Minerals Engineering 22 (2009) 625632

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Minerals Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mineng

Applying grindcurves to mill operation and optimisation

M.S. Powell a,*, A.P. van der Westhuizen b, A.N. Mainza b
a
University of Queensland, SMI, J K Mineral Research Centre, Brisbane, QLD 4068, Australia
b
Centre for Minerals Research, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7700, South Africa

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The operation of AG/SAG mills is sensitive to mill lling, therefore developing grindcurves to relate mill
Received 2 October 2008 lling to performance indicators such as throughput, power draw, and product size can assist in achieving
Accepted 9 January 2009 optimal mill operations. The throughput, power draw, and product size have been shown to peak at dif-
Available online 28 February 2009
ferent mill lling levels. Establishing grindcurves can assist operators to decide on the best set point for
operating their mill. Factors such as mill speed, mill inlet water, feed size distribution, and ore hardness
Keywords: all have an inuence on the grindcurve, and form an integral part of the optimisation process.
Comminution
Test work has been conducted at a number of sites to develop grindcurves for different mills treating a
Grinding
SAG milling
range of ores. The results show great promise for use in optimising the operating set points for use in mill
Process control control. The methodology for developing grindcurves is described and the results from the case studies
performed on xed and variable speed mills are discussed.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. The issues
Due to their capacity and favourable capital and operating costs,
SAG mills are a favoured grinding device for most new milling
plants. However, these single-stream devices do have a major
drawback: for all operations the ore type and its size distribution
always vary, both in the short term and long term, and the mill
operation varies with the ore. The consequences of this are ex-
pressed in a simple logic ow as:
Variable ore ? variable operation ? variable grind ? variable
recovery ? lower recovery.
It is therefore an intrinsic drawback of a relatively inexible
process, that recovery will be sacriced. Thus it is desirable to ap-
ply process control to minimise the variation.
Grinding is driven by the mill load as dened by the density,
volume, and size distribution. A change in feed type changes the
mill contents, which in turn changes the grinding rates, which
changes the mill contents, etc. with the mill responding in a non-
linear manner to the change until a new point of equilibrium is
reached. This is illustrated conceptually in Fig. 1. Because of the
highly interactive form of this feed-back loop SAG mills can be dif-
cult to stabilise. Stabilisation control can be achieved with a good
control system, holding the mill within a window of pre-deter-
mined operating conditions.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 7 3365 5893; fax: +61 7 3365 5999.
E-mail addresses: malcolm.powell@uq.edu.au (M.S. Powell), Andre.Vander-
Westhuizen@uct.ac.za (A.P. van der Westhuizen), aubrey.mainza@uct.ac.za (A.N.
Mainza).
For a xed mill lling and mill speed, the product size will
change for a target feed rate as the feed type uctuates. For an
operator or an expert control system, the question then becomes:
What are the control conditions to target for optimal mill opera-
tion?. It is most desirable to supply the control system or operator
with a new target set of operating conditions to aim for. These can
be based on downstream requirements, such as a consistent prod-
uct size, with an average target feed rate.
The key here is that variable operation leads to lower recovery.
Control systems can generally succeed in stabilising mill through-
put, but at what cost to recovery? This stabilisation versus optimal
recovery problem should provide the motivation to study how
operational conditions affect the mill response, so that a target
operating regime can be selected.
2. Previous work
A number of researchers, including those at the Julius Krutt-
schnitt Research Centre (JKMRC) and the university of Cape Town
(UCT), have measured the response of power and mill load to mill
lling, Powell et al. (2001), Morrell (2003), Shi (2003). In these
studies it was clearly shown that the power and throughput curves
peak at different mill llings.
The plots in Fig. 2 show the variation in mill power draw with
mill lling gathered from daily operation data at the Impala Plati-
num operation, and clearly show the peak in power with mill ll-
ing. They also show how the shape of the power peak varies with
ball lling. The higher ball load gives a higher peak power, and a
sharper peak. Thus the power peak curve is clearly linked to the
average density of the charge in the mill. Although this was a

