PREFACE

The Central Soil and Materials Research Station (CSMRS), an attached office of
the Ministry of Water Resources ,River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, is a
premier Institute in the country located at New Delhi which deals with field and
laboratory investigations, basic and applied research on problems in geo-
mechanics, concrete technology, construction materials and associated
environment issues, having direct bearing on the development of irrigation and
power in the country and functions as an adviser and consultant in the above fields
to various projects and organizations in India and abroad.

Broadly, the sphere of activities encompasses the following

disciplines:

Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering including , Geosynthetic, Rock

fill Technology (Soil)
Concrete Technology, Drilling Technology for sub-surface characterization
and Construction Materials (Concrete)

Rock Mechanics ( field and lab..) including Instrumentation, Engineering

Geophysics

Concrete Chemistry, Electronics and Information Technology (CC)

1
 Contents
Rock mechanics 1-12
Introduction
Field investigation for rock mass characterization
Indirect method
Laboratory characterization of rock
Shear strength parameter
Deformability characteristics of rockmass
Goodman jack
Hydraulic fracturing

Rock lab 13-19

Bulk density
Grain density
Slake durability test
Indirect tensile test
Strength and deformability

Geophysics engineering 20-28

Introduction
24- channel seismograph
Electrical resistivity equipment
Ground penetrating radar
Vibration monitoring seismograph
Remote operated vehicle

Soil mechanics 29-45

Introduction
Mechanical analysis
Compaction test
Atterberg limit test
Shrinkage limit test
UCS test

Geo-synthetics 46-57
Introduction
classification of geo-synthetics material
Function of geo-synthetic material
Properties of geo-synthetic material
Laboratory test

2
 Concrete 58-70
Introduction
Composition of concrete
Test on cement
Test on aggregate

3
 ROCK MECHANICS
1.0 ROCK FIELD

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Rock mass is a discontinuous, non- homogeneous and anisotropic geological medium
containing fissures, fractures, joints, bedding planes, folds, shear seems and faults. The
strength of the rock mass is governed by the behavior of these discontinuities and planes
of weakness. The infilling material is these discontinuities also vary. The frequency of
joints, there orientation with respect to the engineering structures and the roughness of
the joint have a significant impact on stability of the structures.
Determination of rock mass characteristics is great challenge e.g difficulty in preparation
of undisturbed specimen, limitation of testing method, volume of rock mass involved, no.
of major discontinuities involved, limitation of testing equipment, human errors, etc.
however compare to lab testing, in-situ testing represents the actual rock mass since it
takes into accounts the effect of discontinuities , scale effect natural conditions etc. field
test and lab tests provide sufficient information for characterization of rock and rock
masses.
Reliable characterization of strength and deformation behavior of rock mass is very
important for safe and economical design of structures involving rocks such as dams,
bridge abutments, tunnels, underground structures etc. these strength and deformation
properties of rock mass help the designers to conduct stability analysis using numerical
methods. Evaluation of these parameters on the basis of lab tests on tiny intact rock
specimens or through indirect empirical relations may be often misleading and can result
into inappropriate design.
In-situ deformability and in-situ shear tests are necessary to conduct as it is impractical to
simulate field conditions in lab. Deformability characteristics (deformation modulus and
modulus of elasticity) are generally obtained by conducting the uniaxial jacking tests and
recording the load deformation data inside a drift or in a trench as per the site conditions.
Deformability characteristics can also be obtained by conducting borehole jack test inside
the drillhole. Determination of the shear strength parameter (cohesion and friction angle)
for concrete to rock and rock to rock interface respectively. In-situ shear tests conducted
either inside the small drift or in open trench take into account the effect of
discontinuities; orientation of foliation or bedding planes and other joints.

1.2 ROCK/ ROCK MASS CHARACTERISATION

To study the behavior of foundation materials.
to study the rock loads in case of underground caverns and tunnels

4
1.3 FIELD INVESTIGATIONS FOR ROCK MASS CHARACTERISATION
Field tests are essential for shear strength and deformability characteristics of rock mass.
The following are the common tests employed to characterise the rock mass:
1. Shear Strength parameters c and by in-situ shear tests for
a. rock to rock and
b. concrete to rock interfaces
2. Modulus of deformation of rock mass by Uniaxial jacking tests or borehole methods
3. In-situ Stress Measurements

Before carrying out big projects like dams or tunnels, it is very important to know the
shear characteristics of the soil or the rock present at that place. The test is to find out the
insitu cohesion and friction values and the method is suggested in ISRM code,
Suggested Method for Insitu Determination of Direct Shear Strength. In this test, peak
& residual direct shear strength are measured as a function of stress normal to the
sheared plane, on the same test horizon with each specimen tested at a different
normal stress keeping it constant for the particular observation. A typical schematic
diagram for the direct shear test for rock is shown in Figure 3.2. Figure 3.3 shows the
picture for an ongoing test in the field.
Various equipments required for the test, equipment for cutting & encapsulating the
test block- rock saws, drills, hammer & chisels, formwork of appropriate dimensions &
rigidity, expanded polystyrene sheeting & steel shear box (700 x 700 x 350 mm),
equipment for applying normal load usually hydraulic jacks, equipment for applying the
shear force usually hydraulic jacks, equipment for measuring the applied forces, pumps
and pressure gages and equipment for measuring shear, normal & lateral
displacements.

1.4 INDIRECT METHODS

Many researchers and rock mechanics experts have developed empirical correlations
between rock mass classifications viz. RMS, Q, GSI with the engineering properties of
rock mass like UCS, modulus of deformation, shear strength parameters etc. over a
period of time. But these have limitations of limited data base and that too pertaining to
certain specific regions only .
Moreover, empirical classifications of rock mass are also based on the judgments which
contain human errors and limitations. Therefore nothing can replace the actual test
results. However in the event of non- availability of actual data, these may be helpful in
preliminary design of any structure. The same may be validate later on based on actual
testing and design may be reviewed.

1.5 LABORATORY CHARACTERISATION OF ROCK

5
 Properties of intact rock may be determined by subjecting the rock specimen to various
laboratory tests. These rock specimen can either be the cores obtained from drilling or the
rock fragments. The following are the common type of tests performed in the laboratory:
1. Density (Grain and Bulk), Water Absorption, slake durability index,
2. Point Load Strength Index

1.6 Engineering Properties in Saturated State:

1. Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS)
2. Elastic parameters: modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio
3. Triaxial compression test for c and
4. P and S Wave Velocity
5. Indirect tensile strength
6. Point Load Strength Index
7. Slake durability index

2.0 SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS

Shear strength parameters involve two components viz. cohesion (c) and friction angle ((p).
The shear failure may occur in two ways i.e. either in concrete/rock interface or within rock
mass.

2.1 Methodology and Test Procedure

Fig.1 Schematic diagram of in situ shear test Fig.2 Rock block

6
 Blocks of rock mass are cut for rock over rock interface with no or minimal disturbance and
concrete blocks are cast for concrete over rock interface for testing purpose in accordance
with IS 7746:1991. ISRM: 1981 and CBIP: 1988.
During the preparation, diamond wheel chisel and hammer along with rock cutters are used
to separate the rock mass of block size (70cm x 70cm x 35cm) from parent rock .
Mild steel plates of 10 mm thickness are used to prepare side and top reaction pads,
strengthened by R.C.C.
The care is taken to keep the top reaction pad concentric with the block. Similarly, side
reaction pad should also be prepared with the surface parallel to the block.
For concrete over rock interface, the rock surface is prepared as smooth/plane as possible by
removing all undulations with the help of chisel and hammer.
After leveling the rock surface, the concrete block of 70cm x 70cm x 35cm is prepared by
using steel frame. All the blocks are cured for 28 days before shearing.
Minimum five blocks each of rock over rock and concrete over rock has to be prepared. Each
block is sheared at constant but different normal load.
Vertical and horizontal shear loads are applied by hydraulic jacks of respective adequate
capacity.
The horizontal shear load is applied at an angle of 15 degree with the horizontal so that the
resultant force passes through the center of the test block.
Two wooden wedges placed across the horizontal hydraulic jack. Aluminumalloy hollow
cylinders are used to ll up the gap between the top reaction pad and the vertical hydraulic
jack.
During the test, the shear force and the corresponding vertical, horizontal and lateral
displacements of the block are measured by dial-gauges of 0.01 mm least-count.
Each test block is sheared till failure and beyond for establishing the peak and residual shear
strength parameters as per IS 7746:1991, ISRM: 2007.

2.2 Calculations and Interpretation

Normal stress and shear stress are obtained from normal load and shear load recorded during the
test and are calculated from the following equations:

, = =

+
, = =

where,
= Applied shear load
= Total Shear force
= Total Normal force
A = Area of test block
= Applied normal Load
= Inclination of applied shear force (15)

7
The peak shear stress and residual shear stress both, are plotted against the normal stress and
using linear regression analysis best t envelope are drawn figure. From the equation of
straight line obtained, the intercept on the Y- axis gives cohesion c of the rock mass and the
slope of the line gives the friction angle of the rock mass.

Fig.4 fig.5

3.0 DEFORMABILITY CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCK MASS

Modulus of elasticity or Youngs modulus: The ratio of stress to corresponding strain below
the proportionality limit of a rock material.

Modulus of deformation of rock mass: The ratio of stress to corresponding strain during
loading of a rock mass, including elastic and inelastic behaviour.

Modulus of elasticity of rock mass: The ratio of stress to corresponding strain during loading of
a rock mass, including only the elastic behaviour.

The modulus of rock mass is denoted in terms of deformation modulus rather than modulus of
elasticity, because rock mass contain joints and during loading permanent deformations occur
because of closing of the joint spaces.

The following in situ tests are conducted for determination of modulus of deformation:

Plate loading test,

Plate jacking test,
Goodman Borehole jack test,
Flat jack test,
Cable jacking test,

8
 Radial jack test, and
Dilatometer test.

3.1 Plate Loading Method

3.1.1 Test procedure :-

Rock surface, at the bottom of the drift is smoothened by chiseling to obtain parallel
horizontal face, about 5 cm more than the size of test plate (60 cm diameter).
A thin layer of sand about 2.5 cm thick is spread, for leveling the undulations on the bottom
surface.
The testing equipment is assembled with 2.5 cm thick and 60 cm diameter M S plates at the
bottom followed by 45 cm and 30 cm diameter plates. Thereafter, a hydraulic jack of
adequate capacity is placed.
The load is applied by means of jack and pump and the test is completed in 5 cycles of
loading and unloading.
The deformation/displacement is recorded using 4 dial gauges with an accuracy of 0.01 mm
installed diagonally on the bottom plate in accordance with IS 7317:1993, lSRM: 1981 and
CBIP: 1988.
Test setup given figure.

Fig.6 Plate Loading Arrangement

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3.1.2 Calculations

The modulus of deformation for the loading cycle is calculated by considering total deformation
of a particular cycle whereas modulus of elasticity was calculated by considering elastic
deformation for the same cycle using the following equation.

