How To Grow Sugar Crystals - Make

Your Own Rock Candy

From Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.,
Your Guide to Chemistry.
FREE Newsletter. Sign Up Now!
It's easy to grow your own sugar crystals! Sugar crystals are also known as rock candy
since the crystallized sucrose (table sugar) resembles rock crystals and because you can
eat your finished product. You can grow beautiful clear sugar crystals with sugar and
water or you can add food coloring to get colored crystals. It's simple, safe, and fun.
Boiling water is required to dissolve the sugar, so adult supervision is recommended for
this project.
Difficulty: Easy
Time Required: a few days to a week

Here's How:

1. Gather your materials.

2. You may wish to grow a seed crystal, a small crystal to weight your string and
provide a surface for larger crystals to grow onto. A seed crystal is not necessary
as long as you are using a rough string or yarn.
3. Tie the string to a pencil or butter knife. If you have made a seed crystal, tie it to
the bottom of the string. Set the pencil or knife across the top of the glass jar and
make sure that the string will hang into the jar without touching its sides or
bottom. However, you want the string to hang nearly to the bottom. Adjust the
length of the string, if necessary.
4. Boil the water. If you boil your water in the microwave, be very careful removing
it to avoid getting splashed!

1. Stir in the sugar, a teaspoonful at a time. Keep adding sugar until it starts to
accumulate at the bottom of the container and won't dissolve even with more
stirring. This means your sugar solution is saturated. If you don't use a saturated
solution, then your crystals won't grow quickly. On the other hand, if you add too
much sugar, new crystals will grow on the undissolved sugar and not on your
string.
2. If you want colored crystals, stir in a few drops of food coloring.
3. Pour your solution into the clear glass jar. If you have undissolved sugar at the
bottom of your container, avoid getting it in the jar.
4. Place the pencil over the jar and allow the string to dangle into the liquid.
5. Set the jar somewhere where it can remain undisturbed. If you like, you can set a
coffee filter or paper towel over the jar to prevent dust from falling into the jar.
6. Check on your crystals after a day. You should be able to see the beginnings of
crystal growth on the string or seed crytal.
 7. Let the crystals grow until they have reached the desired size or have stopped
growing. At this point, you can pull out the string and allow the crystal to dry.
You can eat them or keep them. Have fun!

Tips:

1. Crystals will form on a cotton or wool string or yarn, but not on a nylon line. If
you use a nylon line, tie a seed crystal to it to stimulate crystal growth.
2. If you are making the crystals to eat, please don't use a fishing weight to hold your
string down. The lead from the weight will end up in the water -- it's toxic. Paper
clips are a better choice, but still not great.

What You Need:

• 1 cup water
• 3 cups table sugar (sucrose)
• clean glass jar
• pencil or butter knife
• string
• pan or bowl for boiling water and making solution
• spoon or stirring rod

Make Ice Cream in a Baggie

From Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.,
Your Guide to Chemistry.
FREE Newsletter. Sign Up Now!

Freezing Point Depression and Colligative Properties

Materials

• 1/2 cup milk

• 1/2 cup whipping cream (heavy cream)
• 1/4 cup sugar
• 1/4 teaspoon vanilla or vanilla flavoring (vanillin)
• 1/2 to 3/4 cup sodium chloride (NaCl) as table salt or rock salt
• 2 cups ice
• 1-quart ZiplocTM bag
• 1-gallon ZiplocTM bag
• themometer
• measuring cups and spoons
• cups and spoons for eating your treat!

Procedure
 1. Add 1/4 cup sugar, 1/2 cup milk, 1/2 cup whipping cream, and 1/4 teaspoon
vanilla to the quart ziplocTM bag. Seal the bag securely.
2. Put 2 cups of ice into the gallon ziplocTM bag.
3. Use a thermometer to measure and record the temperature of the ice in the gallon
bag.
4. Add 1/2 to 3/4 cup salt (sodium chloride) to the bag of ice.
5. Place the sealed quart bag inside the gallon bag of ice and salt. Seal the gallon bag
securely.
6. Gently rock the gallon bag from side to side. It's best to hold it by the top seal or
to have gloves or a cloth between the bag and your hands because the bag will be
cold enough to damage your skin.
7. Continue to rock the bag for 10-15 minutes or until the contents of the quart bag
have solidified into ice cream.
8. Open the gallon bag and use the thermometer to measure and record the
temperature of the ice/salt mixture.
9. Remove the quart bag, open it, serve the contents into cups with spoons and
ENJOY!

Explanation

Ice has to absorb energy in order to melt, changing the phase of water from a solid to a
liquid. When you use ice to cool the ingredients for ice cream, the energy is absorbed
from the ingredients and from the outside environment (like your hands, if you are
holding the baggie of ice!). When you add salt to the ice, it lowers the freezing point of
the ice, so even more energy has to be absorbed from the environment in order for the ice
to melt. This makes the ice colder than it was before, which is how your ice cream
freezes. Ideally, you would make your ice cream using 'ice cream salt', which is just salt
sold as large crystals instead of the small crystals you see in table salt. The larger crystals
take more time to dissolve in the water around the ice, which allows for even cooling of
the ice cream.

You could use other types of salt instead of sodium chloride, but you couldn't substitute
sugar for the salt because (a) sugar doesn't dissolve well in cold water and (b) sugar
doesn't dissolve into multiple particles, like an ionic material such as salt. Compounds
that break into two pieces upon dissolving, like NaCl breaks into Na+ and Cl-, are better at
lowering the freezing point than substances that don't separate into particles because the
added particles disrupt the ability of the water to form crystalline ice. The more particles
there are, the greater the disruption and the greater the impact on particle-dependent
properties (colligative properties) like freezing point depresssion, boiling point elevation,
and osmotic pressure. The salt causes the ice to absorb more energy from the
environment (becoming colder), so although it lowers the point at which water will re-
freeze into ice, you can't add salt to very cold ice and expect it to freeze your ice cream or
de-ice a snowy sidewalk (water has to be present!). This is why NaCl isn't used to de-ice
sidewalks in areas that are very cold.
How to Make Red Cabbage pH Indicator
Acid-Base Chemistry

Introduction

Red cabbage contains a pigment molecule called flavin (an anthocyanin). This water-
soluble pigment is also found in apple skin, plums, poppies, cornflowers, and grapes.
Very acidic solutions will turn anthocyanin a red color. Neutral solutions result in a
purplish color. Basic solutions appear in greenish-yellow. Therefore, it is possible to
determine the pH of a solution based on the color it turns the anthocyanin pigments
in red cabbage juice.

The color of the juice changes in response to changes in its hydrogen ion
concentration. pH is the -log[H+]. Acids will donate hydrogen ions in an aqueous
solution and have a low pH (pH < 7). Bases accept hydrogen ions and have a high
pH (pH > 7).