0892-6875/$ - see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2009.01.008
626 M.S. Powell et al. / Minerals Engineering 22 (2009) 625632
Fig. 1. The interactive drivers of SAG mill operation.
low aspect SAG mill operated with a very high ball load in closed
circuit, the power response is generic.
Fig. 3 illustrates the expected throughput response of a generic
SAG mill based on simulations conducted by Morrell (Powell et al.,
2001) for a range of ore hardness, AG/SAG operation, open circuit
(oc) and closed circuit (cc) operation. These curves show how the
mill response and operation is sensitive to the ore type and ball
loading conditions. Clearly this must have implications for mill
control, as depending upon the ore type and ball load, the peak
throughput varies over a wide range, 2035% in this example.
The closed circuit operation has high circulating loads (generally
over 100%) and a ne product that leads to a lower peak through-
put at a higher lling as the ner required product size is best
produced with a higher lling that promotes attrition. Additionally,
these curves indicate the potential of the shape of the response
curve to feed-back into the control, as an indicator of mill load
conditions.
In a study carried out at the Amandelbult Merensky plant of An-
glo Platinum, as part of the AMIRA P9M project, an excellent set of
data was collected by Green on the variation of mill performance
with lling (Powell and Green, 2003), Fig. 4. Interestingly, for this
mill and ore the power and throughput peaks are close together,
at 37% and 33% lling. However, the nest grind is obtained at ll-
ing of well over 40%. The peak is ill-dened due to the inability to
operate this mill at higher llings than 40%.
The collection of these data took a great deal of effort with 46
full surveys conducted at each site. The outcomes of these were
used to modify the JKMRC SAG mill model (Morrell, 2003). These
3,000
20% balls
35% balls
2,800
2,600
power, kW
2,400
2,200
2,000
1,800
1,600
1,400
35 40 45
Fig. 2. Powerload curve based on operating data (Powell et al., 2001).
relationships were useful to the sites at which they were devel-
oped as they assisted in targeting the ideal operating condition
of the mill for a balance of throughput and target grind size within
the power constraints of the mills.
It also became apparent to the researchers that it would be
most useful to have this information prior to running major mill
surveys, so as to ensure that the mill modelling data is collected
under appropriate mill operating conditions. The key here was to
conduct the surveys in a short time period, with minimal interrup-
tion to, or disturbance of, the plant operation. The outcomes also
had to be available almost immediately, so that they could be used
to establish the desired mill operating condition. Based on this,
Powell and Mainza (2006) developed a methodology for conduct-
ing snapshot surveys so as to set up milling response curves, prior
to conducting major campaigns. The response curves were dubbed
grindcurves.
Collection and analysis of this data lead to a realisation of just
how valuable it may be to daily mill operation. The grindcurves
vary for the feed type, so the signature of the mill response can
be related to each feed type. It was thus conceived that a map of
grindcurves for the range of feed types that a mill receives, could
be a valuable tool to inform the control strategy. With an under-
standing that conducting a massive matrix of grinding studies
was out of the reach of operators, it became desirable to make
the grindcurve technique more accessible. This paper therefore
sets out to establish the value of developing grindcurves, and some
ideas on how to establish them with a realistic degree of effort for
operating plants.
3. The value of grindcurves
The value of grindcurves was illustrated in the paper of Powell
and Mainza (2006), and explored in considerable detail for one
operation in the work of van der Westhuizen and Powell (2006).
This paper will draw on the data published in both works, along
with new data.
The real interest arises from knowing the relationship between
mill lling, throughput, and product size. A simple set of response
curves was set up for survey work that was conducted at Kopanang
mine of the AngloGold Ashanti group, as part of AMIRA P9N re-
search, Fig. 5. These curves were established through a series of
snapshot surveys, conducted over a day. This is a 4.67 m internal
diameter, by 8.83 m internal length open ended mill, with a ball
lling of 6.2%, running at 89.5% of critical operating in closed
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115
Load, t
 M.S. Powell et al. / Minerals Engineering 22 (2009) 625632 627