(1 2 )
=

where,

E = Modulus of Deformation/Elasticity

P = Applied load

v = Poissons Ratio

m = Constant depending upon the shape of plate (m = 0.95 for square plate and 0.96 for circular
plate)

= Deformation corresponding to load

A= Area of plate

Considering the Poissons ratio of the rock mass as 0.25 and as the 60 cm diameter Circular plate
is used in the investigation, above equation reduces to:

0.00169257
E=

where,

E = Modulus of Deformation/Elasticity in GPa

P = Applied load in Tonnes

= Defamation corresponding to load in cm

The above equation is used to calculate the values of moduli of deformation and elasticity using
the value of total deformation of the loading cycle and elastic deformation of unloading cycle,
respectively.

10
 Fig.7

3.2 Goodman Jack

Goodman Jack or in other words Borehole jack is used to determine the defonnability
characteristics of rock mass. The equipment can be used inside the NX size drillholes (76 mm
diameter). In case of nonavailability of drift or trench, the Goodman Jack test can be
conducted.

The test has some limitations viz. the pressure is applied through curved plates on the borehole
walls rather than axial stress, volume of mass affected is negligible compared with plate loading
or plate jacking tests.

The test has the advantage of determination of modulus of deformation in a particular plane by
orienting the curved loading plates in that particular direction.

3.2.1 Test procedure:-

Goodman Jack tests are conducted in NX size boreholes in accordance with provisions of
IS 12955 (1900 - Part I). ISRM (2007).
The tests can he conducted by applying pressure in any direction inside the horeholes at
different depths.
Any number can be loading cycles can be adopted. However. lndian standards and ISRM
suggested methods advocate at least five cycles of loading and unloading cycles.

11
3.2.2 Calculations:-

The modulus of deformation has been calculated using the following relationship:

= 0.86{ //}(, )

where,

E = Modulus of deformation/elasticity (MPa)

P = Stress increment (MPa)

D = Diametral displacement increment (cm)

D = Diameter of Borehole (cm)

K (v,) = Constant depending upon Poisson's ratio (v) and the angle of loaded are ).

Fig.10 Deformation vs applied stress

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3.3 Hydraulic Fracturing

Hydraulic methods measure the state of stress in-situ in boreholes. This method consists of
applying pressure on an isolated section of borehole with the help of packers. Fluid is injected
into the isolated section to create articial fractures. Fluid pressure is applied to open, generate,
propagate, sustain and reopen the fractures in rock and related to the existing in-situ stress eld.
The direction of in-situ stresses can be estimated from the observations of hydraulically induced
fracture at that depth.

Hydraulic fracturing is conducted with a robust double packer system on short borehole intervals
which are free of natural fractures . Hydraulic fracturing method essentially consists of:
drilling of suitable diameter boreholes,
selecting test locations after inspecting the drill hole rock cores,
isolating the test section with the help of inatable rubber packers,
pressurizing the test section hydraulically to obtain a fracture in the rock followed by
a number of re-pressurisation till constant reopening pressure is obtained,
obtaining a pressure time record, and
obtaining the impression of the induced crack on semi-cured rubber wrapped onto the
impression tool

Fig.11 Minifrac equipment

The fundamental assumptions underlying the application of hydraulic fracturing are that:

i) One of the principal stress components is co-axial with the test hole,
ii) The long-term shutin pressure is approximated as the magnitude of the
smaller horizontal stress component.
iii) The crack will generally tend to initiate in a plane normal to minimum stress

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Minimum and maximum stresses in a plane normal to the borehole axis are determined from the
pressure time record . The direction of induced crack is measured by impression packer as shown
in Direction of the induced crack in vertical drill hole with respect to the true north gives the
orientation of maximum stress.

This method gives accurate results as long as the drill hole is vertical. Suppose drill hole
direction deviates by 15, the results are questionable. The method is most suitable when
applied in materials whose behaviour approaches that of brittle, homogeneous, elastic, isotropic
and non-porous media.

Fig.13

Fig.14

3.3.1 CONCLUSION

Stress Measurements in rock are essentially required for design and analysis of any
underground structure in rock, as it helps to savings of time as well as cost of construction
apart from the most important aspect of safety of underground structure.

Analysis and interpretation of test results should be done considering theory and practical
experiences apart from correlation with geological features and topography.

14
 The stability of the underground structure which largely depends on the in-situ stresses and
the extent of discontinuities, is utmost important. The orientation of the underground opening
may be kept more or less along the direction of major horizontal stress. However, the
structure should also be checked against the instabilities resulting out of discontinuities likely
to form vulnerable wedges. The final orientation of the underground opening should satisfy
both the criteria.

Orientation of underground caverns based on analysis of joints seen as outcrop is not

possible. Hence, the wedge analysis of joint sets actually encountered inside the opening is
essential.

3.4 REFRENCE-

Report on deformality characterstics of rockmass by goodman jack test conducted in

Powerhouse Drift of Kirthai-1 H.E Project, Jammu & Kashmir
In situ shear strength parameters of rockmass in left bank drift at axis of Kirthai-1 HEP, J&K
Blocks of rock mass are cut for rock over rock interface with no or minimal
disturbance and concrete blocks are cast for concrete over rock interface for testing
purpose in accordance with IS 7746:1991. ISRM: 1981 and CBIP: 1988.

15
 ROCK LAB

1. BULK DENSITY(DRY/SATURATED), WATER

CONTENT(SATURATED) AND APPARENT POROSITY:-
Representative samples of rock lumps, weighing approximately 5g to 15g, are selected.
The minimum size of each lump is such that its minimum dimension is at last ten times
the maximum grain size. Each sample is comprised at least two specimens. Each
specimen is brushed to remove the loose material. The specimen is placed in a container,
dried in a oven to a constant mass at 1050C temperature, and allowed to cool for 30
minutes is Desiccators. The mass (A) of the oven dried sample is determined. The bulk
volume (V) of the specimen is measured by the mercury-displacement method. Mercury
adhering to the specimen is carefully removed, ensuring that no fragments are lost.

For saturating the specimens, a special saturation chamber is used in which the specimens
are kept immersed in water and vacuum is applied for a period of 6 hours. The mass (B)
of the saturated specimen is determined. The above steps are repeated for each specimen
in the sample, and the properties are computed as follows:

Dry Bulk Density = A/V

Saturated Bulk Density = B/V
Water Content Saturation = [(B-A)/A] x 100
Apparent Porosity = [(B-A)/V] x 100

2. GRAIN DENSITY:-
The mass (C) of a clean dry specific gravity (grain density) bottle plus stopper is
determined. The bottle filled with kerosene oil (which is non-reactive with the rock)
And is brought to equilibrium temperature in a constant temperature bath, and the liquid
level is adjusted accurately to 50cc mark. The specific gravity bottle is emptied, and
dried.

The specimen of a given sample, weighing 30g to 50g, are crushed together, and ground
to a grain size not exceeding 150 micron, and then oven dried. Two representative
samples of about 15g each of the pulverized material are selected, and added to separate
bottles with the aid of a funnel. (In other words, each sample is tested in duplicate.) The
mass (E) of the bottle, sample and stopper is determined.

16
 Sufficient kerosene oil is added to the bottle containing the sample, to thoroughly wet the
sample, and fill of the bottle. The specific gravity bottle is then placed in the constant
temperature water bath and slowly boiled to remove the air adhering to the particles. The
bottle is then removed from the waste-bath, cooled and kerosene oil is added to adjust the
liquid-level to 50cc mark and the mass (F) is determined.

The above steps are repeated for each pulverized dample. The grain density is computed
as follows:

GRAIN D3ENSITY, g/cc = 0.8 X (E-C) / [(D-C) - (F-E)]

(Where 0.8g/cc is the density of the kerosene oil)

3. SLAKE DURABILITY INDEX:-

The slake durability test is useful in determining the disintegration nature of the rocks
when it is subjected to drying and wetting conditions along with movement. This test
properly defines the weathering behavior of rocks.

The slake-durability test is regarded as a simple test for assessing the influence of
weathering on Rock and its disintegration. However, mechanisms involved in this slaking
test have not been fully understood yet even after so many years. The mechanisms

17
 movements of the rocks inside the apparatus are understood but its effect on weathering
is still unknown. Franklin and Chandra indicated that mechanisms in slake-durability
tests are subjected to ion exchange and capillary tension. For rocks containing clay
materials, the exchange of cations and anions take place with the adsorption and
absorption of water which makes the rock swell in size and slaking occurs. With the
duration of the test of only ten minutes, the wetting process may only take for parts of the
rock, particularly for the surface part but due to appropriate rotation speed and the level
of the water most of the parts of the rocks get wet.

When the rock becomes more saturated, water menisci within the rock pores increase,
which then causes the reduction of capillary tension at grain contacts and the tips of
cracks. Due to the increase in the water content in the pores, fracture develops in the rock
which leads to the weathering of rocks. This mechanism seems to dominate the durability
behavior of porous rock. Water certainly influences the mechanical characteristics of
rock. However, in the slake durability test, not only wet-dry conditions are given to the
rock specimen, but also mechanisms correspond to the drum rotation are involved. These
mechanisms have not been explored. Such mechanisms may be influenced by the shape
and weight of the specimen. Therefore the main objective of the study is to determine the
slake durability index of the rock samples rather than analyzing the mechanisms of the
specimen.

Methods
The slake-durability test was intended to assess the resistance offered by a rock sample to
weakening and disintegration when subjected to two standard cycles of drying and
wetting.

Rock samples were put into an apparatus that comprises two sets of drums of the
length

of 100 mm and the diameter of 140 mm.

The two drums rotated in water that had a level of about 20 mm below the drum axis

The rotation was driven by a motor capable of rotating the drums at a speed of 20 rpm,

which was held constant for a period of 10 minutes.

Ten rock lumps, each had a mass of 40-60 g, were placed in the drums.

18
 After slaking for the period of 10 minutes, these rock samples were then dried in an
oven

at a temperature of 105 degree centigrade for up to 6 hrs.

Finally, the mass of dried samples was weighted to obtain the first cycle. The test was

conducted over two cycles, in which the weight of particles of 10 rock lumps retained in

these wet-dry cycling tests was therefore determined.

Method Of Calculation
Initial weight taken = A

Weight after 1st cycle = B

Weight after 2nd cycle = C

% retention after 1st cycle =(A-B)/A x 100

% retention after 2nd cycle=(B-C)/B x 100

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4. Indirect Tensile Strength (Brazilian):-
Brazilian Test is a geotechnical laboratory test for indirect measurement of tensile
strength of rocks. Due to its simplicity and efficiently, it is amongst the most commonly
used laboratory testing methods in geotechnical investigation in rocks. The test is
sometimes is used also for concrete.

In the Brazilian test, a disc shape specimen of the rock is loaded by two opposing normal
strip loads at the disc periphery. The specimen diameter shall preferably be not less than
NX core size (54 mm), or at least 10 times the average grain size. The thickness/diameter
ratio should be 0.5 to 0.6.The load is continuously increased at a constant rate until
failure of the sample occurs within few minutes. The loading rate depending on the
material and may from 10 to 50 kN/min.

