at reduced capacities.
CAVITATION: -
Cavitation is the boiling of a liquid caused by decreasing pressure rather than increasing
temperature, cavitation occurs when the pump suction pressure droops or when the
temperature of liquid rises causing some liquid to vaporize and form bubbles. As these
bubbles formed at the eye of impeller move towards the outer edge of impeller. The
pressure increases until the bubbles burst inward causing a hammer like impact on the
surface of impeller. An abnormal sound is produced and pump vibration increases. Pump
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vibration is damaging for its bearings. When cavitation occur many trouble will be
happen in the pump, for instance vibration, noise, fluctuation of fluid discharge, corrosion
of impeller and falling down of the efficiency.
Cavitation Can Be Prevented By: -
1. Increasing suction head of pump.
2. Lowering temperature of liquid at the suction.
When Pump Cavities Following Steps Should Be Done
1. Hammering at the suction strainer of pump.
2. Close the discharge valve gradually. See the discharge pressure at pressure gauge.
When pressure reaches at normal condition gradually open discharge valve.
LOW EFFICIENCY OF PUMP: -
1-Impeller wear out
2-Air through the suction
3-Suction strainer blocked
4-Leakage of gland
5-Increse total head
TOO MUCH VIBRATION: -
Foundation bolt loose
Too much lift
Too much head
Cavitations
Damage bearing
Impeller thrust
Strainer worn
CONTINUOUSLY LOSES SUCTION: -
Low suction head
Damage packing
Lift too much high
Worn wearing ring
Strainer plug
What checks are done if rotor of pump is jammed: -
Check clearances
Foreign objects
Shaft is bend
Bearings are too tight or damaged.
Glands are too tight.
WHY PUMP DOES NOT DISCHARGE:
Check level of liquid.
Suction pipe is not too tight or air in suction.
Impeller is chocked.
Pumps rotates in wrong direction or impeller open.
Suction strainer is chocked.
HEAD: -
Head is the height of fluid column. 1ft level of water exerts 0.433 PSI pressure.
PRESSURE HEAD: -
Pump pressure in term of length of fluid column.
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PH = head * Sp.gravity * 0.433


FLUID HEAD: -
Height of fluid column from reference plane.
VELOCITY HEAD: -
Equilent height that the water would have to fall, to acquire the speed produce by the
action of pump.
SUCTION LIFT: -
The distance the liquid must be lifted to the pump.
SUCTION HEAD: -
If suction pressure is taken in term of height.
DISCHARGE HEAD: -
It is the suction pressure plus the pressure that pumps added.
TOTAL HEAD: -
Discharge head suction head
Suction lift + discharge head
NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD (NPSH): -
The maximum suction head with out occurring of Cavitation.
NPSH AVAILABLE: -
Available actual pressure of pump against connected apparatus.
NPSH REQUIRE: -
It the minimum head needed at the suction to get the liquid into impeller with out
vaporizing.
START UP OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP (NAPHTHA) OIL REFINERY: -
1. Wide open pump suction valve.
2. Be assuring that pump valve is 5 % open.
3. If the pump is water cooled, turn on water.
4. Check lubrication for both pump and driver. Check oil in bottle.
5. If possible, determine that the pump shaft rotates freely.
6. Open drain valve of pump for 5 minute then close it.
7. Open one & half turn flair valve for removing gases trap in casing. It should be
done for 5 minute then close it.
8. Open fluid discharge line to suction line to warm up impeller for any sudden
thermal shock when it will operate cold liquid.
9. Check seals of pumps for excessive leakage, if there is excessive leakage which
can be increased in running condition.
10. Now start the pump. Incase of electric motor, pump will attain operating speed in
a short time.
11. Observe and read pump discharge pressure gauge, also check for unusual noise,
binding or vibration. If these appear or discharge pressure does not increase, the
pump has not taken suction and should be stopped immediately. Check the pump
for vapor locking and check suction vessel liquid level. Restart the pump.
12. When pump has taken suction and reached operating speed, open discharge valve
slowly till wide open.
13. Observe pump and motor for several minutes to see that bearing, seals or packing
are not overheating and that no unusual noises develop.
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Switch Over of Pump: -


1. In crude process plant pumps are changed on weekly or monthly basis.
2. When pump is switch over, check all accessories of other pump. If pump A is
running and Pump B is stop. Open the discharge valve 5% of Pump B & Close the
spill back of pump. Start pump B. one operator close the discharge valve of pump
A and other should open discharge valve of pump B gradually.