Here is a table of approximate colors of red cabbage indicator solution at different

pH's. If you wish, make your own chart, using chemicals of known pH.

pH 2 4 6 8 10 12
Color Red Purple Violet Blue Blue-Green Greenish Yellow

Materials

• red cabbage
• blender or knife
• boiling water
• filter paper (coffee filters work well)
• One large glass beaker or other glass container
• Six 250 mL beakers or other small glass containers
• household ammonia (NH3)
• baking soda (sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3)
• washing soda (sodium carbonate, Na2CO3)
• lemon juice (citric acid, C6H8O7)
• vinegar (acetic acid, CH3COOH)
• cream of tartar (Potassium bitartrate, KHC4H4O6)
• antacids (calcium carbonate, calcium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide)
• seltzer water (carbonic acid, H2CO3)
• muriatic acid or masonry's cleaner (hydrochloric acid, HCl)
• lye (potassium hydroxide, KOH or sodium hydroxide, NaOH)

Procedure

• Chop the cabbage into small pieces until you have about 2 cups of chopped
cabbage. Place the cabbage in a large beaker or other glass container and
add boiling water to cover the cabbage. Allow at least ten minutes for the
 color to leach out of the cabbage. (Alternatively, you can place about 2 cups
of cabbage in a blender, cover it with boiling water, and blend it.)
• Filter out the plant material to obtain a red-purple-bluish colored liquid. This
liquid is at about pH 7. (The exact color you get depends on the pH of the
water.)
• Pour about 50 - 100 mL of your red cabbage indicator into each 250 mL
beaker.
• Add various household solutions to your indicator until a color change is
obtained. Use separate containers for each household solution - you don't
want to mix chemicals that don't go well together!

Notes

• This demo uses acids and bases, so please make certain to use safety goggles
and gloves, particularly when handling strong acids (HCl) and strong bases
(NaOH or KOH).
• Chemicals used in this demo may be safely washed down the drain with
water.
• A neutralization experiment could be performed using cabbage juice indicator.
First add an acidic solution such as vinegar or lemon juice until a reddish color
is obtained. Then add baking soda or antacids to return the pH towards a
neutral 7.
• You can make your own pH paper strips using red cabbage indicator. Take
filter paper (or coffee filter) and soak it in a concentrated red cabbage juice
solution. After a few hours, remove the paper and allow it to dry (hang it by a
clothespin or string). Cut the filter into strips and use them to test the pH of
various solutions.
Amino Acids
Characteristics and Structures

Amino acids contain both a carboxyl group (COOH) and an amino group (NH2). The
general formula for an amino acid is given below. Although the neutrally-charged
structure is commonly written, it is inaccurate because the acidic COOH and basic
NH2 groups react with one another to form an internal salt called a zwitterion. The
zwitterion has no net charge; there is one positive (COO-) and one negative (NH3+)
charge.

There are 20 amino acids derived from proteins. While there are several methods of
categorizing them, one of the most common is to group them according to the
nature of their side chains.

Nonpolar Side Chains

There are eight amino acids with nonpolar side chains. Glycine, alanine, and proline
have small, nonpolar side chains and are all weakly hydrophobic. Phenylalanine,
valine, leucine, isoleucine, and methionine have larger side chains and are more
strongly hydrophobic.

Polar, Uncharged Side Chains

There are also eight amino acids with polar, uncharged side chains. Serine and
threonine have hydroxyl groups. Asparagine and glutamine have amide groups.
Histidine and tryptophan have heterocyclic aromatic amine side chains. Cysteine has
a sulfhydryl group. Tyrosine has a phenolic side chain. The sulfhydryl group of
cysteine, phenolic hydroxyl group of tyrosine, and imidazole group of histidine all
show some degree of pH-dependent ionization.

Charged Side Chains

There are four amino acids with charged side chains. Aspartic acid and glutamic acid
have carboxyl groups on their side chains. Each acid is fully ionized at pH 7.4.
Arginine and lysine have side chains with amino groups. Their side chains are fully
protonated at pH 7.4.
This table shows amino acid names, three- and one-letter standard abbreviations,
and linear structures. Click on the amino acid name for its Fischer projection formula
(atoms in red are bonded to each other).

Name Abbreviation Linear Structure

Alanine ala A CH3-CH(NH2)-COOH
Arginine arg R HN=C(NH2)-NH-(CH2)3-CH(NH2)-COOH
Asparagine asn N H2N-CO-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Aspartic Acid asp D HOOC-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Cysteine cys C HS-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Glutamic Acid glu E HOOC-(CH2)2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Glutamine gln Q H2N-CO-(CH2)2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Glycine gly G NH2-CH2-COOH
Histidine his H NH-CH=N-CH=C-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Isoleucine ile I CH3-CH2-CH(CH3)-CH(NH2)-COOH
Leucine leu L (CH3)2-CH-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Lysine lys K H2N-(CH2)4-CH(NH2)-COOH
Methionine met M CH3-S-(CH2)2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Phenylalanine phe F Ph-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Proline pro P NH-(CH2)3-CH-COOH
Serine ser S HO-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Threonine thr T CH3-CH(OH)-CH(NH2)-COOH
Tryptophan trp W Ph-NH-CH=C-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Tyrosine tyr Y HO-Ph-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Valine val V (CH3)2-CH-CH(NH2)-COOH
Amino Acids
Name Abbr. Linear structure formula
======================================================

Alanine ala a CH3-CH(NH2)-COOH

Arginine arg r HN=C(NH2)-NH-(CH2)3-CH(NH2)-COOH

Asparagine asn n H2N-CO-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH

Aspartic acid asp d HOOC-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH

Cysteine cys c HS-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH

Glutamine gln q H2N-CO-(CH2)2-CH(NH2)-COOH

Glutamic acid glu e HOOC-(CH2)2-CH(NH2)-COOH

Glycine gly g NH2-CH2-COOH

Histidine his h NH-CH=N-CH=C-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH

|__________|

Isoleucine ile i CH3-CH2-CH(CH3)-CH(NH2)-COOH

Leucine leu l (CH3)2-CH-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH

Lysine lys k H2N-(CH2)4-CH(NH2)-COOH

Methionine met m CH3-S-(CH2)2-CH(NH2)-COOH

Phenylalanine phe f Ph-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH

Proline pro p NH-(CH2)3-CH-COOH

|_________|

Serine ser s HO-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH

Threonine thr t CH3-CH(OH)-CH(NH2)-COOH

Tryptophan trp w Ph-NH-CH=C-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH

|_______|

Tyrosine tyr y HO-p-Ph-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH

Valine val v (CH3)2-CH-CH(NH2)-COOH

How does it protect against cancer?
Lycopene (see chemical structure), a carotenoid in the same family as beta-carotene, is
what gives tomatoes, pink grapefruit, apricots, red oranges, watermelon, rosehips, and
guava their red color. Lycopene is not merely a pigment. It is a powerful antioxidant that
has been shown to neutralize free radicals, especially those derived from oxygen, thereby
conferring protection against prostate cancer, breast cancer, atherosclerosis, and
associated coronary artery disease. It reduces LDL (low-density lipoprotein) oxidation
and helps reduce cholesterol levels in the blood.
In addition, preliminary research suggests lycopene may reduce the risk of macular
degenerative disease, serum lipid oxidation, and cancers of the lung, bladder, cervix, and
skin. The chemical properties of lycopene responsible for these protective actions are
well-documented.