The above equation uses the theory of elasticity for isotropic continious media and gives
the tensile stress perpendicular to the loaded diameter at the center of the disc at the time
of failure. If the sample is anisotropic and exhibits weakness planes (preferred orientation
of minerals or stress history), the specimens should be prepared in such a way that both
directions parallel as well as perpendicular to such planes can be tested (axis of the
cylinder parallel to the plane)

Fig:-specimen in point load equipment

5. STRENGTH AND DEFORMABILITY (IN UNIAXIAL

COMPRESSION)

In uniaxial tests, three averaging direct contact axial extensometers are used to measure
axial strain. Deformation is measured via a 50 mm gauge length. Radial strain is
measured with one circumferential extensometer connected to the roller chain assembly
wrapped around the specimen at mid-height. All extensometers are held around the
specimen by contact force produced by mounting springs. At the specimen ends, non-

20
 lubricated steel end caps are used. The axial load is applied to the top end through a
spherical seat in order to assure uniform load distribution. In five uniaxial compression
tests, strains were measured by strain gauges in addition to extensometer measurements.
Specimens were equipped with four triaxial strain gauge rosettes. The direction of the
rosettes was chosen so that one gauge measured axial strain, the second gauge lateral or
circumferential strain, and the third gauge measured the strain in 45 direction.

= F/A
Where, = Uniaxial Compressive strength (MPa), F = force applied at failure (N) and

A = Initial x-section area of the specimen transverse to direction of force (mm2)

The uniaxial compression tests were conducted under a radial strain rate control
corresponding to an elastic axial loading rate of about 0.75 MPa/s (Table 3-1). First the
specimen is driven to contact under programmed control. One loading ramp in the elastic
region is made to ensure a well-settled specimen before the actual loading ramp to
failure. In both of these loading steps, axial load control is used first to overcome the
radial extensometer hysteresis and, after that, the control is changed to radial strain rate to
ensure a controlled test in the post-peak region.

6. SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETER (IN TRIAXIAL

COMPRESSION):-
In triaxial compression tests, the specimen and the deformation measuring equipment are
inside the pressure vessel. Confining pressure is produced by confining oil. To prevent
the confining oil from penetrating into a specimen, the specimen is sealed with an EPDM
rubber jacket. Axial and radial deformations of the specimen are measured with axial and
radial strain extensometers. Deformations are measured on the jacket. Axial deformation
is measured with two separately read direct contact axial extensometer from a 50 mm

21
gauge length. Circumferential strain is measured with one circumferential extensometer
connected to a roller chain assembly wrapped around the jacketed specimen. All
extensometers are held around the specimen by a contact force produced by mounting
springs. At the specimen ends, non-lubricated steel end caps are used. The axial load is
applied through one spherical seat in order to ensure uniform load distribution.

Triaxial compression tests were conducted with radial strain rate control corresponding to
an elastic axial loading rate of about 0.75 MPa/s (Table 3-2). First, the specimen is driven
to contact under programmed control. The pressure vessel cannot be filled by computer
control. Therefore the programmed test control was set on hold mode for this period. To
settle the jacket and the extensometers on the jacket, a confining ramp to the test
confining pressure was executed. After the confining ramp, the pressure was again
increased to the test pressure. One loading ramp in the elastic region is made to ensure a
well-settled specimen before the actual loading ramp to failure. In both of these loading
steps, axial load control is used first to overcome the radial extensometer hysteresis and,
after that, the control is changed to radial strain rate to ensure a controlled test in the post-
peak region. All measured data were recorded at a frequency of 1 Hz. Their condition
was monitored before each test series using a reference non-jacketed aluminum specimen
at a confining pressure of 20 MPa using Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio as
reference values. Both values are determined as a secant from the axial stress level
corresponding 0.05% of radial strain to the stress level of 150 MPa.

22
 GEOPHYSICS
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Geophysics is the application of the principles of physics to the study of the Earth. The Earth is
comprised of materials that have different physical properties. Clay and dolerite, for example,
have different densities, acoustic velocities, elastic moduli, electrical conductivities, magnetic
susceptibilities, and dielectric constants. Geophysical instruments are designed to map spatial
variations in the physical properties of the Earth.

Exploration in geophysics is an applied branch of geophysics, which uses physical methods

(such as seismic, gravitational, magnetic, electrical and electromagnetic) at the surface of the
Earth to measure the physical properties of the subsurface, along with the anomalies in those
properties.

The science of geophysics applies the principles of physics to the study of the Earth. Geophysical
investigations of the interior of the Earth involve taking measurements at or near the Earths
surface that are influenced by the internal distribution of physical properties. Analysis of these
measurements can reveal how the physical properties of the Earths interior vary vertically and
laterally.

Geophysical methods are investigative techniques that directly or indirectly measure the
presence of resources or material behaviour concealed within the earths subsurface as a
result of geologic processes or human disturbances.
The methods describe the techniques used to collect subsurface information related to the
physical properties of earth material (Technos, 2004). The techniques are useful in the
following areas:
To detect subsurface contrasts, including mass-density relationships, ionic or electrical
potentials, magnetic susceptibilities, and elemental decay.
To identify the location of archeological resources and lead to their identification.
To investigate buried prehistoric and historic structures and artifacts.

23
1.2 24 CHANNEL SEISMOGRAPH

Principle of Operation

In seismic prospecting elastic waves are generated articially by explosive source i.e. dynamite
or by non explosive source like a hammer and this source inducts instantaneous deformation
which causes elastic deformation in the vicinity of the source point.

fig.1 seismograph

By virtue of elastic behaviour of the subsurface, the elastic wave propagates in all directions, as
spherical fronts. When the incident wave strikes an interface separating two media the energy is
partially refracted into lower medium and partially reected into the upper medium. At the
critical angle of incidence the refracted wave travels along the boundary and sends out secondary
waves to the surface which is picked up by the geophones which are spread out on. xed interval
on the surface which are connected to the 24 channel seismograph through a multi-core all

24
terrain cable. This signal is stored in the system. After analysing the data collected with standard
softwares a geoseismic section of the subsurface is obtained.

Conducting seismic test

Seismic Reflection:

The reflection method measures the time necessary for a sound impulse to travel from the
source, bounce off a geologic boundary, and return to the surface at a geophone. The reflection
from a geologic horizon is similar to an echo off a cliff face.

Seismic Reflection follows the law of mirror images angle of reflection from a surface is
equal to the angle of incidence. Shots are fired, in turn, at each of the geophone positions and
active geophones are progressively added ahead of the shots, and taken up from behind the shots,
in a roll-along fashion.

fig.2

Applications

A geoseismic section provides subsurface details like velocity and depth of different layers. The
seismograph can be used to nd true longitudinal wave velocity, true shear wave velocity,
interface dip, depth to bed rock, quality of bed rock, bed rock prole, Young's modulus of
elasticity, Poisson's ratio, rippability characteristics and mechanical properties of the material.
The same system can be used for Cross Hole Tomography to get the P wave scan of the
subsurface between two bore holes. The data collected is a great help in the design of heavy
machine foundations and detection of any loose/ cracked zones etc in the foundation.

25
1.3 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVIY EQUIPMENT

Principle of Operation

The Resistivity of a material is defined as the resistance(R) offered by the opposite faces of a
unit cube of face. The SI unit of Resistivity is Ohmmeter and the reciprocal of Resistivity is
Conductivity. In an electrical Resistivity survey, a direct current or a very low frequency
alternating current is passed into the ground through a pair of current electrodes and a resulting
potential drop is measured across a pair of potential electrodes.

fig.3Electrical resistivity equipment

The apparent Resistivity of subsurface material is then derived Usually Vertical Electrical
Sounding (VES) and Electrical Proling Methods are used as per requirement at site to
determine the electrical resistivity prole of the subsurface.

Conducting the test.

Resistivity Profiling and Soundings

Measurements of vertical changes in resistivity are called soundings and measurements of

horizontal changes in resistivity are called profiling. The technique requires at least three
individuals to move two current electrodes and two potential electrodes along a survey grid.
Measurement of ground resistivity involves passing an electrical current into the ground
using a pair of steel or copper electrodes and measuring the resulting potential difference
within the subsurface using a second pair of electrodes. These are normally placed between
the current electrodes. Typically, current (I) is induced between paired electrodes (C1, C2).
The potential difference (V) between paired voltmeter electrodes P1 and P2 is measured.
Apparent resistivity (a) is then calculated (based on I, V, electrode spacing).

26
 fig.4 arrangement in the field

Applications

The data obtained from the eld is analyzed using the standard softwares. The nal result will be
the layer thickness and resistivity of the layer. This helps us to determine depth to bed rock,
quality of bed rock, number of layers and their thicknesses, resistivity of layers, depth of water
table, quality of foundation material, correlation with physical and mechanical properties of
soil/rock, construction material survey.

1.4 GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

Principle of Operation

GPR uses the principle of the reection of electromagnetic waves to produce a two dimensional
cross section of subsurface. A transmitting antenna launches an electromagnetic wave into the
ground.

The wave spreads out and travels downward until it hits an object that has dierent electrical
properties from the surrounding ground. A continuous prole record is generated and displayed
as a two way travel time versus distance plot on a display monitor Depths of 3-10 meters are
commonly attained. More than 20 meters penetrations have been attained under ideal conditions
at some sites.

27
Conduct the electro-magnetic test

Two individuals are required to perform the technique, but the conductivity instrument can
be moved from station to station by one operator. Resistivity requires a crew of at least three
to move and place electrodes in the ground along a survey line.
Electromagnetic conductivity uses a non-surface contacting radio transmitter and receiver.
The transmitter induces an electromagnetic field in the earth, causing an electrical current to
flow.
The electrical current generates a secondary magnetic field that causes the flow of an
electrical current signal in the receiver. The receiver signal is measured for conductivity by a
voltmeter incorporated in the EM instrument. The voltmeter is calibrated to measure the soil
as having a homogeneous level of conductivity. It is assumed that buried cultural resources
cause anomalies in the homogenous level of conductivity detected along survey lines. Large
fluctuations in conductivity are indications of highly conductive subsurface materials, such as
buried metallic artifacts.

Applications:

GPR is used for shallow, high resolution investigations of the subsurface to locate cavities, voids
or tunnels, Changes in rock porosity, Metal objects (e.g. barrels, tanks, pipes etc.), Plastic
containers, Concrete or asphalt foundations, Oil, petroleum spills, Changes in geology,
Hazardous waste evaluation etc.

1.5 VIBRATION MONITORING SEISMOGRAPH

Principle of Operation

The damages produced by ground and air vibration needs to be monitored. Ground and air
vibrations are produced when an explosive is detonated in a blast hole or by some other reasons.
These vibrations radiate out from the source with decreasing intensity and reduce to below levels
of perception with distance. These are complicated seismic events consisting of three different
kinds of waves, namely: Compressional (or P) waves, Shear (or S or secondary) waves and
Rayleigh (or R) waves.

The structural damages produced by ground vibration are commonly correlated with the peak
particle velocity and safety criteria are suggested accordingly.

The Vibration Monitoring Seismograph is a microprocessor based instrument with in built

programmes for the computation of peak particle velocity, acceleration, displacement and vector
sum i.e. the resultant peak velocity. When disturbance is caused, the three component of ground
motion are picked up by the triaxial geophones. The vector sum of these three components is
then calculated. Each blast record print out contains the peak value, its time to occurrence and its

28
frequency for each of the geophone channels and the resultant peak particle velocity v/s time
graph. Blastmate-III can detect the vibrations from O. 127 min/sec to 254 mm/ sec.