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMP: -

A pump that first traps liquid and then delivers is called positive displacement pump.
1- Reciprocating pump.
2- Rotary pump.

RECIPROCATING PUMP: -
A pump that operates using a back & forth straight line motion.
Types of reciprocating pump: -
1. Piston pump
2. Plunger pump
3. Diaphragm pump

PISTON PUMP: -
It consists of a metallic cylinder in which a circular disc called piston moves forward and
backward. It is connected with an engine by a shaft. At the extreme end of pump the body
has two check valves that is suction valve and discharge valve. To avoid leakage some
packing material around the piston is provided in the form of rings.
WORKING:-
When piston moves back ward some vacuumed is produced in the body which closes the
discharge valve and opens the suction valve through which the liquid enters into the
pump body to dill the space. When the piston moves forward, it exerts some pressure on
the liquid which closes the suction valve and opens the discharge valve through which the
piqued is pumped out. It can be used to handle small volume of liquid to 150 ft to 200 ft
of height. It is not used to handle large volume of liquids because it can not control high
pressure. It has two sections. The liquid section and power section. The liquid section
does the pumping and the power section provides driving force to operate liquid section.
These are simplex, duplex, triplex or quintrex. Simple pump is with one cylinder, duplex
with two cylinder, triplex with three and quintrex with five cylinders. If the fluid is
delivered only with the forth going stroke it will be single acting, when pump discharges
liquid a both forth going and back coming strokes it is called double acting pump.
PARTS: -
1. plunger or piston and piston rod or connecting rod
2. Suction and discharge valve 3. cylinder
4. Stuffing box
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PLUNGER PUMP: -
The construction of plunger pump is similar to the piston pump but in this pump piston
disc is replace by a solid cylindrical metal piece called plunger. The use of plunger makes
the pump to with stand at high pressure and handles large volume of liquid. This pump
can easily replace. This pump can be used to handle the liquid having suspension to some
extends.
DIAPHRAGM PUMP: -
It is very simple in construction. In this pump a flexible diaphragm made of rubber is
fixed such that the diaphragm can move forward and backward easily in its central
position. The outer perimeter of diaphragm is fixed in pump body. At the bottom of
metallic body a check valve is provided which opens inside the pump body and acts as a
suction valve. At the discharge end another check valve is provided which acts as a
discharge valve. In the centre of pump body a shaft moves forward and back wards which
urge the piston / plunger to move in a cylinder in which a non- corrosive liquid is sealed.
Then movement of piston is transmitted through the liquid to flexible diaphragm and
hence to the liquid to be pumped. By the backward and forward movement of shaft
moves diaphragm back and forward.
ROTARY PUMP: -
Positive displacements pump having rotary motion. It gives the fluid discharge pressure
up to 300 kg/cm2 not in feet.
TYPES OF ROTARY PUMP: -
1. Gear pump use normally for oily fluids.
2. Lube pump
3. Screw pump used for high viscosity liquid and large amount of oil.
4. Vane type pump used for solvent, chemical transfer and viscous material.
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CHEMISTRY

FUNDAMENTICAL PARTICALS

First Eighteen Elements

Elements Symbol Molecular Weight Atomic Weight


Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 4 2
Lithium Li 7 3
Beryllium Be 9 4
Boron B 11 5
Carbon C 12 6
Nitrogen N 14 7
Oxygen O 16 8
Fluorine F 19 9
Neon Ne 20 10
Sodium Na 23 11
Magnesium Mg 24 12
Aluminum Al 27 13
Silicon Si 28 14
Phosphorous P 31 15
Sulpher S 32 16
Chlorine cl 35.5 17
Argon Ar 40 18