Lycopene is a phytochemical, synthesized by plants and microorganisms but not by

animals. It is an acyclic isomer of beta-carotene. This highly unsaturated hydrocarbon
contains 11 conjugated and 2 unconjugated double bonds, making it longer than any other
carotenoid. As a polyene, it undergoes cis-trans isomerization induced by light, thermal
energy, and chemical reactions. Lycopene obtained from plants tends to exist in an all-
trans configuration, the most thermodynamically stable form. Humans cannot produce
lycopene and must ingest fruits, absorb the lycopene, and process it for use in the body.
In human plasma, lycopene is present as an isomeric mixture, with 50% as cis isomers.

Although best known as an antioxidant, both oxidative and non-oxidative mechanisms

are involved in lycopene's bioprotective activity. The nutraceutical activities of
carotenoids such as beta-carotene are related to their ability to form vitamin A within the
body. Since lycopene lacks a beta-ionone ring structure, it cannot form vitamin A and its
biological effects in humans have been attributed to mechanisms other than vitamin A.
Lycopene's configuration enables it to inactivate free radicals. Because free radicals are
electrochemically imbalanced molecules, they are highly aggressive, ready to react with
cell components and cause permanent damage. Oxygen-derived free radicals are the most
reactive species. These toxic chemicals are formed naturally as by-products during
oxidative cellular metabolism. As an antioxidant, lycopene has a singlet-oxygen-
quenching ability twice as high as that of beta-carotene (vitamin A relative) and ten times
higher than that of alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E relative). One non-oxidative activity is
regulation of gap-junction communication between cells. Lycopene participates in a host
of chemical reactions hypothesized to prevent carcinogenesis and atherogenesis by
protecting critical cellular biomolecules, including lipids, proteins, and DNA.

Lycopene is the most predominant carotenoid in human plasma, present naturally in

greater amounts than beta-carotene and other dietary carotenoids. This perhaps indicates
its greater biological significance in the human defense system. Its level is affected by
several biological and lifestyle factors. Because of its lipophilic nature, lycopene
concentrates in low-density and very-low-density lipoprotein fractions of the serum.
Lycopene is also found to concentrate in the adrenal, liver, testes, and prostate. However,
unlike other carotenoids, lycopene levels in serum or tissues do not correlate well with
overall intake of fruits and vegetables.

Research shows that lycopene can be absorbed more efficiently by the body after it has
been processed into juice, sauce, paste, or ketchup. In fresh fruit, lycopene is enclosed in
the fruit tissue. Therefore, only a portion of the lycopene that is present in fresh fruit is
absorbed. Processing fruit makes the lycopene more bioavailable by increasing the
surface area available for digestion. More significantly, the chemical form of lycopene is
altered by the temperature changes involved in processing to make it more easily
absorbed by the body. Also, because lycopene is fat-soluble (as are vitamins, A, D, E,
and beta-carotene), absorption into tissues is improved when oil is added to the diet.
Although lycopene is available in supplement form, it is likely there is a synergistic effect
when it is obtained from the whole fruit instead, where other components of the fruit
enhance lycopene's effectiveness
Facts About Vitamin A and Carotenoids
Part 1: What is vitamin A?

Vitamin A: What is it?

Vitamin A is a family of fat-soluble vitamins. Retinol is one of the most active, or

usable, forms of vitamin A, and is found in animal foods such as liver and eggs. It
can be converted to retinal and retinoic acid, other active forms of the vitamin A
family. Some plant foods contain orange pigments called provitamin A carotenoids
that the liver can convert to retinol. Beta-carotene is a provitamin A carotenoid found
in many foods(1-3). Lycopene, lutein, and zeaxanthin are also carotenoids commonly
found in food, but your body cannot convert them to vitamin A.

Vitamin A plays an important role in vision, bone growth, reproduction, cell

division and cell differentiation, which is the process by which a cell decides what it is
going to become (1, 4-7). It also maintains the surface linings of your eye and your
respiratory, urinary, and intestinal tracts (8). When those linings break down,
bacteria can enter your body and cause infection (8). Vitamin A also helps your body
regulate its immune system (1, 4, 9). The immune system helps prevent or fight off
infections by making white blood cells that destroy harmful bacteria and viruses.
Vitamin A may help lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell that fights infections,
function more effectively. Vitamin A also may help prevent bacteria and viruses from
entering your body by maintaining the integrity of skin and mucous membranes (10,
11,12).

Some carotenoids, in addition to serving as a source of vitamin A, have been

shown to function as antioxidants in laboratory tests. However, this role has not
been consistently demonstrated in humans (13). Antioxidants protect cells from free
radicals, which are potentially damaging by-products of the body's metabolism that
may contribute to the development of some chronic diseases (2, 14-16).

Facts About Vitamin A and Carotenoids

Part 2: What foods provide vitamin A, and how much do you need?

What foods provide vitamin A?

Whole eggs, whole milk, and liver are among the few foods that naturally contain
vitamin A. Vitamin A is present in the fat portion of whole milk, so it is not found in
fat-free milk. Most fat-free milk and dried nonfat milk solids sold in the US are
fortified with vitamin A (17). There are many other fortified foods such as breakfast
cereals that also provide vitamin A. The tables of selected food sources of vitamin A
suggest animal sources of vitamin A and plant sources of provitamin A carotenoids
(18).

It is important for you to regularly eat foods that provide vitamin A or beta-
carotene even though your body can store vitamin A in the liver (1). Stored vitamin
A will help meet your needs when intake of provitamin A carotenoids or vitamin A is
low (19, 20).
What is the Recommended Dietary Allowance for vitamin A for adults?

The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is the average daily dietary intake
level that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97-98%)
healthy individuals in each life-stage and gender group (13). The 1989 RDAs (21) for
vitamin A for adults and children are:

Age Children Men Women Pregnancy Lactation

Ages 400 RE or
1-3 2000 IU*
Ages 500 RE or
4-6 2500 IU
Ages 700 RE or x x x
7-10 3,500 IU
Ages 1000 RE 800 RE or 800 RE or 800 RE or
11-18 or 4000 IU 4000 IU 4000 IU
5000 IU
Ages 1000 RE 800 RE or 800 RE or 800 RE or
19 + or 4000 IU 4000 IU 4000 IU
5000 IU
*Food labels list vitamin A in International Units (IU).