Applications

Vibration Monitoring Seismograph can determine the vibration experienced by various structures
due to blasting, piling or other vibrating loads and to assess/ predict the magnitude of damage to
structures due to vibrations i.e. threshold, minor and major damage.

PROJECTS INVESTIGATED BY CSMRS

More than 80 projects have been investigated by these equipments. Few of them are listed below

Detection of shear zones, overburden estimation, quality of bed rock, its prole, quantity
assessment of construction material for Tehri Dam Project,UA; Kol Darn Project HP etc.
Tomography studies for machine foundation for L&T Project, Meghalaya.
Utility detection for several construction projects.
Rippability Study at NALCO Orissa, Purulia PSPP WB etc.
Blast Vibration measurement at Tehri Dam Project ,UA.
Resistivity Survey for the design of Earth Electrode site at Dadri, Uttar Pradesh.

1.6 REMOTE OPERATED VEHICLE (ROV)

Principle of operation

Remote Operated Vehicle (ROV) is a sub-sea inspection and observation system capable of
operating up to a depth of 300m. CSMRS has procured a new ROV model H 300 from M/s
Hytec Hydro Technologies, France in January 2005 in addition to existing Phantom HD-2 model
ROV manufactured by M/s Deep Ocean Engineering, USA. These are used for taking up
investigations of the dams, hydraulic structures and other civil engineering structures for their
safety evaluation.

Fig: Rov(H300)

29
Remote Operated Vehicle comprises of a submersible Vehicle, 3 Surface Control Unit, an
umbilical cable connecting the control console to the submersible vehicle, multimedia recording
system, a VCR and other accessories. The key specications of H 300 ROV are as follows :

Motion 3 axes ( Horizontal, Vertical,

Lateral) and rotating around axis
Speed 3 knots forward speed
Weight in air 77 kg
Bouyancy PVC foam 0.25 Kg/dm3
Horizontal 2 x 435 W thrusters,
Thrust Thrust 200N
Vertical 1 x 435 W thruster,
Thrust Thrust 100N
Lateral Thrust 1. DTR 100 Z model, colour, zoom,
manual or automatic focus,
tilt and rotation movements.
2. SIT, black & white camera for
low visibility inspection and
navigation.
3. Clear water device for use in
turbid conditions.

Lights 4 x 75 Watts halogen, variable

intensity.
Sonar Navigational aid and acoustic
scanning the front and the bottom.
Compass To know bearing of the equipment.
Locking Device To lock the bearing or depth.
Hydrophone To assess the safety of vehicle.
Storage CD, HDD and VHS tape.
Device

The Remote Operated vehicle along with the camera can be lowered into the reservoir water up
to a depth of 300meters. The vehicle is operated from a boat/ vessel standing still on the reservoir
and a video lm is made showing the dam surface and other features of the desired location
using ROV. The video lm can be seen and recorded online. The video lm showing the
condition of the dam surface underwater and other features can be studied subsequently to assess
the condition of the structure. Based on the extent of deterioration/ distress of concrete and its
location, the possible remedial measures can be taken up by the project authorities.

30
Applications:-

ROV can be used for several underwater applications like:

Underwater inspection and videography of the submerged structures; e.g. upstream face of
dam, intake, hashracks & guides of penstocks & river outlets, steel gates, concrete, masonry
etc.
To see underwater repair and remedial measures, undertaken.
To asses the quantity and quality of under watt, repair work done by the contractors.
Diver support, supervision and monitoring activities.
All underwater activities like Civil & Marine Engineering, Hydroelectric, Environmental,
Archeological, Port Authorities, Safety & Rescue Agencies, and Coastal Survey and so on.

REFRENCE-

Central soil and material research station, minister of water resource

Nptel lectures and presentation.

31
SOIL MECHANICS
Soil can be defined as the organic and inorganic materials on the surface of the earth that
provide the medium for plant growth. Soil develops slowly over time and is composed of many
different materials. Inorganic materials, or those materials that are not living, include weathered
rocks and minerals. Weathering is the mechanical or chemical process by which rocks are broken
down into smaller pieces. As rocks are broken down, they mix with organic materials, which are
those materials that originate from living organisms. For example, plants and animals die and
decompose, releasing nutrients back into the soil.

TESTS:-
1. MECHANICAL ANALYSIS TEST (IS: 2720 (PART 4)-1985)
INTRODUCTION

The mechanical analysis, also known as particle size analysis, is a method of separation of soils
into different fractions of particle size. It expresses quantitatively the proportions, by mass, of
various sizes of particles present in a soil. It is shown graphically on a particle size distribution
curve. The mechanical analysis is done in two stages: (1) Sedimentation analysis (for size
smaller than 75 microns), (2) Sieve analysis (for size greater than 75 microns).

SCOPE-

This test covers the method for the quantitative determination of grain size distribution in soils (
passing 4.75mm IS SIEVE ).

APPARATUS-

Balance :- to weigh up to 0.001g.

Sieves :- 2 mm,425 micron, 75 micron IS SIEVES and receiver.
Oven :- thermostatically controlled to maintain temperature of 105 to
110 degree centigrade.
Stop watch
Evaporating dish
Wash bottle :- containing distilled water
Filter papers
Mechanical shaker
Brushes :- sieve brush and a wire brush

32
 Sampling pipette:- 20 ml capacity
Glass sedimentation tube:- 1000ml capacity
Stirring device
Thermometer:- 0 to 500C , accurate to 0.50C.
Trays or bucket
Reagents:- the reagents shall be of analytical quality
o Hydrogen peroxide:- 20 volume solution
o Hydrochloric acid approximately N solution:- 89 ml of concentrated hydrochloric
acid (specific gravity 1.18) diluted with distilled water to make 1 litre of solution.
o Sodium hexametaphosphate solution:- dissolve 33 g of sodium hexametaphosphate
and 7g of sodium carbonate in distilled water to make 1 litre of solution.

PRETREATMENT OF SOIL:

The soil is taken in a beaker and first treated with a 20 volume hydrogen peroxide solution to
remove the organic matter, at the rate of about 100 ml of hydrogen peroxide for every 100 gm of
soil. The mixture is warmed to a temperature not exceeding 60 deg C . Hydrogen peroxide
causes oxidation of organic matter and gas is liberated. When no more gas comes out, the
mixture is boiled to decompose the remaining hydrogen peroxide. The mixture is then cooled.

In case of soil containing calcium compounds , hydrochloric acid shall be added at the rate of
100 ml for every 100 g of soil. The solution shall be stirred with a glass tube for a few minutes
and allowed to stand for 1 hour or for longer periods, if necessary. The treatment shall be
continued till the solution gives an acid reaction to litmus. The mixture after pretreatment with
acid shall be filtered and washed with distilled warm water until filtrate shows no acid reaction
to litmus.

PROCEDURE:

Take about 50 gm oven dried pretreated soil sample passing 4.75 IS SIEVE in a evaporating
dish.
Add 20 ml sodium hexametaphosphate solution for dispersion and transfer it to bottle by
adding 100 ml of distilled water.
Place the rubber bung on the open end of bottle and place bottle on mechanical shaker for
shaking the suspension for 15 minutes or for higher period in case of highly clayey soil.
Then transfer the suspension to 1000 ml suspension tube and dilute with distilled water to
exactly 1000 ml.
Note down the room temperature with the help of thermometer and stir the suspension
from stirring device and start the stop watch.

33
 For finding the clay and silt content in the suspension, take 20 ml sample with the help of
pipette after a period of time as given in Table 1 of IS:2720(part 4)-1985.
The pipette shall be lowered vertically into the soil suspension until the end is 1001 mm
below the surface of the suspension. It shall be lowered with great care some 15 seconds
before the sample is due to be taken.
Contents of pipette are delivered to weighing dish. Any suspension left on the inner walls of
the pipette shall be washed into weighing dish by distilled water.
Weighing dishes shall be placed in the oven maintained at 105 to 110 deg C and samples
evaporated to dryness. After cooling the weighing dishes shall be weighed and mass of clay
&silt is determined.
Soil suspension remaining in suspension tube should be washed thoroughly over the nest
of sieves specified above nested in order of their fineness with the finest sieve (75 IS
SIEVE) at the bottom.
Washing shall be continued until the water passing each sieve is substantially clean. The
fraction retained on each sieve should be emptied carefully without any loss of material in
separate trays.
Then fractions are oven dried at 105 to 110 deg C and each fraction weighed separately and
mass recorded.

Fig.1 Sample in the cylindrical measuring jar left for sedimentation

RESULT:

The results are presented in a graph of percent passing versus the sieve size. On the graph the
sieve size scale is logarithmic. To find the percent of aggregate passing through each sieve, first
find the percent retained in each sieve.

To do so, the following equation is used,

%Retained = 100%

34
Where WSieve is the weight of aggregate in the sieve and WTotal is the total weight of the aggregate.
The next step is to find the cumulative percent of aggregate retained in each sieve. To do so, add
up the total amount of aggregate that is retained in each sieve and the amount in the previous
sieves. The cumulative percent passing of the aggregate is found by subtracting the percent
retained from 100%.

%Cumulative Passing = 100% - %Cumulative Retained.

The values are then plotted on a graph with cumulative percent passing on the y axis and
logarithmic sieve size on the x axis

Importance of mechanical analysis:-

Gradation affects many properties of an aggregate. It affects bulk density, physical stability and
permeability. With careful selection of the gradation, it is possible to achieve high bulk density,
high physical stability, and low permeability. This is important because in pavement design, a
workable, stable mix with resistance to water is important. With an open gradation, the bulk
density is relatively low, due to the lack of fine particles, the physical stability is moderate, and
the permeability is quite high. With a rich gradation, the bulk density will also be low, the
physical stability is low, and the permeability is also low. The gradation can be affected to
achieve the desired properties for the particular engineering application.

Engineering application of mechanical analysis

Gradation is usually specified for each engineering application it is used for. For example,
foundations might only call for coarse aggregates, and therefore an open gradation is needed.
Gradation is a primary concern in pavement mix design. Concrete could call for both coarse and
fine particles and a dense graded aggregate would be needed. Asphalt design also calls for a
dense graded aggregate. Gradation also applies to subgrades in paving, which is the material that
a road is paved on. Gradation, in this case, depends on the type of road (i.e. highway, rural,
suburban) that is being paved.

2. COMPACTION TEST (IS: 2720 (PART 7)-1980)

INTRODUCTION

35
Compaction is the most common and important method of soil improvement. In the construction
of engineering structures such as highway embankments or earth dams, for example loose fill are
required to be compacted to increase the soil density and improve their strength characteristics.
Compaction generally leads to an increase in shear strength and helps improve the stability and
bearing capacity of soil. It also reduces compressibility and permeability of the soil.

SCOPE:

This standard lays down the method for the determination of the relation between the water
content and the dry density of the soil using light compaction. In this test, a 2.6kg rammer falling
through a height of 310mm is used.

APPARATUS:

Moulds It shall conform to IS: 10074-1982.