sag hard oc ag hard oc bold cross on each curve. This data was used to establish the test
sag soft oc sag soft cc conditions for the survey work, and was also useful for the opera-
ag soft cc tors. These curves are considerably different to those of the Meren-
2500
sky mill, with the location of the grind peak at a low lling value of
31%.
The act of establishing the mill response for a range of mill ll-
2000
throughput, tph

ings, is most educational in itself. In observing the reaction of the

mill to changes in feed, and responding to stabilise the lling, the
1500 person operating the mill learns a lot about the grindability of
the ore, the retention of competent media in the mill, the overall
milling rates, and the mill residence and response time. This is pre-
1000 cisely the knowledge required to successfully control a milling cir-
cuit. Under these conditions the operator learns in a controlled and
objective manner, rather than in a responsive manner to unwanted
500 variations in mill performance. In establishing the set of curves for
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Kopanang, the metallurgist who had been responsible for the suc-
Mill filling, % cessful implementation of the milling control software was
amazed at how much he learnt, and wished he had conducted such
Fig. 3. Calculated mill throughput curves after Morrell (Powell et al., 2001).
a test prior to working on the control system.
In an extensive and thorough set of work conducted by van der
circuit with a cyclone. From these data the following peak operat- Westhuizen et al. (2006) a comprehensive set of curves were
ing conditions were derived, as given in Table 1, and shown by the derived for the South Deep SAG mill. This is a 7.81 m internal

50
2400

45

Power, kW, throughput, tph*10

2200

40 2000
% -75um

1800
35

1600
30
1400

25
1200

20 1000
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
% filling
%-75mm, Mill Feed, tph * 10 Mill Power, kW

Fig. 4. Grindcurves for Merensky mill. Vertical lines indicate the peak values of each trend. Vertical lines indicate the peak values of each trend.

100 2000

95 1800
% -75um, throughput, tph

1600
90
1400
85
Power, kW

1200
80
1000
75
800
70
600

65 400

60 200
20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0
% filling

throughput %-75um power, kW

Fig. 5. Grindcurves for Kopanang (Mwansa et al., 2005).

628 M.S. Powell et al. / Minerals Engineering 22 (2009) 625632

Table 1 unlikely that either the operator or control system has any idea of
Grindcurve peaks for Kopanang. how dramatically the mill grind is responding to this change. Thus
Throughput (tph) Power (kW) Grind (%) 75 lm in optimising the operation of variable speed mills, speed should
% Filling 32.5 35.4 31.1 be included as a key variable. It should also be noted that speed
Max value 89 1913 88 selection needs to also accommodate the design and state of wear
of the liners, typically holding back on speed for new liners and
pushing up the speed for worn liners.
From a control perspective, this complex response offers con-
diameter, by 4.35 m internal length variable speed SAG mill, with a siderable opportunity to manipulate the mill performance. For a gi-
ball lling of 7.9%, operating in open circuit, feeding a ball mill. ven operating window of desired range of throughput and grind,
These were conducted through a combination of full surveys with there is a family of operating conditions that can be chosen to drive
associated crash stops, and snapshot surveys. These established an the mill towards the optimal economic regime, based on the
excellent (and possibly unique) data set of a mill operation over a throughputgrind trade-off.
wide range of mill llings and speeds. The only limits imposed
were mechanical: the mill overlling into the feed chute limited 3.1. Fitting the curves
the top end: and balls impacting on the liners, especially for the
higher speeds, limited the lower lling range. Even with such an intensive set of work, the number of data
A summary of the outcomes are presented in Fig. 6. This shows points per condition are limited to four or ve, and more impor-
the grindcurves for four speeds ranging from 60% to 75% of critical, tantly there is a limited range over which the data can practically
and mill llings ranged from 18% to 45%. be collected. It is therefore desirable to derive a curve tting tech-
What is immediately clear from these curves is: nique by which consistent and physically meaningful ts can be
obtained. To this end, a number of known physical constraints
 the throughput and power peaks do not coincide, were applied, as illustrated in Table 2.
 the shape of the curves is dramatically affected by mill speed,
 the peak values change considerably as the speed varies, Table 2
 the grind becomes considerably coarser as mill speed increases, Curve tting constraints.
 the throughput increases with mill speed.
% Filling Throughput Power Grind % passing
0 0 No load % In feed
An immediate deduction that can be drawn upon viewing these
100 0 No load Asymptote value
outcomes, is that in varying mill speed as a control parameter, it is