Symbols of Elements

Iodine I Tin Sn
Uranium U Antimony sb
Vanadium V Tungsten W
Barium Ba Gold Au
Bismuth Bi Mercury Hg
Bromine Br Lead Pb
Calcium ca Silver Ag
Cromium cr Copper cu
Cobalt co Iron Fe
Cadmium cd Californium cf
Copper cu Potassium K
18

Names of Compound and Their Formulas

Ammonia NH3 Zink Sulphate ZnSo4


Ammonium Hydro Oxide NH4oH Sulphuric Acid H2So4
Ammonium Chloride NH4cl Nitric Acid HNo3
Sodium Chloride Nacl Hydrochloric Acid Hcl
Sodium bi Chloride NaHCo3 Phosphoric Acid H3Po4
Sodium nitrate NaNo3 Calcium oxy chloride Caocl2
Sodium Carbonate Na2Co3 Calcium hydro oxide Ca (oH)2
Sodium hydro oxide NaoH Calcium Sulphate CaSo4
Sodium Phosphate Na3Po4 Calcium phosphate Ca3 (Po4)2
Sodium thio Sulphate Na2S2o3 Iron Sulphate Fes
Potassium hydro Oxide KoH Aluminum Sulphate Al2 (So4)3
Potassium per Magnate KMNo4 Potassium di chromate K2cr2o7
Methane CH4 Silver nitrate AgNo3
Lead Nitrate Pb (No3)2

INDUSTRIAL GASES

Natural gas CH4 Carbon di oxide Co


Nitrogen N2 hydrogen H2
Acetylene C2 = H2 chlorine cl2
Fluorine F2 hydrogen Fluoride HF
Oxygen O2 Nitric oxide No
Nitrous oxide N2o Nitrogen trioxide N2O3
Carbon mono oxide Co Ammonia NH3
Sulpher di oxide So2 Sulher S
Nitrogen di oxide No2 Nitrogen penta oxide N2O5

ORGANIC SOLVENTS
Alcohol, acetone, ether, ccl4
ALKALIES
NH4oH, Na2Co3, Ca(oH)2, NaoH, KoH, K2Co3
OXIDATION: -
The loss of electron by an atom, ion or molecule in a chemical reaction.
OXIDIZING AGENT: -
The reagent that accepts electron in a chemical reaction.
REDUCTION: -
The gain of electron by an atom, ion or a molecule.
REDUCING AGENT: -
19

The reactant that losses the electron in a chemical reaction.

REDOX REACTION:-
A chemical reaction that involves the transfer of electrons.
HYDRATED SUBSTANCE: -
The substance which contain some water molecules at normal condition.
E.g. cuSo4.5H2o, FeSo4.7H2o, C2H2o4.2H2O3,
ENDROUS SUBSTANCES: -
A substance which does not contains water molecules.
E.g. Nacl, BaSo4, KcL
HYGROSCOPIC OR DELIQUESCENT SUBSTANCES: -
The substance which take moisture from air and tends to dissolve in it. Such substances
adsorb water vapor from air at their outer surface.
E.g. NaoH, Cocl2, H2So4

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
That branch of engineering which deals with the development designing and operation of
equipment used in the chemical industry.
It is divided into two branches
1. Unit operation
2. Unit process
Unit operation
That branch of chemical engineering in which only physical changes take place.
Unit process: -
That branch of chemical engineering which deals with the chemical changes.
Flow: -
Movement of liquid from one place to another.
Types of flow: -
1. Laminar or viscous flow
2. Turbulent flow
3. Transitional flow
Laminar or viscous flow: -
When the value of Reynold number is less than 2100. The water flow in straight parallel
lines.
Turbulent flow: -
When the Reynold number is greater than 4000, it is called turbulent flow.
Transitional flow: -
When Reynold number is between 2100 to 4000 it is called transitional flow.
Critical velocity: -
The velocity where the viscous flow changes in turbulent flow.
Reynold number: -
A numerical ratio of dynamic forces of mass flow to the shear stress due to viscosity.
These four factors combine in a group called Reynold number Due/u
D = diameter of pipe e = density of liquid
20