Balances one of capacity 10 kg sensitive to 1 g and other of capacity 200 g sensitive to
0.1g.
Oven- thermostatically controlled with interior of non-corroding material to maintain
temperature between 105 and 110 C.
Container- any suitable non- corrodible air tight container to determine the water content for
test conducted in the laboratory.
Steel Straight Edge a steel straightedge about 30 cm in length and having one bevelled
edge.
Sieve- 4.75 mm and 19 mm IS sieve conforming to requirement of IS: 460 (part 1).
Mixing Tools miscellaneous tools, such as tray or pan, spoon, trowel and spatula or suitable
mechanical device for thoroughly mixing the sample of soil with addition of water.

PROCEDURE:

A 5 kg sample of air dried soil passing the 4.75mm IS test sieve shall be taken. The sample
shall be mixed thoroughly with a suitable amount of water depending on the soil type.
The mould with base plate attached, shall be weighed to the nearest 1g.
The mould shall be placed on a solid base such as concrete floor or plinth and the moist soil
shall be compacted into the mould with the extension attached, in 3 layers of approx. equal
mass.
Each layer being given 25 blows from the 2.6 kg rammer dropped from height of 310mm
above the soil. The blows shall be distributed uniformly over the surface of each layer.
The amount of soil used shall be sufficient to fill the mould, leaving not more than 6 mm to
be struck off when extension is removed.
The extension shall be removed and the compacted soil shall be levelled off carefully to the
top of the mould by means of straightedge.
The mould and soil shall then weighed to 1 g.

36
 The compacted soil specimen shall be removed from the mould and placed on the mixing
tray. The water content of representative sample of the specimen shall be determined as in IS
: 2720 (part 2).
The remainder of the soil shall be broken up, rubbed through the 19 mm IS test sieve, and
then mixed with remainder of the original sample. Suitable increment of water shall be added
successively and mixed into the sample and the above procedure is repeated for each
increment of water added.
The total no. of determinations made shall be at least five, and the range of moisture contents
be such that the optimum moisture content, at which the maximum dry density occurs, is
within that range.
S.N Wt. of mould + Wt. of soil sample Bulk Moisture Dry density
sample (gm) (gm) density(y) content (gm/mm3)
3
(gm/mm ) w(%)
1 3833 1783 1.79 18.47 1.51

2 3851 1801 1.80 19.93 1.50

3 3904 1854 1.86 21.26 1.53

4 3839 1789 1.79 22.08 1.47

5 3807 1757 1.76 22.78 1.43

Fig.2 STANDARD PROCTOR TEST MACHINE FOR COMPACTION TEST

RESULT:

37
A graph is plotted between moisture content and the dry density of the soil. The value of
moisture at max dry density (M.D.D) is known as optimum moisture content (O.M.C).
Compaction is generally done at O.M.C as soil voids are minimum at this point and max density
soil can be achieved.

Importance of compaction test:

Compaction is a significant process of building if performed improperly, settlement of the soil

could occur and result in unnecessary maintenance costs or structure failure.

The principal reason for compacting soil is to reduce subsequent settlement under working
loads.
Compaction increases the shear strength of the soil.
Compaction reduces the voids ratio making it more difficult for water to flow through soil.
This is important if the soil is being used to retain water such a would be required for an
earth dam.
Compaction can prevent the build up of large water pressures that cause soil the liquefy
during earthquakes.

3. ATTERBERG LIMIT TEST (IS: 2720 (PART 5)-1985)

INTRODUCTION

The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the nature of a fine-grained soil. Depending on
the water content of the soil, it may appear in four states: solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid. In
each state the consistency and behavior of a soil is different and thus so are its engineering
properties. Thus, the boundary between each state can be defined based on a change in the soil's
behavior. These limits were created by Albert Atterberg, a Swedish chemist. These distinctions
in soil are used in picking the soils to build structures on top of. These tests are mainly used on
clayey or silty soils since these are the soils that expand and shrink due to moisture content.
Clays and silts chemically react with the water and thus change sizes and have varying shear
strengths. Thus these tests are used widely in the preliminary stages of building any structure to
insure that the soil will have the correct amount of shear strength and not too much change in
volume as it expands and shrinks with different moisture contents.

PLASTIC LIMIT TEST

The plastic limit (PL) is the water content where soil transitions plastic to brittle behavior.
A thread of soil is at its plastic limit when it begins to crumble when rolled to a diameter of 3
mm. To improve test result consistency, a 3 mm diameter rod is often used to gauge the
thickness of the thread when conducting the test.

LIQUID LIMIT TEST

38
The liquid limit (LL) is the water content at which a soil changes from liquid to plastic
behavior.

The original liquid limit test of Atterberg's involved mixing a pat of clay in a round-bottomed
porcelain bowl of 10-12cm diameter. A groove was cut through the pat of clay with a spatula,
and the bowl was then struck many times against the palm of one hand.

SCOPE:

This lab is performed to determine the plastic and liquid limits of a fine grained soil. The liquid
limit (LL) is arbitrarily defined as the water content, in percent, at which a pat of soil in a
standard cup and cut by a groove of standard dimensions will flow together at the base of the
groove for a distance of 13 mm (1/2 in.) when subjected to 25 shocks from the cup being
dropped 10 mm in a standard liquid limit apparatus operated at a rate of two shocks per second.
The plastic limit (PL) is the water content, in percent, at which a soil can no longer be deformed
by rolling into 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) diameter threads without crumbling.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Casagrandes Apparatus
Porcelain (evaporating) dish,
Grooving tool conform to (IS 9529-1979),
Eight moisture cans,
Balance
Glass plate
Spatula
Wash bottle filled with distilled water
Drying oven set at 105C.

Fig.3 CASAGRANDES APPARATUS

PROCEDURE

Liquid Limit:

39
 Take roughly 3/4 of the soil and place it into the porcelain dish. Assume that the soil was
previously passed though a 425 IS sieve, air-dried, and then pulverized. Thoroughly mix
the soil with a small amount of distilled water until it appears as a smooth uniform paste.
Weigh four of the empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the respective weights and
can numbers on the data sheet.
Adjust the liquid limit apparatus by checking the height of drop of the cup. The point on the
cup that comes in contact with the base should rise to a height of 10 mm. The block on the
end of the grooving tool is 10 mm high and should be used as a gage. Practice using the cup
and determine the correct rate to rotate the crank so that the cup drops approximately two
times per second.
Place a portion of the previously mixed soil into the cup of the liquid limit apparatus at the
point where the cup rests on the base. Squeeze the soil down to eliminate air pockets and
spread it into the cup to a depth of about 10 mm at its deepest point. The soil pat should form
an approximately horizontal surface.
Use the grooving tool carefully cut a clean straight groove down the center of the cup. The
tool should remain perpendicular to the surface of the cup as groove is being made. Use
extreme care to prevent sliding the soil relative to the surface of the cup.
Make sure that the base of the apparatus below the cup and the underside of the cup is clean
of soil. Turn the crank of the apparatus at a rate of approximately two drops per second and
count the number of drops, N, it takes to make the two halves of the soil pat come into
contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of 13 mm (1/2 in.) If the number of
drops exceeds 50, then go directly to step eight and do not record the number of drops,
otherwise, record the number of drops on the data sheet.
Take a sample, using the spatula, from edge to edge of the soil pat. The sample should
include the soil on both sides of where the groove came into contact. Place the soil into a
moisture can cover it. Immediately weigh the moisture can containing the soil, record its
mass, remove the lid, and place the can into the oven. Leave the moisture can in the oven for
at least16 hours. Place the soil remaining in the cup into the porcelain dish. Clean and dry
the cup on the apparatus and the grooving tool.
Remix the entire soil specimen in the porcelain dish. Add a small amount of distilled water
to increase the water content so that the number of drops required to fill the groove decrease.
Repeat steps six, seven, and eight for at least two additional trials producing successively
lower numbers of drops to close the groove. One of the trials shall be for a closure requiring
25 to 35 drops, one for closure between 20 and 30 drops, and one trial for a closure requiring
15 to 25 drops. Determine the water content from each trial by using the same method used
in the first laboratory. Remember to use the same balance for all weighing.
40
Plastic Limit:

Weigh the remaining empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the respective weights
and can numbers on the data sheet.
Take the remaining 1/4 of the original soil sample and add distilled water until the soil is at a
consistency where it can be rolled without sticking to the hands.
Form the soil into an ellipsoidal mass. Roll the mass between the palm or the fingers and the
glass plate. Use sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter by using
about 90 strokes per minute. (A stroke is one complete motion of the hand forward and back
to the starting position.) The thread shall be deformed so that its diameter reaches 3.2 mm
(1/8 in.), taking no more than two minutes.
When the diameter of the thread reaches the correct diameter, break the thread into several
pieces. Knead and reform the pieces into ellipsoidal masses and re-roll them. Continue this
alternate rolling, gathering together, kneading and re-rolling until the thread crumbles under
the pressure required for rolling and can no longer be rolled into a 3.2 mm diameter thread.
Gather the portions of the crumbled thread together and place the soil into a can, then cover
it. If the can does not contain at least 6 grams of soil, add soil to the can from the next trial
(See Step 6). Immediately weigh the moisture can containing the soil, record its mass,
remove the lid, and place the can into the oven. Leave the moisture can in the oven for at
least 16 hours.
Repeat steps three, four, and five at least two more times. Determine the water content from
each trial by using the same method used in the first laboratory. Remember to use the same
balance for all weighing.

RESULT
The value of liquid limit can be determined from graph plotted between moisture content and
strokes. The value of m.c. corresponding to 25 no of strokes is liquid limit of soil sample.

41
Plastic limit is the value of m.c at a point when crack begins to appear in the threads of soil
sample having 3mm dia.

Sample of 25% Fly Ash

S no. Strokes Dish no. Wet soil dish wt. Dry so17.31il Dish wt. m/c %
dish wt.18.37

1 16 P-13 36.92 30.76 17.31 45.79

2 22 P-14 33.54 28.79 18.37 44.62

3 28 P-16 39.88 34.45 22.03 43.71

4 34 P-18 34.50 29.45 17.66 42.83

5 PL P-20 27.95 25.85 17.27 24.47

4. SHRINKAGE LIMIT (IS: 2720 (PART 6)-1972)

INTRODUCTION

Shrinkage limit is the maximum water content expressed as percentage of oven dry weight at
which any further reduction in water content will not cause a decrease in volume of soil mass .It
is also defined as the smallest water content at which the soil is saturated.

SHRINKAGE INDEX

The numerical difference between the plastic limit and shrinkage limit is called shrinkage index.

42
SHRINKAGE RATIO

The ratio of a given volume change, expressed as a percentage of dry volume, to the
corresponding change in water content above the appropriate shrinkage limit, expressed as
percentage of the weight of oven dried soil.

VOLUMETRIC SHRINKAGE

The decrease in volume, expressed as a percentage of the soil mass when dried, of a soil mass
when the water content is reduced from a given percentage to the appropriate shrinkage limit.

SCOPE

Shrinkage factors, namely shrinkage limit, shrinkage ratio, shrinkage index, and volumetric
shrinkage of soils can be determined. Soils which undergo large This standard lays down the
method of test for obtaining data from which the volume changes with change in water content may
be troublesome. Volume changes may usually will not be equal.

A shrinkage limit test should be performed on a soil.