Results of the third National Health and Nutrition Examination survey (NHANES
III 1988-91) (22) suggested that the dietary intake of some Americans does not
meet recommended levels. The Continuing Survey of Food Intakes of Individuals
(CSFII 1994) (23) suggested that diets of many Americans provide less than 75% of
recommended intake levels. These surveys highlight the importance of encouraging
Americans to include dietary sources of vitamin A in their daily diets.

There is no separate RDA for beta-carotene or other carotenoids. The Institute of

Medicine (IOM) report suggests that consuming 3 to 6 mg of beta-carotene daily will
maintain plasma B-carotene blood levels in the range associated with a lower risk of
chronic diseases (13). This concentration can be achieved by a diet that provides five
or more servings of fruits and vegetables per day.

Part 3: Who is at risk for deficiency, and what are the symptoms?

When can vitamin A deficiency occur?

Vitamin A deficiency rarely occurs in the United States, but it is still a major public
health problem in the developing world. It is most often associated with
protein/calorie malnutrition and affects over 120 million children worldwide (8). It is
also a leading cause of childhood blindness. In countries where immunization
programs are not widespread and vitamin A deficiency is common, millions of
children die each year from complications of infectious diseases such as measles.
(8).
Signs of vitamin A deficiency
Signs of vitamin A deficiency include night blindness, dry skin, and decreased resistance
to infections. In ancient Egypt it was known that night blindness could be cured after
eating liver, which was later found to be a rich source of vitamin A (1). Vitamin A
deficiency contributes to blindness by making the eye very dry, damaging the cornea of
the eye (referred to as xerophthalmia), and promoting damage to the retina of the eye
(24). Extremely dry skin, dry hair, sloughing off of skin, and broken fingernails are other
common signs of vitamin A deficiency.

Vitamin A deficiency also decreases resistance to infections (1, 10). When there is not
enough vitamin A, cells lining the lung lose their ability to remove disease-causing
microorganisms. This may contribute to the pneumonia associated with vitamin A
deficiency (9).

There is increased interest in subclinical forms of vitamin A deficiency, described as low

storage levels of vitamin A that do not cause overt deficiency symptoms. This mild
degree of vitamin A deficiency may increase children's risk of developing respiratory and
diarrheal infections, decrease growth rate, slow bone development, and decrease
likelihood of survival from serious illness (8, 25, 26).

Children living in the United States who are considered to be at increased risk for
subclinical vitamin A deficiency include:

• toddlers and preschool age children

• children living at or below the poverty level
• children with inadequate health care or immunizations
• children living in areas with known nutritional deficiencies
• recent immigrants or refugees from developing countries with high incidence of
vitamin A deficiency or measles, and
• children with diseases of the pancreas, liver, intestines, or with inadequate fat
digestion/absorption (8).

As a result of the worldwide significance of vitamin A deficiency in children, the World

Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations International Children's Emergency
Fund (UNICEF) issued joint statements about vitamin A and children's health. Both
agencies recommend vitamin A administration for all children diagnosed with measles in
communities where vitamin A deficiency is a serious problem and where death from
measles is greater than 1%. In 1994, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommended
vitamin A supplementation for children 6 to 24 months of age hospitalized with measles
and for hospitalized children older than 6 months who are considered to be at high-risk
for subclinical vitamin A deficiency (27).
Facts About Vitamin A and Carotenoids
Part 4: Who needs vitamin A supplements, and can they take too much?

Who may need extra vitamin A to prevent a deficiency?

Children with low body stores of vitamin A who have measles may require
vitamin A supplementation, as discussed above. Also, individuals with chronic fat
malabsorption also poorly absorb vitamin A. Fat malabsorption can occur with cystic
fibrosis, sprue, pancreatic disorders, and after stomach surgery. Healthy adults
usually have a one-year reserve of vitamin A stored in their livers and should not be
at risk of deficiency during periods of temporary or short term fat malabsorption.
Long term problems absorbing fat, however, can result in deficiency and may require
vitamin A supplementation (8). Children may only have enough stores of vitamin A
to last several weeks, so children with fat malabsorption may require immediate
vitamin A supplementation (8).

What is the association between vitamin A, beta carotene and cancer?

Surveys suggest an association between diets rich in beta-carotene and vitamin A

and a lower risk of many types of cancer (1, 28). There is evidence that higher
intake of green and yellow vegetables or food sources of beta carotene and/or
vitamin A decreased the risk of lung cancer (29). A number of studies have tested
the role of beta-carotene supplements in cancer prevention(30). Unfortunately,
recent intervention studies have not supported a protective role for beta carotene in
cancer prevention. In a study of 29,000 men, incidence of lung cancer was greater in
the group of smokers who took a daily supplement of beta carotene (31). The
Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial, a lung cancer chemoprevention trial that
provided randomized subjects with supplements of beta carotene and vitamin A, was
stopped after researchers discovered that subjects receiving beta carotene had a
46% higher risk of dying from lung cancer (32). The IOM states that "B-carotene
supplements are not advisable for the general population", although they also state
that this advice "does not pertain to the possible use of supplemental B-carotene as
a provitamin A source for the prevention of vitamin A deficiency in populations with
inadequate vitamin A nutriture" (13).

What is the health risk of too much vitamin A?

Hypervitaminosis A refers to high storage levels of vitamin A in the body that can
lead to toxic symptoms. Toxicity can result in dry, itchy skin, headache, fatigue, hair
loss, loss of appetite, vomiting, and liver damage. When toxic symptoms arise
suddenly, which can happen after consuming very large amounts of vitamin A over a
short period of time, signs of toxicity include dizziness, blurred vision, and muscular
uncoordination (6-8, 33, 34).

Although hypervitaminosis A can occur when very large amounts of liver are
regularly consumed, most cases of vitamin A toxicity result from an excess intake of
vitamin A in supplements. A generally recognized safe upper limit of intake for
vitamin A from diet and supplements is 1,600 to 2,000 RE (8,000 to 10,000 IU) per
day (33, 35). The Institute of Medicine is currently reviewing the scientific literature
on vitamin A. They are considering revising the RDAs and establishing an Upper Limit
(UL) of safe intake for vitamin A.

Vitamin A toxicity also can cause severe birth defects. Women of child-bearing
age are advised to limit their total daily intake of vitamin A (retinol) from foods and
supplements combined to no more than 1,600 RE (8,000 IU) per day.

Retinoids are compounds that are chemically similar to vitamin A. Over the past
15 years, synthetic retinoids have been prescribed for acne, psoriasis, and other skin
disorders (36). Isotretinoin (Roaccutane® or Accutane®) is considered an effective
anti-acne therapy. At very high doses, however, it can be toxic, which is why this
medication is usually saved for the most severe forms of acne (37). The most serious
consequence of this medication is birth defects.