U = velocity of liquid u = viscosity

Fluid: -
Compress to flow and replace force to come in its original shape.
Fluid mechanics: -
The branch of science which deals with the behavior of fluid.
Fluid dynamics: -
The study of fluid in motion.
Fluid statics: -
The study of fluid at rest. In fluid statics only pressure is studied.
Fluid flow: -
The movement of material such as liquid, gases or dispersed solids through certain
bounded reigns.
Flow rate: -
The liquid which we get in one second passing through pipe or open channel.
Mass flow rate: -
The quantity of material which we gee in one second passing through a pipe or open
channel.
Mass flow rate = mass/time
Volumetric flow rate: -
The volume of fluid which we get in one second passing through an open channel or
pipe.
Volumetric flow rate = volume / time
UNIT: -
The measurement of physical quantity in some term is called unit. Units of length are
meter, ft, cm, units of mass are Kg, lbm, gms.
Quantities: -
The units of different system are known as quantities.
There are two types of quantities.
Primary quantities: -
These quantities are base for measurements.
Mass = M, length = L, time = T, force = F, temperature= T ,t , heat = Q, energy = E
Secondary quantities: -
These quantities are derived from primary quantities.
Density, Viscosity, Pressure, Velocity, Acceleration.

Density = mass/vol, viscosity = mass/length * time, pressure = force/ Area


Velocity = length/ time, acceleration = length/ time2
Primary quantities

Quantities symbols M.K.S F.P.S C.G.S


1- Mass m Kgm lbm gm.m
2- Force F Newton lb.force dyne
3- Length L meter ft cm
o o
4- Temperature T k F or R C or k
5- Heat Q k.cal Btu gm.calory
21

6- Energy E joul ft.poundal ergs


7- Time t sec sec sec

SECONDARY QUANTITIES

Quantities symbols M.K.S F.P.S C.G.S


1- Density e Kgm/m3 lbm/ft3 gm.m/cm3
2- Viscosity u Kgm/m.sec lbm/ft.sec gm/cm.sec
3- Pressure P N/m2 lbf/ft2 dyne/cm2
4- Velocity u,v m/sec ft/sec cm/sec
5- acceleration a m/sec2 ft/sec2 cm/sec2
CONVERSION OF UNIT:-
The process conversion of unit from one system to another system.
CONVERSION FACTOR: -
It is the term by which units are multiplied to obtain unit from one system to another
system.
TEMPERATURE: -
The degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
ABSOLUTE ZERO TEMPERATURE: -
Temperature measure form absolute zero.
ABSOLUTE ZERO TEMPERATURE: -
Temperature at which all molecular motion ceases (-460 & -273).
o
Centigrade C = f -32 /1.8 0 - 100
o
Faren heit F = 1.8C + 32 32 - 212
Kelvin K = C + 273 273 - 373
Rankin R = F + 460 492 - 672
PRESSURE: -
Force exerted per unit area. P = F/A
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE: -
The pressure which exists on the surface of earth by virtue of its gravity on mass of
atmospheric.
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE: -
The total pressure existing above the fixed dettom of zero pressure.
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
GAUGE PRESSURE: -
The pressure shown by pressure gauge.
TYPES OF PRESSURE: -
1. Static pressure
22