To obtain a quantitative indication of how much change in moisture can occur before any
appreciable volume changes occurs
To obtain an indication of change in volume.

The shrinkage limit is useful in areas where soils undergo large volume changes when going
through wet and dry cycles (as in case of earth dams)

APPARATUS:

Evaporating dish:- Two, porcelain, about 12 cm in diameter with a pour out and flat bottom,
the diameter of flat bottom, being not less than 55mm or an enamel iron tray with pour out.
Spatula:- Flexible, with the blade about 8cm long and 2cm wide.
Shrinkage dish:- circular, porcelain or non-corroding metal dish inert to mercury having a flat
bottom and 45 mm in diameter and 15 mm height internally. The internal corner between the
bottom and the vertical sides shall be rounded into a smooth concave curve.
Straight edge:- steel, about 15 cm in length
Glass cup: - 50 to 55 in diameter and 25 mm in height, the top rim of which is ground smooth
and level.

43
 Glass plates: - two, each 75*75mm, 3mm thick. One plate shall be of plain glass and the
other shall have three metal prongs inert to mercury.
Oven: - thermostatically controlled to maintain the temperature between 105 and 110C
with interior of non-corroding material.
Sieve:- 425-micron IS Sieves
Balances:- sensitive to 0.1g and 0.01g(m IS:1433-1965)
Mercury: - clean, sufficient to fill the glass cup to overflowing.
Desiccator: - with any desiccating agent other than sulphuric acid.

PROCEDURE:

Take a sample of mass about 100 g from a thoroughly mixed soil passing 425 IS SIEVE.
Take about 30 g of the soil sample in a large evaporating dish. Mix it with distilled water to
make a creamy paste which can be readily worked without entrapping the air bubbles.
Take the shrinkage dish. Clean it and determine its weight.
Fill mercury in the shrinkage dish. Remove the excess mercury by pressing the plain glass
plate over the top of the shrinkage dish. The plate should be flush with the top of the dish,
and no air should be entrapped.
Transfer the mercury of the shrinkage dish to a mercury weighing dish and determine the
weight of the mercury to an accuracy of 0.1 g. The volume of the shrinkage dish is equal to
the weight of mercury divided by the specific gravity of mercury.
Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of silicon grease or Vaseline. Place the
soil specimen in the center of the shrinkage dish, equal to about one-third the volume of the
shrinkage dish.
Tap the shrinkage dish on a firm, cushioned surface and allow the paste to flow to the edges.
Add more soil paste, approximately equal to the first portion and tap the shrinkage dish as
before, until the soil is thoroughly compacted.
Add more soil and continue the tapping till the shrinkage dish is completely filled, and excess
soil paste projects out about its edge.
Strike out the top surface of the paste with straight edge. Wipe off all soil adhering to the
outside of the shrinkage dish. Determine the weight of the wet soil (W).
Dry the soil in the in the shrinkage dish in air until the colour of the pat turns from dark to
light. Then dry the pat in the oven at 105 to 110 C to constant weight.
Cool the dry pat in a desiccater. Remove the dry pat from the desiccater after cooling, and
weigh the shrinkage dish with the dry pat to determine the dry weight of the soil (Ws).
Place a glass cup in a large evaporating dish and fill it with mercury. Remove the excess
mercury by pressing the glass plate with prongs firmly over the top of the cup. Wipe off any
mercury adhering to the outside of the cup.

44
 Take out the dry pat of the soil from the shrinkage dish and immerse it in the glass cup full of
mercury. Take care not to entrap air under the pat. Press the plate with prongs on the top of
the cup firmly.
Collect the mercury displaced by the dry pat in the evaporating dish, and transfer it to the
mercury weighing dish. Determine the mass of the mercury to an accuracy of 0.1 g. The
volume of the dry pat (V) is equal to the mass of the mercury divided by the specific gravity
of mercury.
Repeat the test at least three times.

Fig.5 Empty shrinkage dish fig.6 Shrinkage dish filled with soil sample.

Fig.7 The sample shrinks after oven drying

5. UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST OF SOIL

The primary purpose of this test is to determine the unconfined compressive strength, which is
then used to calculate the unconsolidated undrained shear strength of the clay under unconfined
conditions. According to the ASTM standard, the unconfined compressive strength (qu) is
defined as the compressive stress at which an unconfined cylindrical specimen of soil will fail in
a simple compression test. In addition, in this test method, the unconfined compressive strength
45
is taken as the maximum load attained per unit area, or the load per unit area at 15% axial strain,
whichever occurs first during the performance of a test.

Standard reference

ASTM D 2166 Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil

SIGNIFICANCE

For soils, the undrained shear strength (su) is necessary for the determination of the bearing
capacity of foundations, dams, etc. The undrained shear strength (su) of clays is commonly
determined from an unconfined compression test. The undrained shear strength (su) of a
cohesive soil is equal to one-half the unconfined compressive strength (qu) when the soil is
under the f = 0 condition (f = the angle of internal friction). The most critical condition for the
soil usually occurs immediately after construction, which represents undrained conditions, when
the undrained shear strength is basically equal to the cohesion (c). This is expressed as:

su = c = qu/2

Then, as time passes, the pore water in the soil slowly dissipates, and the intergranular stress
increases, so that the drained shear strength (s), given by s = c + stan , must be used. Where
s = intergranular pressure acting perpendicular to the shear plane; and s = (s u), s = total
pressure, and u = pore water pressure; c and are drained shear strength parameters.

EQUIPMENT:

Compression device
Load and deformation dial gauges
Sample trimming equipment
Balance
Moisture can

PROCEDURE:

1) Extrude the soil sample from Shelby tube sampler. Cut a soil specimen so that the ratio (L/d)
is approximately between 2 and 2.5. Where L and d are the length and diameter of soil
specimen, respectively.

46
2) Measure the exact diameter of the top of the specimen at three locations 120 apart, and then
make the same measurements on the bottom of the specimen. Average the measurements and
record the average as the diameter on the data sheet.
3) Measure the exact length of the specimen at three locations 120 apart, and then average the
measurements and record the average as the length on the data sheet.
4) Weigh the sample and record the mass on the data sheet.
5) Carefully place the specimen in the compression device and center it on the bottom plate.
Adjust the device so that the upper plate just makes contact with the specimen and set the
load and deformation dials to zero.

Fig.8 fig.9
6) Apply the load so that the device produces an axial strain at a rate of 0.5% to 2.0% per
minute, and then record the load and deformation dial readings on the data sheet at every 20
to 50 divisions on deformation the dial.
7) Keep applying the load until (1) the load (load dial) decreases on the specimen significantly,
(2) the load holds constant for at least four deformation dial readings, or (3) the deformation
is significantly past the 15% strain that was determined in step 5
8) Draw a sketch to depict the sample failure.
9) Remove the sample from the compression device and obtain a sample for water content
determination. Determine the water content as in Experiment.

ANALYSIS:

Convert the dial readings to the appropriate load and length units, and enter these values on
the data sheet in the deformation and total load columns.(Confirm that the conversion is done
correctly, particularly proving dial gage readings conversion into load)
47
 Compute the sample cross-sectional area A0 = *(d2)/4
Calculate the deformation (L) corresponding to 15% strain (e).
Strain (e) = L / L0
Where L0 = Original specimen length (as measured in step 3).
Computed the corrected area, A = A0 / (1-e)
Using A, compute the specimen stress, sc = P/A
Be careful with unit conversions and use constant units).
Compute the water content, w%.
Plot the stress versus strain. Show qu as the peak stress (or at 15% strain) of the test. Be sure
that the strain is plotted on the abscissa. (See fig)

Fig.13

Calculate shear strength su as follows, su = c (or cohesion) = qu/2

Reference

48
 GEOSYNTHETICS

1. INTRODUCTION

Geosynthetics are materials made from various types of polymers , used with geological
materials like soil, rock etc. to enhance, improve or modify the behaviour of various civil
engineering works.

Geosynthetics are available in a wide range of forms and materials, each to suit a slightly
different use. These products have a wide range of applications and are currently used in
many geotechnical, transportation, hydraulic, and private development applications
including roads, airfields, embankments ,retaining structures, reservoirs, canals, dams,
erosion control, sediment control, landfillliners, landfill covers, mining, and agriculture.

The reasons for explosion of this new product are numerous and include the following:

They can be installed rapidly.

They generally replace raw material resources.
They are generally cost competitive against the natural soils that they replace.
They generally replace difficult designs using natural materials.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF GEOSYNTHETICS:-

1. Geotextiles

Woven geotextile
Non-woven geotextile

2. Geogrid

Uniaxial geogrid
Biaxial Geogrid

3. Geonets

4. Geomembranes
Geosynthetic clay liners
Plastic sheets

49
 Fig.1 different type of geosynthetics

1. GEOTEXTILES

' Geotextiles are permeable fabrics Which, when used in association with soil, have the ability to
separate, filter, reinforce, protect, or drain. Typically made from polypropylene or polyester,
geotextile fabrics in three basic forms: woven (resembling mail bag sacking), needle punched
(resembling felt), or heat bonded (resembling ironed felt).

Woven geotextile

Uniform and regular interweaving of threads or yarns in two directions.

Regular Visible Construction Pattern.
50
 Function: Soil Separation, Reinforcement, Load distribution, Filtration, Drainage
Have high tensile strength and relatively low strain

Non- Woven geotextile

Formed by heat bonding, resin bonding or needle punching.

No visible thread pattern.
Function: Soil separation, stabilization, load distribution, but not used for reinforcement.
They have high strain and high strain characteristics.

2. GEOGRID

A Geogrid is geosynthetic material used to reinforce soils and similar materials. Geogrids are
commonly used to reinforce retaining walls, as well as sub bases or subsoil's below roads or
structures. Soils pull apart under tension. Compared to soil, geogrids are strong in tension.

They have open grid like configuration i.e. they have large aperture between individual ribs.
They have Low strain and stretch about 2% under load.
Strength is more that other common geotextiles.
Function: Used exclusively for reinforcement

Uniaxial geogrids are those geogrids which are stretched in one direction.

51
Biaxial geogrids are the type of geogrids which are stretched in two directions.

Uses of geogrid for soil reinforcemrent

3. GEONETS
A geonet is a geosynthetic material consisting of integrally connected parallel sets of ribs
overlying similar sets at various angles for in-plane drainage of liquids or gases.

Geonets are made of stacked, criss-crossing polymer strands that provide in-plane drainage.
Two layers of strands are called bi-planar.

Three layers are called tri-planar.

4. GEOMEMBRANE

A Geomembrane is very low permeability synthetic membrane barrier used to control fluid
or gas migration in a structure, or system.

Impermeable and usually non-woven,

Used as a fluid barrier in designing drainage systems, etc.
Used as damp proof course in floors, roofs etc.

52
Geosynthetic clay liner
It is a woven fabric-like material, combination of geotextiles and geomembranes used as a
barrier for liquid or solid waste containment. primarily used for the lining of landfills.
GCLs are manufactured by sandwiching the bentonite within or layering it on geotextiles and
geomembranes , bonding the layers with needling, stitching or chemical adhesives. Primarily
used for the lining of landfills.