5000 100

90
Power, kW & Feed x 10, tph

4500
60% crit 65% crit
4000 80

Grind, % -150um
3500 70

3000 60

2500 50

2000 40

1500 30
17.7 23.3
1000 20
10 20 30 40 50 0.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0

5000 100
Power, kW & Feed x 10, tph

4500 90
70% crit 75% crit
4000 80
Grind, % -150um

3500 70

3000 60

2500 50

2000 40

1500 30
30.7 36.8 47.3 33.4 34.6 39.3
1000 20
10 20 30 40 5 0 10 20 30 40 50

Mill Filling, % Mill Filling, %

Power,kW Throughput, tph Grind, % -150um

Fig. 6. SAG mill performance curves for the South Deep mill (van der Westhuizen and Powell, 2006).
 M.S. Powell et al. / Minerals Engineering 22 (2009) 625632 629

Grindrate curves
300
grindrate peaks
50 300
250
45

40
200 250
tph -150um

35

throughput,tph
150 30

% filling
25 200
100 20

15
50 150
10 max, % fill

5 max, tph-150um
0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 0 100
Filling, % 55 65 75

75% 70% 65% 60% Mill % Critical Speed

Fig. 7. Production rate of 150 lm material.

For zero lling, throughput must be zero, and power will be the
no-load value. For 100% lling, the same constraints apply. Once
the mill is packed solid with ore it reverts to being a spinning solid
cylinder. The only extra power draw over an empty mill would be
any additional frictional losses at the bearings. Without any theo-
retical derivation of the form of the curves, it was found that a sim-
ple second order polynomial gave the best t to the range of data.
3.2. Maximum production
A simple optimisation function could be used to maximise the
tons per hour of recoverable product, such as 150 lm. This is
shown in Fig. 7.
The grind-rates are a product of throughput and % 150 lm in
the mill product, and hence the scatter on both sets of data affect
the product. Despite the natural scatter, distinct trends are ob-
served. Pinning down the rate of production to zero at zero lling,
and tting the simple second order polynomials yields the curves
presented in the grind-rate graph. These curves were then differen-
tiated to derive the peak values, as presented in the grind-rate
peaks curves. This gives the mill lling and speed at which the
peaks occur, and the peak production values. Thus, for any speed
the two curves show at what value of lling the throughput peaks,
and the corresponding throughput rate.
It is clear from this that the mill lling at which peak production
occurs increases with mill speed, from about 25% up to 43% lling.
This is a dramatic variation in optimal operating point as the mill
speed is varied.
Due to the lack of data at the high llings at which the peak for
75% critical speed occurs, the location of this peak is rather uncer-
tain, but it undoubtedly occurs at above 40% lling. What is partic-
ularly interesting from an operation point of view is that the peak
production is at a higher lling than the mill is ever operated at.
This highlights a potential opportunity in mill operation, provided
the mill does not hit operational constraints, such as damage to the
feed chute seal.
3.3. Maximum throughput
Pushing for maximum throughput is probably what the opera-
tors and the control systems are best trained to do. However, what
is most likely not appreciated, is that as the mill speed is varied, the
target mill lling should also be changed. This is clear from the feed
rate curves in Fig. 8.
The mill lling values at which peak throughput is achieved
vary from 23% to 34% as the mill speed is increased. It is also clear
just how sensitive the throughput is to mill speed. The Mer ll
point on the graph gives the mill lling at which the Merensky mill

feedrate curves feedrate peaks

500
40 500
450

400 35
Feedrate, tph

350 30 400
throughput,tph

300 25
% Fill

250
20 300
200
15
150
max, % fill
10 200
100 mer fill
50 5
max, tph
0 0 100
0 10 20 30 40 50 55 65 75
Filling, % Mill % Critical Speed
Tph, 75crit Tph, 70crit Tph, 65crit Tph, 60crit

Fig. 8. Throughput response curves.