2. Impact pressure
3. Velocity pressure
STATIC PRESSURE: -
The pressure exerted on a plane parallel to the direction of flow of a moving fluid.
IMPACT PRESSURE: -
When pressure is measured on plane perpendicular to eh direction of fluid flow.
VELOCITY PRESSURE: -
The difference between the impact pressure & static pressure when both are measured at
same point in the fluid line.
DENSITY: -
Density is defined as its mass per unit volume. e = m/v
For gases it is expressed as grams mass per liter. In engineering the density of water is
taken as 1 gm.m/cm3 or 62.4 lbm/ ft3.
TRUE DENSITY: -
This is the actual density of a discrete particles or crystal of a solid.
BULK DENSITY: -
It is the density of crushed or powder form.
GAS DENSITY: -
It is expressed as weight in grams of 1 liter or weight in lbs of 1 ft3 at standard condition.
SPECIFIC VOLUME: -
Specific volume is volume per unit mass. It is the reciprocal of density.
V = v/m
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND CONCENTRATION ON
DENSITY: -
Increase in temperature causing the density to decrease. By increasing pressure cause an
o
increase in density. Water has maximum density at 3.98 C .
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OR RELATIVE DENSITY: -
It is the ratio between the density of a substance and density of water. For liquid and solid
standard substance is pure water. For gases pure hydrogen or dry air us used.
Sp.gravity of substance = density of substance / density of water
Methods of measurement: -
1. Sp.gravity bottle
2. Hydrometer
There are three scales in hydrometer.
1. be scale (Baume scale)
2. A.P.I Scale(American petroleum institute scale)
3. Twaddle scale
Be Scale: -
Baume proposed two hydrometer scales for liquid less than water.
o o
Be = 140/sp.gr 60F /60F - 130
For liquid greater than water.
o o
Be =145 145/sp.gr 60F /60F
A.P.I Scale: -
American petroleum institute has adopted a special gravity scale for use petroleum
products.
o o
A.P.I = 141.5/sp.gr 60F /60F 131.5
23

Twaddle scale: -
Is used in liquid with a density greater than water & is used in England.
o o
Tw = 200 (sp.gr 60F /60F - 1)
VISCOSITY: -
The internal force of friction between two moving layers of flowing fluid. Or the
resistance to flow. In M.K.S system units of viscosity is poise.
The poise is 1 gm-mass/cm.sec
This is in conveniently large for many fluids. There fore commonly expressed in
centipoises. A centipoises being 0.01 poise.
Kinematic viscosity: -
Viscosity divided by its density. V = u/e
U viscosity, e density.
Effects of temperature & pressure on viscosity: -
For liquids viscosity decreases about 2% for each centigrade rise in temperature. For real
gases viscosity increases with increasing in temperature. For liquids, increase of pressure
causes the viscosity of liquid to increase. For real gases viscosity of real gases increases
with increase in pressure.
Viscosity index: -
It is an empirical number indicating the change of viscosity with temperature.
TYPES OF PROCESS: -
1. Flow process
2. Non flow process
3. adiabatic process
Flow process: -
In this process material is actually entering and leaving it by flow.
These are of two types.
1. Steady state process
2. Non steady state process
Steady state process: -
This is the process in which all conditions of temperature, pressure, concentration & flow
rate are constant at any given point and do not change with respect to time.
Non steady state process: -
This is the process in which variables are changing with respect to time.
Non flow process: -
These are the processes in which material do not enter or leave the system.
Adiabatic process: -
This is the process in which no heat is absorbed or evolved during the process.
VARIABLE: -
The process conditions which are changed with the passage of time.
POWER: -
The rate of doing work per unit time. P = w/t
WORK: -
Force times distance W=F*S
ENERGY: -
Capacity of a body to do work.
Form of energy: -
24

Heat, sound, electricity, light.