Plastic sheets (geocells)

Geocells are 3-dimensional honeycomb-like structures, made of strips of polymer sheet.
Similar to geotextiles or geogrids but have depth.
provides both a physical containment of a depth of soil and a transfer of load through
Allow water through it.
Used in slopes with soft sub-grade
Used in erosion control in channels

FUNCTION OF GEOSYNTHETIC MATERIALS:

Geosynthetics serve the following five principle functions:
Separation - The geosynthetit acts to separate two layers of soil that have different particle
size distributions. For example, geotextiles are used to prevent road base materials from
penetrating into'vsoft underlying soft subgrade soils, thus maintaining design thickness and

53
 roadway integrity. Separators also help to prevent fine-grained subgrade soils from being
pumped into permeable granular road bases

Filtration - The geosynthetic acts similar to a sand. filter by allowing water to move through
the soil while r.etaining'al| upstream soil particles. For example, geotextiles are used to
prevent soils from 'migrating into drainage aggregate or pipes while maintaining flow
through the system. Geotextiles are also used below rip rap and other armour materials in
coastal and river bank protection systems to prevent soil erosion.

Drainage - The geosynthetic acts as a drain to carry fluidflows through less permeable soils.
For example, geotextiles are used to dissipate pore water pressures at the base of roadway
embankments. For higher flows, geocomposite drains have been developed. These materials
have been used as pavement edge drains, slope interceptor drains, and abutment and retaining
wall drains. Prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) have been used to accelerate consolidation
of soft cohesive foundation Soils below embankments and preload fills.

Reinforcement- The geosynthetic acts as a reinforcement element within a soil mass or in

combination with the soil to produce a composite that has improved strength and deformation
properties over the unreinforced soil. For example, geogrids are used to add tensile strength
to a soil mass in order to create vertical or nearvertical changes in grade (reinforced soil
walls). Reinforcement enables embankments to be constructed over very soft foundations
and to build embankment side slopes at steeper angles than would be possible with
unreinforced soil. Geosynthetics (usually geogrids) have also been used to bridge over
voidsthat may develop below load bearing granular layers (roads and railways) or below
cover systems in landfill applications.

Table : geosynthetics and its properties

Types Of Separation Re-inforcement Filtration Drainage Containment

Geosynthetics

Geotextile YES YES YES YES

Geogrid YES

Geonet YES

Geomembrane YES

54
G. Clay Liners YES

Geocells YES YES

Geofoam YES

Geocomposites YES YES YES YES YES

PROPERTIES OF GEOSYNTHETICS:

Basic Physical Properties Mechanical Properties

Mass per unit area Tensile strength
Thickness Survivability Characteristics
Apparent Opening size Creep
Puncture test
CBR push through test
Diaphragm bursting strength test
Cone drop test
Durability
Abrasion resistance
Ultra-violet resistance (ASTM D 4355)
Temperature Stability (ASTM D 4594)
Chemical Stability

LABORATORY TEST ON GEOSYNTHETICS:

1. APPARENT OPENING SIZE TEST (AOS):

Reference: ASTM D 4751-04

Apparent Opening size for a geotextile is a property that indicates the approximate largest
particle that would effectively pass through the geotextile.

Scope:
This test 'method covers the determination of the apparent opening size (AOS) of a geotextile
by sieving glass beads through a geotextile.

55
Apparatus used:

Fig: mechanical shaker Fig: sieve

Mechanical Sieve Shaker:

A mechanical sieve shaker, which imparts lateral and vertical motion to the sieve, causing
the particles thereon to bounce and turn so as to present different orientations to the sieving
surface should be used. The sieve shaker should be a constant frequency device.

Procedure:
The geotextile is xed inthe sieve such that it. is without wrinkles or bulges. The
geoteXtile should not be stretched or deformed such that it changes or distorts the
openings in the fabric. A hoop may be used or the geotextile may be wedged between
two sieve frames.
Starting with smallest diameter glass beads (0.075mm) that will be tested. Place 100g
glass beads on the centre of the geotextile.
The cover and pan on the sieve frame are placed and fixed in the shaker and shaken for
10min duration.
The weights of the glass beads passed through the specimen are recorded. _
The trials are repeated with higher bead size until less than or equal to 5% of the initial
weight (100g) of the beads is obtained.
Several trials were performed such that the percent passing decreases from a value
greater than 5% to a value less than or equal to 5%.

Observations: Table Result of AOS test on Non-Woven Geotextile

56
S/N Size of beads Weight of Weight % weight Remarkd
(mm) glass beads passout (g) passed out
taken (g)
1 0.075 100 12.16 12.16 -
2 0.15 100 4.09 4.09 AOS(O95)

Significance of the Test:

The use of geotextile as a medium to retain soil particles necessitates compatibility between
it and the adjacentsoil. This test indicates thelargest opening size in a geotextile available for
the soil to pass through.

2. DYNAMIC CONE DROP TEST

Purpose : To measure the resistance of geotextile
Significance : The penetration value is .indicative of damage likely to be caused by dropping
sharp stones on to the geotextiles. The Smaller the hole, the greater the resistance of
geosynthetic / geotextile to damage. When used in combination with other direct tensile test
results, It provndes a convenient means of qualitative comparison.

Apparatus : Clamping ring (inter Dia: 150 +/- 2 mm)

Supporting frame
Safety screen
Stainless steel Cone : Weight : 1000 +/-5 g
Measuring cone . : Weight : 600 +/-5 3

Procedure:
The Specimen of minimum dia 200mm is clamped between two rings. Clamp should
prevent pre-tensioning & slippage.
The Safety screen is placed in position.
The Stainless steel cone is released vertically to fall from height of 500mm onto the
centre of specimen.
The degree of damaged is measured by insertion of measuring cone into the hole.
After waiting for 10 sec, the diameter of the hole is measured.

57
Calculation:
The mean hole diameter is calculated in millimetres to an accuracy of 0.1 mm.

Observations:
Table Result of Cone Drop test on Non-Woven Geotextile

Sample no. Penetration (mm) Average (mm)

1 5
2 7 6
3 6

3. THlCKNESS GAUGE TEST

Reference :ASTM D5199-199

Purpose : To measure the nominal thickness of geotextiles or geomembrane.

Significance : Thickness is the basic physical properties used to control the quality of many
geosynthetics. Thickness values are required in calculation of some geotextile and
geomembrane parameters like Permeability coefficients, tensile stress (index).

Test Method : The nominal thickness of geosynthetics is the perpendicular distance that a
movable plane is displaced from parallel surface. by the geotextile or geomembrane material
while under a specified pressure (2kPa for geotextiles and 20kPa for geomembrane for 5s.

Apparatus : (a) Thickness testing Instrument

(b) Cutting Dies
(c) Weights

58
Procedure:
Remove the specimens so that the min dimension is greater than 1.75 times the die of
pressure foot as per ISO (75 mm dia as per ASTM)
Zero the measuring scale-or record the base reading with the force applied to the pressure
foot on the base (no test specimen present)
Lift the pressure foot, centre the test specimen on the base under the pressure foot and
brought in contact with the specimen.
56.4 mm dia pressure foot shall be used for geotextiles, geocomposite drainage materials
and geonets. 6.35mm dia pressure foot shall be used for geomembrane.
Gradually increase the pressure to 2 kPa and 20 kPa for geotextiles and geomembrane
respectively.
After the full force has been applied to pressure foot for 5sec (30 sec as per ISO) against
the specimen, record the thickness value to the nearest 0.02 mm.

Calculation:
From the measured values, the average thickness is calculated

Typical range of thickness

GEOTEXTILE TYPE THICKNESS

Nonwoven geotextiles 1.0-5.0
Woven geotextiles 0.6-2.0

Observation Table:
Table - Result thickness gauge test on Non-Woven Geotextile

S. NO INITIAL (mm) FINAL (mm) DIFFERENCE(mm) AVERAGE (mm)

1
2
3
4
5

59
TESTS ON CEMENT
Cement is the major raw material used in any construction. Therefore quality of cement must be
checked before using it as a building material. Following tests can be performed on cement in
laboratory to check its quality.

1. Consistency Test
2. Initial Setting Time
3. Final Setting Time
4. Soundness Test
5. Fineness Test
6. Specific Gravity Test
7. Compressive Strength Test

CONSISTENCY TEST:

This is a test to estimate the quantity of mixing water to form a paste of normal consistency
defined as that percentage water requirement of the cement paste, the viscosity of which will be
such that the Vicats plunger penetrates up to a point 5 to 7 mm from the bottom of the Vicats
mould.

60
The water requirement for various tests of cement depends on the normal consistency of the
cement, which itself depends upon the compound composition and fineness of the

Test Procedure:

Take 300 g of cement is mixed with 28 per cent water.

The paste is filled in the mould of Vicats apparatus and the surface of the filled paste is
smoothed and levelled.
A square needle 10 mm x 10 mm attached to the plunger is then lowered gently over the
cement paste surface and is released quickly. The plunger pierces the cement paste.
The reading on the attached scale is recorded. When the reading is 5-7 mm from the
bottom of the mould, the amount of water added is considered to be the correct
percentage of water for normal consistency.
RESULT:

SAMPLE- 300gm (OPC-43)

SAMPLE WATER(%) FROM BOTTOM(mm)

NO.
1- 28 16
2- 30 13
3- 32 4
4- 31 5.5

INITIAL AND FINAL SETTING TIME:

When water is added to cement, the resulting paste starts to stiffen and gain strength and lose the
consistency simultaneously. The term setting implies solidification of the plastic cement paste.

Initial and final setting times may be regarded as the two stiffening states of the cement. The
beginning of solidification, called the initial set, marks the point in time when the paste has
become unworkable. The time taken to solidify completely marks the final set, which should not

61
be too long in order to resume construction activity within a reasonable time after the placement
of concrete.

The initial setting time may be defined as the time taken by the paste to stiffen to such an extent
that the Vicats needle is not permitted to move down through the paste to within 5 0.5 mm
measured from the bottom of the mould. The final setting time is the time after which the paste
becomes so hard that the angular attachment to the needle, under standard weight, fails to leave
any mark on the hardened concrete. Initial and final setting times are the rheological properties
of cement.

Test procedure:

A neat cement paste is prepared by mixing cement with 0.85 times the water required to
give a paste of standard consistency.
The stop watch is started at the instant water is added to the cement
The mould resting on a nonporous plate is filled completely with cement paste and the
surface of filled paste is levelled smooth with the top of the mould.
The test is conducted at room temperature of 27 2C.
The mould with the cement paste is placed in the Vicats apparatus and the needle is
lowered gently in contact with the test block and is then quickly released.
The needle thus penetrates the test block and the reading on the Vicats apparatus
graduated scale is recorded.
The procedure is repeated until the needle fails to pierce the block by about 5 mm to
7mm measured from the bottom of the mould. The stop watch is pushed off and the time
is recorded which gives the initial setting time.
The cement is considered to be finally set when upon applying the needle gently to the
surface of test block, the needle makes an impression, but the attachment fails to do so.

RESULT:

Initial setting time- 45min

Final setting time- 600min

SOUNDNESS TEST:

It is essential that the cement concrete does not undergo large change in volume after setting.
This is ensured by limiting the quantities of free lime and magnesia which slake slowly causing

62
change in volume of cement (known as unsound). Soundness of cement may be tested by
LeChatelier method or by autoclave method.