630 M.S. Powell et al. / Minerals Engineering 22 (2009) 625632

Power curves Power peaks

5000 55 4500

4500 50
45
4000
40 4000
Power, kW

% Fill
3500 35
30
3000
25 3500
2500 max, % f ill
20
mer % f ill
2000 15
max, Power
10 3000
1500 55 65 75

1000 Mill % Critical Speed

10 20 30 40 50
Mill Filling, %

75% 70% 65% 60%

Fig. 9. Power curves.

Grind Grind peaks

100.0 110

90.0 100

80.0 90
% -150um, % Fill

70.0 80
% -150um

60.0 70
50.0 60
40.0 50
30.0 40
20.0 % filling
30
10.0 % -150um
20
0.0 Mer -75um fill
0 10 20 30 40 50 10
55 65 75
% Filling
Mill % Critical Speed
75% 70% 65% 60%

Fig. 10. Grind response curves.

presented earlier achieved peak throughput. This is very close to was seriously considered for a period of ore shortage and low
the value for this far larger mill. throughputs. Only difculties in diverting the cyclone underow
prevented this from being trialled.
3.4. Power peaks

The plots of power give smooth and consistent responses, Fig. 9.
The intercepts were tied down to the no-load power of the mill.
What is interesting is that the peak power is predicted to be at a
consistent 50% mill lling, so it is not a function of mill speed.
Interestingly the Merensky mill power peaked at around 37% mill
lling, so the mill had a considerably different power response.
The power peak plot also emphasises the strong dependence of
power on mill speed.
3.5. Fineness of grind
The grind responses are given in Fig. 10. These change in a sur-
prisingly smooth manner with lling, considering the intrinsic var-
iation in feed that a SAG mill is subjected to. The grind peak curves
show a steady decline in percentage of nal product as the mill is
sped up. The curve tends to 100% passing 150 lm at 60% lling.
Most likely some oversize would sneak in with the discharge, but
this does emphasise how ne the product can be made as the mill
is slowed down. For this site the possibility of stopping the ball mill
4. Grindcurves for industry
A key aspect to appreciate about grindcurves is that they change
with ore type. These researchers have not had the opportunity to
systematically calibrate a mill with known changes in ore, but
would nd such an exercise of great benet. This is where the
method can be particularly useful at operations. If a generic form
of the response curves can be established, then it is anticipated
that the mill response can be recalibrated with a few snapshot sur-
veys when the ore changes. This will make this simple tool much
more powerful, as it will enable a responsive control system to
implemented. In fact the shape for the curves will indicate to a
control system what ore is being treated. A shift in mill response
can immediately trigger a search for a new operating regime, pos-
sibly with a bit of deliberate shifting of the mill operation for a per-
iod so as to assist in selecting which response curve the mill is now
on. As the different parameters, throughput, power, and grind, re-
spond quite differently with very different curvatures and peaks in
their response curves, this renders such a search quite feasible.
 M.S. Powell et al. / Minerals Engineering 22 (2009) 625632 631

mill 6 relationships -working graph tions can be established in one (often long) day, depending on
2100 100 the size and residence time of the mill, and unplanned changes

thorughput, tph;' mass'

90 in mill feed. An example of one developed over a day prior to some
1900
80 survey work is presented in Fig. 11. The mass number is the direct
power, kw,