Kinetic energy: -
It is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion.
K.E = mu2/2gc
Potential energy: -
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position.
P.E = mgh
Internal energy: -
When a system absorbs heat a part of absorbed energy may be used for doing work and a
part is stored with in the system. This stored portion is known as internal energy.
External energy: -
The external energy of a body is dependant on its position and motion to earth.
Pressure energy: -
The energy required to push mlb mass of a body into process.
Mechanical energy: -
The energy due to some work.
Energy in transition: -
Process of moving form one condition to store energy to another.
Mechanical kinetic energy: -
It exist because of relative velocities of two or more bodies.
Mechanical potential energy: -
It exists because of relative positions of two bodies.
Thermal energy: -
Is associate with molecules which exist as stored energy (internal energy)
or energy in transition (heat)
Electrical energy: -
Is due to flow of electron.
Nuclear energy: -
Is due to nuclear fission or fusion.
Units of energy: -
Units of energy are joul, foot poundal, and erg.
Erg: -
The amount of work done when a force of one dyne act through a distance of one
centimeter.
Foot poundal: -
It is the amount of work done when a force of one poundal acts through a distance of one
foot.
Poundal: -
It is the force which gives an acceleration of one ft/sec2 in a body of one Lbm.
Foot pound:
The amount of work done when a force of one pound acts through a distance of one foot.
Heat: -
It is the form of energy which can be added or taken away from a system to raise or lower
down its heat contents.
Latent heat: -
25

The amount of heat added in a substance to change its phase not its temperature.

Sensible heat: -
The amount of heat added in a substance to change its temperature not its phase.
o o o
Ice 32F water 32F water 212F steam

Latent heat sensible heat latent heat


Phase change temperature change phase change
Latent heat of condensation: -
Amount of heat released by a compound of a substance to change its state from a vapour
to a liquid.
Latent heat of fusion: -
The amount of heat need to melt a substance (solid) at the same temperature.
Latent heat of vaporization: -
The amount of heat need to vaporize a liquid.
First law of thermodynamic: -
This law states that the energy supplied to the system is equal to the sum of the internal
energy of system plus work done by system on surrounding.
Enthalpy: -
The total heat content of a system is called enthalpy.
H = U+PV
U = internal energy
P = absolute pressure
V = volume
Heat capacity: -
o
The mount of heat required to raise temperature of the body through 1 C .
Specific heat: -
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance through
o
1C.
Q = mc T
Molar heat capacity or molar specific heat: -
o
Heat required to raise the temperature of one gram mole of a substance through 1 k .
Heating value of fuel: -
Heat evolved in the complete combustion of fuel under constant pressure at a temperature
o
of 25 C .
Heat of combustion: -
The amount of heat evolved when 1 gm mole of a substance is completely oxidized with
oxygen.
Heat of solution: -
The amount of heat evolved or absorbed when 1 gm mole of a substance is dissolved in
large excess of water, so that further dilution of solution produces no heat exchange.
Heat of reaction: -
Change in enthalpy resulting from a given reaction at constant temperature.
HEAT TRANSFER: -
26

Heat can only flow from an object with lower temperature. There fore heat will transfer
when two objects will have different temperature.

Methods of heat transfer: -


1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
Conduction: -
Heat flow from one part of an object to other part of the same objects.
Convection: -
Transfer of heat by actual physical movement of hot fluids (water).
Radiation: -
Transfer of heat by or through rays.
Rate of heat transfer depends
1. Temperature difference between objects.
2. Distance between objects.
3. Color of body.
4. Exposed surface area.
CONDUCTIVITY: -
Heat carrying quality of material
Gases are poorest conductor.
Dry, fibrous solid are poor conductor.
Metal are best conductor.
MELTING POINT: -
The temperature at which solid changes in to a liquid.
BOILING POINT: -
The temperature at which liquid begins to boil at specified pressure or the temperature at
which atmospheric pressure and vapor pressure become equal.
FUEL: -
Any thing which burn economically with the evolution of heat & light.
COMBUSTION:-
The reaction of oxygen with fuel with the evolution of heat & light.
EXCESS AIR: -
A part of an extra air supply to ensure complete combustion. That part of an extra air is
called excess air.
CATALYST: -
The substance which changes the rate of chemical reaction but do not take part in
chemical reaction.
IGNITION TEMPERATURE: -
The minimum temperature at which air fuel mixture begins to burn.
FLASH POINT: -
The minimum temperature at which air fuel mixture begins to burn.
FIRE POINT: -
The temperature at which sufficient vapors are beginning burin continuously.
POUR POINT: -
27

The lowest temperature at which oil will pour when cooled under suitable condition. This
test is used to estimate the amount of wax and other solids in oil.