It is extremely important for sexually active females who may become

pregnant and who take these medications to use an effective method of birth control.
Women of childbearing age who take these medications are advised to undergo
monthly pregnancy tests to make sure they are not pregnant.

What is the health risk of too many carotenoids?

Nutrient toxicity traditionally refers to adverse health effects from a high intake of
a particular vitamin or mineral. For example, large amounts of the active form of
vitamin A (naturally found in animal foods such as liver but also available in dietary
supplements) can cause birth defects.

Provitamin A carotenoids such as beta-carotene are generally considered safe

because they are not traditionally associated with specific adverse health effects. The
conversion of provitamin A carotenoids to vitamin A decreases when body stores are
full, which naturally limits further increases in storage levels. A high intake of
provitamin A carotenoids can turn the skin yellow, but this is not considered
dangerous to health (38).

Recent clinical trials that suggested a greater incidence of lung cancer and total
mortality (death) in current smokers who supplemented their diet with 20 mg of
beta-carotene per day have raised concern about the safety of beta-carotene
supplements. However, conflicting studies make it difficult to interpret the health
risk. For example, the Physicians' Health Study compared the effects of taking 50 mg
beta-carotene every other day to a placebo (sugar pill) in over 22,000 male
physicians and found no adverse health effects (39). Also, a trial that tested the
ability of four different nutrient combinations to inhibit the development of
esophageal and gastric cancers in 30,000 men and women in China suggested that
after 5 years those participants who took a combination of beta-carotene, selenium
and vitamin E had a 13% reduction in cancer deaths (40). One point to consider is
that there may be a relationship between alcohol and beta-carotene because "only
those men who consumed more than 11 g per day of alcohol (approximately one
drink per day) showed an adverse response to B-carotene supplementation" in the
lung cancer trial (13).

The Institute of Medicine did not set a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL), the
highest level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health
effects, for B-carotene or carotenoids. Instead, they concluded that B-carotene
supplements are not advisable for the general population. As stated earlier, however,
they may be appropriate as a provitamin A source or for the prevention of vitamin A
deficiency in specific populations (13).

Facts About Vitamin A and Carotenoids

Part 5: Food sources of vitamin A.

Selected Food Sources of vitamin A

As the 2000 Dietary Guidelines for Americans state, "Different foods contain
different nutrients. No single food can supply all the nutrients in the amounts you
need" (41). The following tables suggest dietary sources of vitamin A and provitamin
A carotenoids. As the tables indicate, liver, eggs and whole milk are good animal
sources of vitamin A. Many orange fruits and green vegetables are good sources of
provitamin A carotenoids. Including these foods in your daily diet will help you meet
your daily need for vitamin A. In addition, food manufacturers fortify a wide range of
products with vitamin A. Breakfast cereals, pastries, breads, crackers, cereal grain
bars and other foods may be fortified with 10% to 15% of the DV for vitamin A. It is
important to read the nutrition facts panel of the food label to determine whether a
food provides vitamin A.

If you want more information about building a healthful diet, refer to the Dietary
Guidelines for Americans and the Food Guide Pyramid.

Table of Selected Animal Sources of Vitamin A (18)

IU/
Food International %DV *
Units
Liver, beef, cooked, 3
30,325 610
oz
Liver, chicken,
13,920 280
cooked, 3 oz
Egg substitute,
1355 25
fortified, 1/4 c
Fat free milk, fortified
500 10
w/ vitamin A, 1 c
Cheese pizza, 1/8 of
380 8
a 12" diameter
Milk, whole, 3.25%
305 6
fat, 1 c
Cheddar cheese, 1
300 6
oz
Whole egg, 1 280 6
 medium
Swiss cheese, 1 oz 240 4
Margarine, soft, corn
165 4
oil, 1 tsp
Yogurt, fruit flavored,
120 2
low fat, 1 c
*DV = Daily Value. DVs are reference numbers based on
the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA). They were
developed to help consumers determine if a food contains
a lot or a little of a specific nutrient. The DV for vitamin A is
5,000 IU (1,000 RE). The percent DV (%DV) listed on the
nutrition facts panel of food labels tells adults what
percentage of the DV is provided by one serving. Percent
DVs are based on a 2,000-calorie diet. Your Daily Values
may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs.
Foods that provide lower percentages of the DV will
contribute to a healthful diet.

Table of Selected Plant Sources of Vitamin A (from beta-carotene)

(18)
Plant sources such as beta carotene are not as well absorbed as animal sources of vitamin A.

IU/
Food International %DV *
Units
Carrot, 1 raw (7 1/2") 20,250 410
Carrots, boiled, 1/2 c 19,150 380
slices
Carrot juice, canned, 12,915 260
1/2 c
Mango, raw, without 8,050 160
refuse, 1 fruit
Sweet potatoes, 1/2 c 7,430 150
Junior mashed
Spinach, boiled, 1/2 c 7,370 150
Cantaloupe, raw, 1 c 5,160 100
cubes
Kale, boiled, 1/2 c 4,810 100
Vegetable soup, 3,005 60
prepared with equal
volume water, 1 c
Pepper, sweet, red, 2,620 50
raw, 1/2 c sliced
Apricots, without skin, 2,055 40
canned in water, 1/2 c
halves
Spinach, raw, 1 cup 2,015 40
Broccoli, frozen, 1,740 35
chopped, boiled, 1/2 c
Apricot nectar, 1,650 30
canned, 1/2 c
Oatmeal, instant, 1,050 20
fortified, low sodium,
dry, 1 packet
Tomato juice, canned, 1,010 20
6 oz
Ready-to-eat cereal, 750 15
fortified, 1 oz (15%
fortification)
Peaches, canned, 650 15
water pack, 1/2 c
halves or slices
Peach, raw, 1 medium 525 10
Papaya, raw, 1 small 430 10
Orange, raw, 1 large 375 8
Asparagus, boiled, 4 325 6
spears
Tomato, red, ripe, raw, 170 2
1/2" thick slice
*DV = Daily Value. DVs are reference numbers based on the
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA). They were
developed to help consumers determine if a food contains a
lot or a little of a specific nutrient. The DV for vitamin A is
5,000 IU (1,000 RE). The percent DV (%DV) listed on the
nutrition facts panel of food labels tells adults what
percentage of the DV is provided by one serving. Percent
DVs are based on a 2,000-calorie diet. Your Daily Values
may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs.
Foods that provide lower percentages of the DV will
contribute to a healthful diet.
How Does Stainless Steel Remove Odors?
A. One household tip for removing odors from fish, onions, or garlic from your hands is
to rub your hands across the blade of a stainless steel knife. In fact, you can even buy
stainless steel 'soaps', which are just hunks of stainless steel that are about the same shape
and size as a bar of normal soap. Does stainless steel remove odors? If so, how does it
work?