1700
1500
1300
1100
15.0 20.0 25.0
filling, %
Fig. 11. Snapshot survey grindcurve.
5. Practical calibration
Having hopefully demonstrated the power of grindcurves in
mill control and optimisation, it remains to describe how to cali-
brate a mill in practice.
5.1. Snapshot surveys
This survey methodology has been developed to allow the rapid
development of a grindcurve, while minimising sample processing
(Powell and Mainza, 2006). The principle is to select a test condi-
tion and stabilise the mill at that condition, usually by adjusting
the feed rate. The rule of thumb of three residence times is used
as a guideline. Single-point sizing is then used to check the stability
of the product (Powell and Mainza, 2006). Each sizing takes about
5 min, so a production mill can be checked at 10 min intervals to
check for stable operation. Once stabilised a short 510 min sam-
pling campaign is conducted with just the key streams being sam-
pled. Four to six samples are cut over this period, and usually only
one cumulative sample per point. These samples are stored and the
mill operation moved to the next condition.
The mill condition is changed through sufcient range to nd
the peak in throughput, power, and neness of product. The perti-
nent data is plotted as the tests progress so as to provide a live
measure of the test progress. When snapshot surveys are com-
bined with the single-point sizing technique, four to eight condi-
50
45
40
y = 0.2139x - 0.0579
35
Mill Filling, %
70 bearing pressure read off the control system, so forms an indicator
power, kW
60 of mill mass.
"mass"
throughput 50
40 5.2. Mill lling calibration
30
20 In all these considerations, the mill lling is the critical operat-
30.0 35.0 4 0.0 ing parameter, yet in plant control rooms there are no percentage
mill lling indicators. Normally only a mill load reading obtained
from load cells under the feed and/or discharge ends, or a mill
bearing back pressure reading are available. Thus, during mill sur-
veys a prime objective is to nd the relationship between mill load
and mill lling. Accurate measurements of mill lling after mill
stops are used to develop this calibration. These can be obtained
from using the mill load reading taken over a few minutes just
prior to the mill stop. No special preparation is required. The key
requirement is that the readings are obtained at signicantly dif-
ferent mill llings, so as to obtain a reliable correlation.
Two such llingload curves are shown in Fig. 12, which were
both obtained on the South Deep SAG mill, but 8 months apart.
The solid upper parts of the curves are the normal llingload
curves, which are applicable from high mill llings and shows
the lling as the mill is ground down to a lower limit of the ball ll-
ing. As found out in many such exercises (Powell et al., 2001), the
response is remarkably linear for load cell measurements. This
indicates that for a mill on load cells two points can reliably be
used to calibrate the llload correlation. Thus one stop when
the mill is in normal operating condition, and one measurement
when the mill is ground down to ball load only is all that is re-
quired. For modelling of mill performance and for calibrating the
ball lling for a given correlation, it is essential to conduct one
grind out. This measurement can correspond to a relining exercise,
or other convenient time. Once this correlation is established the
ball lling can be obtained from a measurement of mill lling
and the mill load reading.
The broken lower parts of the curves show the llingload rela-
tionship if the balls were to be removed after grinding out. If the
calibration point of the load cells was for an empty unlined mill,
then the intercept can be predicted, as the mass of the remaining
liners. A shift from this, as in this instance, indicates that the mill
was likely calibrated for some intermediate mass liner.
Change in liner This calibration is a strong function of liner mass, as is clear
& ball fill mass from the calibration curves. In this instance, if the operators were
locked into a xed load cell operating point, of say 190 ton, then
2
1

30 45.0

25
y = 0.183x - 9.0125 40.0
2
20 % filling = 0.429xP - 21.0xP + 274
Grinding out
(remove ore charge) 35.0
filling, %

15

10 30.0
Ball filling ~ 8-9%

5
Removing ball charge 25.0
0
-50 50 150 250 20.0
Change in
Load Cells Reading, t
liner mass
15.0
Jul'05; 7.9% ball; New lifters 22 24 26 28 30 32
Mar'06; 9.1% ball; Fully worn lifters relative bearing pressure