CLOUD POINT:-
The temperature at paraffin wax of other solidifyable substance begins to crystallize out
at a specific condition.
ANILINE POINT: -
The lowest temperature at which oil is completely miscible with an equal volume of
aniline.
DEW POINT: -
The temperature at which vapors begins to condense and deposit as liquid.
VOLATILITY: -
The ratio between partial pressure of a component & its mole fraction in liquid state.
BOYLES LAW: -
At a constant temperature the volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to
its pressure.
V * 1 / P temperature constant
P1V1 = P2V2
CHARLES LAW: -
At a constant pressure the volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its
pressure.
V * T at constant pressure
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
GENERAL GAS EQUATION: -
This is the combination of boyles law and charles law
P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2
VANDER WALLS EQUATION: -
nRT = (P + n2a / V2) (V - nb)
GAY LUSSACS LAW: -
At a constant volume pressure is directly proportional to its temperature.
P * T at constant volume
P1 / T1 = P2 / T2
RAOULTS LAW: -
At a constant temperature the partial pressure of a component is equal to the vapor
pressure of mole fraction.
DENSITY OF AN IDEAL GAS: -
Density of an ideal gas varies inversely with its volume. For ideal gas density can be
calculated by this expression. d2 = d1 ( V1 / V2 )
If temperature and pressure is given and volume has not given. d 2 = d1 (T1/ T2)(P2/P1 )
IDEAL GAS: -
The gas which obey law of all condition of temperature and pressure.
ATMOSPHERE: -
Units of pressure at sea level. Atmosphere pressure considered to be 760 mm of Hg.
AERATION: -
Spraying of water into air to remove odor, bacteria and unpleasant gases.
28

COLLOIDS: -
The soluble substance which have little or no tendency to pass through membrane such as
sugar, urea, salt.

COLLOIDAL SOLUTION: -
A solution in which solute particles are bigger then those present in a true solution and
which can not be filtered.
Crystalloids: -
The soluble substance which pass easily through membrane such as sugar, urea and salt.
Crystallization: -
The precipitation of solid material from its solution.
Suspension: -
A mixture in which solute particles do not dissolved in solvent.
Sublimation: -
Condition where a substance change from a solid to a gas with out becoming a liquid.
Solvation: -
Inter action of solvent with solute.
Surfactants: -
These are organic compounds which reduces the surface tension of water and increasing
the wetting ability of the solution.
Hydrogenation: -
The addition of hydrogen to molecule.
Anhydride: -
Substance form which water has been removed.
Hydrated substance: -
The substance which contain some water molecule at normal condition.
e.g. Cuso4.5H2o, FeSo4.7H2o, C2H2o4.2H2o3
Anhydrous or endrous substance: -
Substance free from water.
Hygroscopic or deliquescent substance: -
The substance which take moisture fro air and tends to dissolve in it. Such substances
adsorb water vapor form air at their outer surface
e.g. NaoH, Cocl2, H2So4
Absorption: -
It is a chemical change. The mixing of a gas into a liquid is called adsorption.
Chemical absorption: -
In this method gas is absorbed in a liquid by chemical ratio.
Physical absorption: -
In this method gas is absorbed in liquid by consideration..
Adsorption: -
Process in which molecule of a liquid or a gas condenses on the surface of solid. It is a
physical change.
Adsorbing agent: -
A substance which attract and hold other substance to their surface.
Striping: -
The transfer of material from liquid phase to the gaseous phase.
29

Tie component: -
The reactant which go unreacted through a system.
Ph: -
The ve log of hydrogen ion [H+] concentration present in a solution.
PoH: -
The ve log of hydroxyl ion [oH-] concentration present in a solution.
Humidity: -
Lbs of water vapor / Lbs of dry air
Condenser: -
A device changing a gas or vapor to a liquid.
Condensation: -
The convertion of vapor into liquid.
Condensate: -
A fluid formed when a gas id cooled it its liquid state.