It is a very important test to assure the quality of cement since an unsound cement produces
cracks, distortion and disintegration, ultimately leading to failure.

Test Procedure:

The LeChatelier apparatus is used.

The mould is placed on a glass sheet and is filled with neat cement paste formed by
gauging 100gm cement with 0.78 times the water required to give a paste of standard
consistency.
The mould is covered with a glass sheet and a small weight is placed on the covering
glass sheet.
The mould is then submerged in the water at temperature of 27-32C. After 24 hours,
the mould is taken out and the distance separating the indicator points is measured.
The mould is again submerged in water. The water is now boiled for 3 hours. The mould
is removed from water and is cooled down. The distance between the indicator points is
measured again.
The difference between the two measurements represents the unsoundness of cement.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST:

Specific gravity of the cement is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the cement to that of
an equal volume of water at the same condition of temperature. The specific gravity of Portland
cement is generally about (3.12-3.19). Cement will react with water, so to prevent this reaction
kerosene should be used instead of water to be mixed with cement..

Materials:
Ordinary Portland cement, Water, Kerosene.

Apparatus:
Pycnometer, Weighing balance, Scoop.

Procedure:
Weight empty Pycnometer (W1).
63
 Weight the pycnometer partially filled by cement (W2).
Fill remain part of the pycnometer by the kerosene, shake the pycnometer and then
weight it (W3).
Empty the pycnometer then fill it by kerosene and weight it (W4).
Weight the pycnometer filled by water (W5).

Calculation:

Specific gravity of the kerosene (Gk) =

Specific gravity of the cement (Gc) =
()()

2
Data Sheet

Group No. W1 W2 W3 W4 W5
1- (PSC) 30.706 59.141 92.302 71.542 81.507
2- (PSC) 30.214 54.015 88.535 71.169 81.121
3- (PPC) 29.806 56.189 90.281 71.118 81.166
4- (PPC) 30.596 56.335 90.230 71.620 81.602

FINENESS TEST

Fineness of cement is measured by sieving it on standard sieve. The proportion of cement of

which the grain sizes are larger than the specified mesh size is thus determined.

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

NAME CAPACITY / RANGE / ACCURACY / LEAST

SIZE COUNT

Sieve 90 micron mesh

Balance 10g (max.) 10 mg

64
PROCEDURE

Agitate the sample of cement to be tested by shaking for 2 minutes in a stoppered jar to
disperse agglomerates. Stir the resulting powder gently using a clean dry rod in order to
distribute the fines throughout the cement.
Attach a pan under the sieve to collect the cement passing the sieve.
Weigh approximately 10 g of cement to the nearest 0.01 g and place it on the sieve. Fit
the lid over the sieve.
Agitate the sieve by swirling, planetary and linear movement until no more fine material
passes through it.
Remove and weigh the residue. Express its mass as a percentage (R1) of the quantity first
placed in the sieve.
Repeat the steps 3 to 5 with a fresh sample to obtain R2.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH:

Compressive strength is the basic data required for mix design. By this test, the quality and the
quantity of concrete can be controlled and the degree of adulteration can be checked.

65
Test Procedure:

The test specimens are 70.6 mm cubes having face area of about 5000 sq. mm.
Temperature of water and test room should be 27 2C.
A mixture of cement and standard sand in the proportion 1:3 by weight is mixed dry with
a trowel for one minute and then with water until the mixture is of uniform colour.
Three specimen cubes are prepared. The material for each cube is mixed separately.
The quantities of cement, standard sand and water are 185 g, 555 g and (P/4) + 3.5,
respectively where P = percentage of water required to produce a paste of standard
consistency.
The mould is filled completely with the cement paste and is placed on the vibration table.
Vibrations are imparted for about 2 minutes. The cubes are then removed from the
moulds and submerged in clean fresh water and are taken out just prior to testing in a
compression testing machine. Compressive strength is taken to be the average of the
results of the three cubes. The load is applied starting from zero at a rate of 35 N/sq
mm/minute. The compressive strength is calculated from the crushing load divided by the
average area over which the load is applied.The result is expressed in N/mm2.

TESTS ON AGGREGATE
Aggregate plays an important role in pavement construction. Aggregates influence, to a great
extent, the load transfer capability of pavements. Hence it is essential that they should be

66
thoroughly tested before using for construction. Not only that aggregates should be strong and
durable, they should also possess proper shape and size to make the pavement act monolithically.
Aggregates are tested for strength, toughness, hardness, shape, and water absorption.

In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following
tests are carried out:

1. Crushing Test
2. Abrasion Test
3. Impact Test
4. Soundness Test
5. Shape Test
6. Specific Gravity And Water Absorption Test
7. Bitumen Adhesion Test

CRUSHING TEST:

Fig-1 Crushing Test Setup

One of the model in which pavement material can fail is by crushing under compressive stress. A
test is standardized by IS: 2386 part-IV and used to determine the crushing strength of
aggregates. The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing
under gradually applied crushing load.

The test consists of subjecting the specimen of aggregate in standard mould to a compression test
under standard load conditions (See Fig-1). Dry aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieves and
retained 10 mm sieves are filled in a cylindrical measure of 11.5 mm diameter and 18 cm height
in three layers. Each layer is tamped 25 times with at standard tamping rod. The test sample is

67
weighed and placed in the test cylinder in three layers each layer being tamped again. The
specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied at the rate of 4 tonnes
per minute. Then crushed aggregates are then sieved through 2.36 mm sieve and weight of
passing material (W2) is expressed as percentage of the weight of the total sample (W1) which is
the aggregate crushing value.

Aggregate crushing value = (W1/W2)*100

A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above 35 would normally
be regarded as weak aggregates.

ABRASION TEST

Fig-2 Los Angeles Abrasion Test Setup

Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether they
are suitable for different pavement construction works. Los Angeles abrasion test is a preferred
one for carrying out the hardness property and has been standardized in India (IS: 2386 part-
IV).

The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative rubbing
action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge.

Los Angeles machine consists of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and length 520 mm
mounted on horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated (see Fig-2). An abrasive charge consisting of
cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and weight 340-445 g is placed in the cylinder along
with the aggregates. The number of the abrasive spheres varies according to the grading of the
sample. The quantity of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and usually ranges

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from 5-10 kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a total of 500
-1000 revolutions depending upon the gradation of aggregates.

After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and passed fraction is
expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value is called Los Angeles abrasion
value.

A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed for WBM base course in Indian conditions. For
bituminous concrete, a maximum value of 35 percent is specified.

IMPACT TEST

Fig-3

The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates.
Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel cup
of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is attached to a metal base of impact testing
machine. The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 numbers of blows
(see Fig-3). Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 cm
by vertical guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15 numbers of blows. The crushed
aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve. And the impact value is measured as
percentage of aggregates passing sieve (W2) to the total weight of the sample (W1).

Aggregate impact value = (W1/W2)*100

Aggregates to be used for wearing course, the impact value shouldnt exceed 30 percent. For
bituminous macadam the maximum permissible value is 35 percent. For Water bound
macadam base courses the maximum permissible value defined by IRC is 40 percent.

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SOUNDNESS TEST

Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action, by

conducting accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates subjected to freezing and
thawing is likely to disintegrate prematurely. To ascertain the durability of such aggregates, they
are subjected to an accelerated soundness test as specified in IS: 2386 part-V.

Aggregates of specified size are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting in a saturated solution of
either sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 18 hours and then dried in oven at 105 to
1100C to a constant weight. After five cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by
sieving out all undersized particles and weighing.

The loss in weight should not exceed 12 percent when tested with sodium sulphate and 18
percent with magnesium sulphate solution.

SHAPE TESTS

Fig-4 Flakiness Gauge

The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of flaky and elongated
particles in it. Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are detrimental to higher workability and
stability of mixes.

The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of aggregate particles whose least
dimension is less than 0.6 times their mean size. Flakiness gauge (see Fig-4) is used for this test.
Test procedure had been standardized in India (IS: 2386 part-I).

The elongation index of an aggregate is defined as the percentage by weight of particles whose
greatest dimension (length) is 1.8 times their mean dimension. This test is applicable to
aggregates larger than 6.3 mm. Elongation gauge (see Fig-5) is used for this test. This test is also
specified in (IS: 2386 Part-I). However there are no recognized limits for the elongation index.

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Fig-5 Elongation Gauge

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION

The specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates are important properties that are required
for the design of concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific gravity of a solid is the ratio of its
mass to that of an equal volume of distilled water at a specified temperature. Because the
aggregates may contain water-permeable voids, so two measures of specific gravity of
aggregates are used:

1. Apparent specific gravity and

2. Bulk specific gravity.
Apparent Specific Gravity, Gapp, is computed on the basis of the net volume of aggregates i.e
the volume excluding water-permeable voids. Thus

Gapp = [(MD/VN)]/W

Where,

MD is the dry mass of the aggregate,

VN is the net volume of the aggregates excluding the volume of the absorbed matter,

W is the density of water.

Bulk Specific Gravity, Gbulk, is computed on the basis of the total volume of aggregates
including water permeable voids. Thus

Gbulk = [(MD/VB)]/W

Where,

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VB is the total volume of the aggregates including the volume of absorbed water.

Water Absorption: The difference between the apparent and bulk specific gravities is nothing
but the water permeable voids of the aggregates. We can measure the volume of such voids by
weighing the aggregates dry and in a saturated surface dry condition, with all permeable voids
filled with water. The difference of the above two is MW.

MW is the weight of dry aggregates minus weight of aggregates saturated surface dry condition.
Thus,

Water Absorption = (MW/MD)*100

The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from about 2.5 to
2.9. Water absorption values ranges from 0.1 to about 2.0 percent for aggregates normally used
in road surfacing.

BITUMEN ADHESION TEST

Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they are dry and free from
dust. In the absence of water there is practically no adhesion problem of bituminous construction.

Adhesion problem occurs when the aggregate is wet and cold. This problem can be dealt with by
removing moisture from the aggregate by drying and increasing the mixing temperature. Further,
the presence of water causes stripping of binder from the coated aggregates. This problem occurs
when bitumen mixture is permeable to water.

Several laboratory tests are conducted to arbitrarily determine the adhesion of bitumen binder to
an aggregate in the presence of water. Static immersion test is one specified by IRC and is quite
simple. The principle of the test is by immersing aggregate fully coated with binder in water
maintained at 400C temperature for 24 hours.

IRC has specified maximum stripping value of aggregates should not exceed 5%.

LIST OF IS CODES RELATED TO AGGREGATE TESTING

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Tests for Aggregates with IS codes

Property of Aggregate Type of Test Test Method

Crushing strength Crushing test IS : 2386 (part 4)

Hardness Los Angeles abrasion test IS : 2386 (Part 5)

Toughness Aggregate impact test IS : 2386 (Part 4)

Durability Soundness test IS : 2386 (Part 5)

Shape factors Shape test IS : 2386 (Part 1)

Specific gravity test and

Specific gravity and porosity IS : 2386 (Part 3)
water absorption test

Adhesion to bitumen Stripping value of aggregate IS : 6241-197

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