There isn't a lot of hard scientific data (that I have seen anyway) concerning stainless
steel odor eaters. However, you can test this kitchen wisdom yourself, using your nose to
take data. Better yet, get someone else to smell your fingers, since your own sniffer will
have odor molecules inside it already from exposure to the food.

My experience has been that the knife trick works, but only up to a point. If you have
been working with onions, garlic, or fish long enough for their 'perfume' to be absorbed
into your skin, the best you can do is to diminish the scent with the steel.

Other types of odors are not affected by contact with the metal.

How It Works

This is speculation on my part - if you know more about the chemistry behind this
phenomenon, please feel free to write me. It makes sense to me that the sulfur from the
onion/garlic/fish would be attracted to and bind with one or more of the metals in
stainless steel. Formation of such compounds is what makes stainless steel stainless, after
all. Onions and garlic contain amino acid sulfoxides, which form sulfenic acids, which
then form a volatile gas (propanethiol S-oxide), which forms sulfuric acid upon exposure
to water. These compounds are responsible for burning your eyes while cutting onions
and also for their characteristic scent. If the sulfur compounds bind to the steel, then the
odor is removed from your fingers.
Why is Stainless Steel Stainless?
What It Is and How It Works!
What Is Stainless Steel and Why Is it Stainless?

In 1913, English metallurgist Harry Brearly, working on a project to improve rifle

barrels, accidentally discovered that adding chromium to low carbon steel gives it stain
resistance. In addition to iron, carbon, and chromium, modern stainless steel may also
contain other elements, such as nickel, niobium, molybdenum, and titanium. Nickel,
molybdenum, niobium, and chromium enhance the corrosion resistance of stainless steel.
It is the addition of a minimum of 12% chromium to the steel that makes it resist rust, or
stain 'less' than other types of steel. The chromium in the steel combines with oxygen in
the atmosphere to form a thin, invisible layer of chrome-containing oxide, called the
passive film. The sizes of chromium atoms and their oxides are similar, so they pack
neatly together on the surface of the metal, forming a stable layer only a few atoms thick.

If the metal is cut or scratched and the passive film is disrupted, more oxide will quickly
form and recover the exposed surface, protecting it from oxidative corrosion. (Iron, on
the other hand, rusts quickly because atomic iron is much smaller than its oxide, so the
oxide forms a loose rather than tightly-packed layer and flakes away.) The passive film
requires oxygen to self-repair, so stainless steels have poor corrosion resistance in low-
oxygen and poor circulation environments. In seawater, chlorides from the salt will attack
and destroy the passive film more quickly than it can be repaired in a low oxygen
environment.

Types of Stainless Steel

The three main types of stainless steels are austenitic, ferritic, and martensitic. These
three types of steels are identified by their microstructure or predominant crystal phase.

Austenitic:
Austenitic steels have austenite as their primary phase (face centered cubic crystal).
These are alloys containing chromium and nickel (sometimes manganese and nitrogen),
structured around the Type 302 composition of iron, 18% chromium, and 8% nickel.
Austenitic steels are not hardenable by heat treatment. The most familiar stainless steel is
probably Type 304, sometimes called T304 or simply 304. Type 304 surgical stainless
steel is an austenitic steel containing 18-20% chromium and 8-10% nickel.

Ferritic:
Ferritic steels have ferrite (body centered cubic crystal) as their main phase. These steels
contain iron and chromium, based on the Type 430 composition of 17% chromium.
Ferritic steel is less ductile than austenitic steel and is not hardenable by heat treatment.
Martensitic:
The characteristic orthorhombic martensite microstructure was first observed by German
microscopist Adolf Martens around 1890. Martensitic steels are low carbon steels built
around the Type 410 composition of iron, 12% chromium, and 0.12% carbon. They may
be tempered and hardened. Martensite gives steel great hardness, but it also reduces its
toughness and makes it brittle, so few steels are fully hardened.

There are also other grades of stainless steels, such as precipitation-hardened, duplex, and
cast stainless steels. Stainless steel can be produced in a variety of finishes and textures
and can be tinted over a broad spectrum of colors.

Passivation

There is some dispute over whether the corrosion resistance of stainless steel can be
enhanced by the process of passivation. Essentially, passivation is the removal of free
iron from the surface of the steel. This is performed by immersing the steel in an oxidant,
such as nitric acid or citric acid solution. Since the top layer of iron is removed,
passivation diminishes surface discoloration. While passivation does not affect the
thickness or effectiveness of the passive layer, it is useful in producing a clean surface for
a further treatment, such as plating or painting. On the other hand, if the oxidant is
incompletely removed from the steel, as sometimes happens in pieces with tight joints or
corners, then crevice corrosion may result. Most research indicates that diminishing
surface particle corrosion does not reduce susceptibility to pitting corrosion.
Natural Mosquito Repellents
Strategies That Work
When I was pregnant, I wanted to avoid using toxic chemical insect repellents, yet the
mosquitoes seemed to find me tastier than ever. My solution at that time was to wear
what I called my 'DEET sheet', which was an old cotton sheet that had been sprayed with
S.C. Johnson's Off! Deep Woods formula. While this was highly effective, it wasn't
practical for use around kids, so I did research into safer, natural mosquito repellents. I
learned that many so-called natural mosquito repellents don't repel mosquitoes (e.g.,
ultrasonic electronic devices), but some are backed by reputable research and really work.

Mosquitoes have complex methods of detecting hosts and different types of mosquitoes
react to different stimuli. Most mosquitoes are active at dawn and dusk, but there are also
mosquitoes that seek hosts during the day.

You can avoid being bitten by making sure you aren't attracting mosquitoes, using
attractants to lure mosquitoes elsewhere, using a repellent, and avoiding actions that
diminish the effectiveness of the repellent.

Mosquito Attractants

Use this list of items and activities that attract mosquitoes as a list of things to avoid or
that can be used as bait to lure mosquitoes away from you.

• Dark Clothing

Many mosquitoes use vision to locate hosts from a distance. Dark clothes and
foliage are initial attractants.

• Carbon Dioxide

You give off more carbon dioxide when you are hot or have been exercising. A
burning candle or other fire is another source of carbon dioxide.

• Lactic Acid

You release more lactic acid when you have been exercising or after eating
certain foods (e.g., salty foods, high-potassium foods).

• Floral or Fruity Fragrances

In addition to perfumes, hair products, and scented sunscreens, watch for the
subtle floral fragrance from fabric softeners and dryer sheets.
 • Skin Temperature

The exact temperature depends on the type of mosquito. Many mosquitoes are
attracted to the slightly cooler temperatures of the extremities.