Fig. 12. Filling as a function of load cell readings new and worn lifters. Fig. 13. Calibration of bearing back pressure to mill lling.
632 M.S. Powell et al. / Minerals Engineering 22 (2009) 625632
the mill lling would increase from 25% to 40% as the mill liners
wore down. The other likely alternative is that the ball load will
slowly drift up to compensate for the perceived loss of mill load.
In this application the mill liner variation is about 70 ton for a total
mill load of 190 ton, nearly a 40% fraction of the measured load.
The calibration of mill lling to bearing back pressure is non-
linear, as illustrated in Fig. 13, but just as consistent as for load
cells.
5.3. Useful tools
It would be of great benet to mill operation if this llingload
relationship can be continuously updated. Some ideas for calculat-
ing this from minimal data are given in van der Westhuizen et al.
(2006). Basically when the mill is down for any reason the mill ll-
ing can be checked. A predictive model of rate of wear of the liners
can be used to provide an on-going correction to the load reading
as the liner wears. If this is well calibrated, then any drift off the
calibration curve indicates a change in ball loading, and can be
rectied.
An issue with mill lling measurements is the time required for
safe mill entry. Typically after a full lock-out and check by the
safety ofcer on mill gas, entry can be obtained. For some sites
there is strict control on maximum internal temperature (that
can take hours to achieve) but generally permission can be gained
to enter for a limited period for inspection only, as opposed to
physical work. Adequate planning and preparation in conjunction
with the health and safety ofcer and the development of sensible
and safe operating procedures can facilitate rapid lling checks. A
personal record for Powell on a large SAG mill from stop to start
and with all the lock-out and safety procedures properly observed,
is 12 min. In general, less than half an hour should be easily achiev-
able. However, what this whole issue highlights is the potential
usefulness of a rapid mill lling measurement device that can take
accurate readings without the need for personnel to enter the mill.
This is to be pursued by the authors.
Mill lling measurements are easily subject to errors of a few
percentage points, unless carefully conducted. So procedures such
as those laid out by Powell and Mainza (2006) and in Napier-Munn
et al. (1999) should be employed.
A particularly useful technique for on-line measurement of mill
lling is the locating of the positions of the toe and shoulder of the
charge. These are independent of mill mass, and thus of liner mass
and fraction of balls in the charge. A number of measurement tech-
niques have been developed but none are yet of sufcient accuracy
(or are insufciently robust) to be commercially available for SAG
mills.
6. Conclusions
A technique to calibrate the performance of SAG mills has been
proposed and data from a number of tests sites is presented. It is
concluded that the relationships between lling and the three
key operating variables of throughput, power, and grind size form
a useful control optimisation tool. The responses change with ore
type, so can be used both as an indicator of changes in feed, and
to provide the key information required to deduce the optimal con-
trol point. This in turn can be used to set the target for an optimis-
ing control system. With knowledge of the downstream recovery
response as a function of throughput and grind for different ore
types, the control objective can be made a more sophisticated func-
tion aimed at maximising production of product within operating
constraints. The grindcurves provide essential information for such
a strategy, in the form of the interaction between throughput and
grind size as a function of the objective mill lling.
It is proposed that it is worthwhile pursuing this line of inves-
tigation to a greater depth, so as to establish robust generic grind-
curve relationships, that can be tted to specic mills and for
different ore types with minimal calibration test work. The aim
would be to bring this operating tool within the grasp of plant met-
allurgists and operators.
Acknowledgements
The generous support and cooperation of the South Deep Gold
Plant management is gratefully acknowledged. The support of
the plant manager, Stephen Joseph, the senior metallurgist, Ismail
Kola, and the milling section production supervisor, Dries Coetzee,
is specically mentioned. The assistance of the Kopanang and
Amandelbult plant personnel is acknowledged, and AngloGold
Ashanti and Anglo Platinum are thanked for permission to publish
the data. The long hours of our research staff and students, Jason
Waters, Michael Bekapi, Percy Condori, Sonny Mwansa, and Paul
Green is gratefully acknowledged.
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