Wet bulb temperature: -


Measure of degree of moisture. It is the temperature pf evaporation for an air sample.
Dry bulb temperature: -
Air temperature as indicated by ordinary thermometer.
Ambient temperature: -
The temperature of surrounding is called.
Humid heat: -
It is the number of B.t.u required to raise the temperature of 1Lb of dry air plus water
o
vapor through 1F .
Humid volume: -
It is the total volume in ft3 of 1Lb of air & its water vapor.
Heat of hydration: -
The amount of heat released when one mole of ions goes into the aqueous solution. It is
measured in Kg/mole.
Evaporation: -
Removal or escape of liquid vapor at room temperature not at boiling.
Vaporization: -
Vaporizing of liquid at its boiling point.
Matter: -
Any physical substance that can be perceived by a senses of sight hearing taste and smell.
Atom: -
Atoms are the smallest unit of an element atoms are made up of +ve & -ve charges from
electricity. ve charge particles are called electron. They are revolving around the
nucleus. Nucleus contains proton & neutron with no electrical charge.
Atomic fusion: -
Process of uniting the nuclei of light atom under condition of extreme heat to form
element of greater atomic weight.
Atomic fission:-
The number of proton in the nucleus of an atom.
Atomic number: -
The number of proton in the nucleus of an atom.
30

Atomic weight: -
The sum of proton & neutron of an atom.
Atomic volume: -
It is the volume in cm3 occupied by one gm atom of an element. It is calculated by
Atomic volume = atomic weight / density
Molecule: -
Are the smallest particles of any substance that can exist by themselves and still have the
properties of substance.
Molecular weight: -
Sum of all atomic weights of all atoms which are present in a molecule of the substance.
Isomers: -
Those organic compounds which have same molecular formula but different molecular
structure.
Isotopes: -
Atom which contain the same number of proton but different number of neutron.

Liquid: -
Substance whose molecules move freely amount themselves.
Gas: -
Substance whose molecules tends to separate.
Solid: -
Substance whose molecule did not move freely.
Ions: -
An atom or group of atom electrically charged.
Ionization: -
An electrolyte splits up into charge particles upon heating or in its aqueous solution.
Ionization energy: -
The energy required to remove valance electrons from gaseous atom.
Ionic theory: -
The theory which explain the process of electrolysis.
Electronegativity: -
The case with which an atom forms a negative ions.
Electropositivity: -
The case with which an atom forms a positive ions.
Electrophile: -
The component or species in search of electron.
Neucleophile: -
The compound or species in search of positive charge.
Cathode: -
Negative terminal of an electrical device. Electron leave at this terminal.
Anode: -
Positive terminal of electric device electron deposit at this terminal.
Cation: -
The ions which are attracted by cathode electrode are called cation. These ions have
positive charge.
Anion: -
31

The ions which are attracted by the anode electrode. These have ve charge.
BRINE: -
An aqueous saturated solution of a Nacl about 28 % called brine.
BUOYANCY: -
The upward force exerted by a liquid or a gas on an immersed or floating object.

BASE FORMING ELEMENT: -


Alkali or alkaline earth metal.
BINDING ENERGY: -
Amount of energy needed to hold the particles often nucleus together.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES: -
The forces of attraction present between the molecules of a compound.
COHESIVE FORCES: -
The forces of attraction present between the particles of solid liquid & gases.
BINARY COMPOUND: -
A compound of two elements.
BROWNIAN MOVEMENT: -
The free movement of molecules of gas & liquid.
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