• Moisture

Mosquitoes are attracted by perspiration because of the chemicals it contains and

also because it increases the humidity around your body. Even small amounts of
water (e.g., moist plants or mud puddles) will draw mosquitoes. Standing water
also allows mosquitoes to reproduce.

Natural Repellents

These natural products will effectively repel mosquitoes, but they require more frequent
reapplication (at least every 2 hours) and higher concentrations than DEET. Because of
the differences between types of mosquitoes, products that contain multiple repellents
tend to be more effective than those containing a single ingredient. As you can see,
natural repellents tend to be volatile plant oils.

• Citronella Oil
• Castor Oil
• Rosemary Oil
• Lemongrass Oil
• Cedar Oil
• Peppermint Oil
• Clove Oil
• Geranium Oil
• Possibly Oils from Verbena, Pennyroyal, Lavender, Pine, Cajeput, Cinnamon,
Basil, Thyme, Allspice, Soybean, and Garlic

Another plant-derived substance, pyrethrum, is an insecticide. Pyrethrum comes from the

flowers of the daisy Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium.

Things that Lower Repellent Effectiveness

• Many Sunscreens
• Dilution from Rain, Perspiration, or Swimming
• Absorption into the Skin
• Evaporation from Wind or High Temperatures

Keep in mind that 'natural' does not automatically imply 'safe'. Many people are sensitive
to plant oils. Some natural insect repellents are actually toxic. Therefore, although natural
repellents provide an alternative to synthetic chemicals, please remember to follow the
manufacturer's instructions when using these products.
Chemistry of Firework Colors
A Marriage of Art and Science

Creating firework colors is a complex endeavor, requiring considerable art and

application of physical science. Excluding propellants or special effects, the points of
light ejected from fireworks, termed 'stars', generally require an oxygen-producer,
fuel, binder (to keep everything where it needs to be), and color producer. There are
two main mechanisms of color production in fireworks, incandescence and
luminescence.

Incandescence

Incandescence is light produced from heat. Heat causes a substance to become hot
and glow, initially emitting infrared, then red, orange, yellow, and white light as it
becomes increasingly hotter. When the temperature of a firework is controlled, the
glow of components, such as charcoal, can be manipulated to be the desired color
(temperature) at the proper time. Metals, such as aluminum, magnesium, and
titanium, burn very brightly and are useful for increasing the temperature of the
firework.

Luminescence

Luminescence is light produced using energy sources other than heat. Sometimes
luminescence is called 'cold light', because it can occur at room temperature and
cooler temperatures. To produce luminescence, energy is absorbed by an electron of
an atom or molecule, causing it to become excited, but unstable. When the electron
returns to a lower energy state the energy is released in the form of a photon (light).
The energy of the photon determines its wavelength or color.

Sometimes the salts needed to produce the desired color are unstable. Barium
chloride (green) is unstable at room temperatures, so barium must be combined with
a more stable compound (e.g., chlorinated rubber). In this case, the chlorine is
released in the heat of the burning of the pyrotechnic composition, to then form
barium chloride and produce the green color. Copper chloride (blue), on the other
hand, is unstable at high temperatures, so the firework cannot get too hot, yet must
be bright enough to be seen.

Quality

Pure colors require pure ingredients. Even trace amounts of sodium impurities
(yellow-orange) are sufficient to overpower or alter other colors. Careful formulation
is required so that too much smoke or residue doesn't mask the color. With
fireworks, as with other things, cost often relates to quality. Skill of the manufacturer
and date the firework was produced greatly affect the final display (or lack thereof).

Color Compound
Red strontium salts, lithium salts
 lithium carbonate, Li2CO3 = red
strontium carbonate, SrCO3 = bright red
calcium salts
Orange calcium chloride, CaCl2
calcium sulfate, CaSO4·xH2O, where x = 0,2,3,5
Gold incandescence of iron (with carbon), charcoal, or lampblack
sodium compounds
Yellow sodium nitrate, NaNO3
cryolite, Na3AlF6
white-hot metal, such as magnesium or aluminum
Electric White
barium oxide, BaO
barium compounds + chlorine producer
Green
barium chloride, BaCl+ = bright green
copper compounds + chlorine producer
Blue copper acetoarsenite (Paris Green), Cu3As2O3Cu(C2H3O2)2 = blue
copper (I) chloride, CuCl = turquoise blue
Purple mixture of strontium (red) and copper (blue) compounds
Silver burning aluminum, titanium, or magnesium powder or flakes

Additional Reading

• Luminescence - The Fluorescent Mineral Society provides handy definitions of

all the types of luminescence.
• Fireworks and Pyrotechnics - This is a compilation of great firework and
pyrotechnic websites. Chemistry, hobbyists, safety, manufacturers, journals,
and additional resources are provided.

How Do Sparklers Work?

Chemistry of the Shower of Sparks

What Is a Sparkler?
All fireworks are not created equal! For example, there is a difference between a
firecracker and a sparkler. The goal of a firecracker is to create a controlled
explosion. A sparkler, on the other hand, burns over a long period of time (up to a
minute) and produces a brilliant shower of sparks. Sometimes sparklers are called
'snowballs' in reference to the ball of sparks that surrounds the burning part of the
sparkler.

Sparkler Chemistry
A sparkler consists of several substances:

• An oxidizer
• A fuel
• Iron, steel, aluminum, or other metal powder
• A combustible binder

In addition to these components, colorants and compounds to moderate the chemical

reaction also may be added. Often, firework fuel is charcoal and sulfur. Sparklers
simply may use the binder as the fuel. The binder is usually sugar, starch, or shellac.
Potassium nitrate or potassium chlorate may be used as oxidizers. Metals are used to
create the sparks. Sparkler formulae may be quite simple. For example, a sparkler
may consist only of potassium perchlorate, titanium or aluminum, and dextrin.

Reaction Details
Now that you've seen the composition of a sparkler, let's consider how these
chemicals react with each other:

Oxidizers
Oxidizers produce oxgen to burn the mixture. Oxidizers are usually nitrates,
chlorates, or perchlorates. Nitrates are made up of a metal ion and a nitrate ion.
Nitrates give up 1/3 of their oxygen to yield nitrites and oxygen. The resulting
equation for potassium nitrate looks like this:

2 KNO3(solid) --> 2 KNO2(solid) +O2(gas)

Chlorates are made up of a metal ion and the chlorate ion. Chlorates give up all of
their oxygen, causing a more spectacular reaction. However, this also means they
are explosive. An example of potassium chlorate yielding its oxygen would look like
this:

2 KClO3(solid) --> 2 KCl(solid) + 3 O2(gas)

Perchlorates have more oxygen in them, but are less likely to explode as a result of
impact than are chlorates. Potassium perchlorate yields its oxygen in this reaction:

KClO4(solid) --> KCl(solid) + 2 O2(gas)

Reducing Agents
The reducing agents is the fuel used to burn the oxygen produced by the oxidizers.
This combustion produces hot gas. Examples of reducing agents are sulfur and
charcoal, which react with the oxygen to form sulfur dioxide (SO2) and carbon
dioxide (CO2), respectively.

Regulators
Two reducing agents may be combined to accelerate or slow the reaction. Also,
metals affect the speed of the reaction. Finer metal powders react more quickly than
coarse powders or flakes. Other substances, such as cornmeal, also may be added to
regulate the reaction.

Binders
Binders hold the mixture together. For a sparkler, common binders are dextrin (a
sugar) dampened by water, or a shellac compound dampened by alcohol. The binder
can serve as a reducing agent and as a reaction moderator.

How Does it Work?

Let's put it all together: A sparkler consists of a chemical mixture that is molded onto
a rigid stick or wire. These chemicals often are mixed with water to form a slurry
that can be coated on a wire (by dipping) or poured into a tube. Once the mixture
dries, you have a sparkler. Aluminum, iron, steel, zinc or magnesium dust or flakes
may be used to create the bright, shimmering sparks. The metal flakes heat up until
they are incandescent and shine brightly or, at a high enough temperature, actually
burn. A variety of chemicals can be added to create colors. The fuel and oxidizer are
proportioned, along with the other chemicals, so that the sparkler burns slowly
rather than exploding like a firecracker. Once one end of the sparkler is ignited, it
burns progressively to the other end. In theory, the end of the stick or wire is
suitable to support it while burning.

Important Reminders
Obviously, sparks cascading off of a burning stick present a fire and burn hazard.
Less obviously, sparklers contain one or more metals to create the sparks and any
colors, so they can present a health hazard. For example, they should not be burned
on cakes as candles or otherwise used in a manner which could lead to consumption
of the ash. So use sparklers safely and have fun!

Candy Triboluminescence
From Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.,
Your Guide to Chemistry.
FREE Newsletter. Sign Up Now!

Glow-in-the-dark fun!
For several decades people have been playing in the dark with triboluminescence using
wintergreen-flavored Lifesavers candy. The idea is to break the hard, donut-shaped candy
in the dark. Usually a person looks in a mirror or peers into a partner's mouth while
crunching the candy to see the resulting blue sparks.

Triboluminescence is light produced while striking or rubbing two pieces of a special

material together. It is basically light from friction, as the term comes from the Greek
tribein, meaning "to rub," and the Latin prefix lumin, meaning "light". In general,
luminescence occurs when energy is input into atoms from heat, friction, electricity, or
other sources. The electrons in the atom absorb this energy.

Sponsored Links

Lifesavers CandyVisit the Top Websites for Lifesavers Candy

Here.Candy.BestFoodSites.net

Organometallic AnalysisEnvironmental & Industrial Samples ISO/IEC 17025

Accreditedwww.rpc.ca

Lifesavers CandyChoose From the Top 4 Sites For Lifesavers

CandyCandy.Best4Sites.net

When the electrons return to their usual state, the energy is released in the form of light.
The spectrum of the light produced from the triboluminescence of sugar (sucrose) is the
same as the spectrum of lightning. Lightning originates from a flow of electrons passing
through air, exciting the electrons of nitrogen molecules (the primary component of air),
which emit blue light as they release their energy. Triboluminescence of sugar can be
thought of as lightning on a very small scale. When a sugar crystal is stressed, the
positive and negative charges in the crystal are separated, generating an electric potential.
When enough charge has accumulated, the electrons jump across a fracture in the crystal,
colliding with and exciting electrons in the nitrogen molecules. Most of the light emitted
by the nitrogen in the air is ultraviolet, but a small fraction is in the visible region. To
most people the emission appears bluish-white, although some people discern a blue-
green color (human color vision in the dark is not very good).

The emission from wintergreen candy is much brighter than that of sucrose alone because
wintergreen flavor (methyl salicylate) is fluorescent. Methyl salicylate absorbs ultraviolet
light in the same spectral region as the lightning emissions generated by the sugar. The
methyl salicylate electrons become excited and emit blue light. Much more of the
wintergreen emission than the original sugar emission is in the visible region of the
spectrum, so wintergreen light seems brighter than sucrose light.

Triboluminescence is related to piezoelectricity. Piezoelectric materials generate an

electrical voltage from separation of positive and negative charges when they are
squeezed or stretched. Piezoelectric materials generally have an asymmetric (irregular)
shape. Sucrose molecules and crystals are asymmetric. An asymmetric molecule changes
its ability to hold electrons when squeezed or stretched, thus altering its electric charge
distribution. Asymmetric, piezoelectric materials are more likely to be triboluminescent
than symmetric substances. However, about a third of known triboluminescent materials
are not piezoelectric and some piezoelectric materials are not triboluminescent.
Therefore, an additional characteristic must determine triboluminescence. Impurities,
disorder, and defects are also common in triboluminescent materials. These irregularities,
or localized asymmetries, also allow for electrical charge to collect. The exact reasons
why particular materials show triboluminescence can be different for different materials,
but it is probable that crystal structure and impurities are primary determinants of
whether or not a material is triboluminescent.

Glow-in-the-dark fun!
Wint-O-Green Lifesavers aren't the only candies that exhibits triboluminescence. Regular
sugar cubes will work, as will just about any opaque candy made with sugar (sucrose).
Transparent candy or candy made using artificial sweeteners will not work. Most
adhesive tapes also emit light when they are ripped away. Amblygonite, calcite, feldspar,
fluorite, lepidolite, mica, pectolite, quartz, and sphalerite are all minerals known to
exhibit triboluminescence when struck, rubbed, or scratched. Triboluminescence varies
widely from one mineral sample to another, such that it might be unobservable.
Sphalerite and quartz specimens that are translucent rather than transparent, with small
fractures throughout the rock, are the most reliable.

There are several ways to observe triboluminescence at home.

If you have wintergreen-flavored Lifesavers handy, get in a very dark room and crush the
candy with pliers or a mortar and pestle. Chewing the candy while watching yourself in a
mirror will work, but the moisture from saliva will lessen or eliminate the effect. Rubbing
two sugar cubes or pieces of quartz or rose quartz in the dark will also work. Scratching
quartz with a steel pin may also demonstrate the effect. Also, sticking/unsticking most
adhesive tapes will display triboluminescence.

For the most part, triboluminescence is an interesting effect with few practical
applications. However, understanding its mechanisms may help explain other types of
luminescence, including bioluminescence in bacteria and earthquake lights.
Triboluminescent coatings could be used in remote sensing applications to signal
mechanical failure. One reference states that research is underway to apply
triboluminescent flashes to sense automobile crashes and inflate air bags.