Adrancet in Hpdvometry Processing of the Exeter Symposium, July 1982). TANS Publ no 138 ene Specific hydrometry of karst regions OGNJEN BONACCT Faculty of Civil Engineering Sciences, Split, Yugoslavia ABSTRACT The paper presents some specific aspects of gathering hydrologic data in karst. Methods for measuring water phenomena in karst are also discussed with omphasis on the fact that some have not been considered to fall within the domain of hydrology. Spring discharge curves can be obtained using water levels measured in piezonetric boreholes in karst and ways to do this are put forward. The paper also discusses how to organize discharge measurements and to establish water losses along river channels in karst, whether in stationary and stagnant conditions or in non-steady flows, and presents some experiences with measuring and defining the ponor swallow capacity in karst poljes. INTRODUCTION Karst is an area consisting mostly of Limestone, doiomite, gypsum and other soluble rocks. It is distinctive primarily because of its geological, geomorphological and hydraulic characteristics. Closely related to these are its hydrological and hydraulic characteristics. In this paper hydronetric aspects of karst investigations are emphasised, but without special reference to specific equipment. Recent investigations, mostly by Yugoslav specialists, are described together with specific hydronetric methods for processing data which, at this stage, could provide more conplete and detailed information on the process of water fluctuation in karst. An investigator studying water phenomena in karst must be aware of the added obstacles he will encounter when trying to identify the system, and he must recognize that additional data are necessary if he is to overcome these obstacles. Only field tests can provide such data. When tests are carried out it is Rot enough to use results obtained by classical hydrometric methods for measuring surface and underground water: the inves- tigator must use all the available kinds of data gathered in space and time using other measurement methods as well. Water fluctuation in karst varies. There are flows which can be approximated by flow in pipeline systems with free water courses or under pressure. In sone regions water flows exclusively through the fissures in the karst system, but there are zones where the flow ie eimilar to that through a granular porous medium. Suitable measurement methods should be chosen in accordance with the predominant type of flow. 32322 Ognjen Bonacci MEASUREMENT METHODS FOR WATER PHENOMENA IN KARST There are numerous investigation and measurement methods applied to water phenomena in karst (Wilanovié 1981). Tt is emphasized that whilst these methods cannot be classified as strictly hydrometric methods, the fact that they must be dealt with from a hydrometric standpoint is indisputable. They can be classified as follows: 1. Plezonetric boreholes in karst, 2. Tracers, 3. Speleological investigations, 4. Renote Sensing, 5. Geophysical measurement methods, 6. Measurement of chemical composition of water and suspended and mineral substances in water, 7. Measuresent of water temperature, 8. Classical and specific hydrometric measure- ments in karst. 1) The most important data gathered by piezometer are absolute minima and maxima and the velocities of rises and falls in water levels. It should be emphasized that data obtained by piezoneter should be processed with data collected using other measurenent methods. In many cases the spring discharge rating curve can be Gotermined only with, the use of water level data obtained by piezoneter. A similar problem has beon successfully solved by Hajdin and Ivetié (1978). igure 1 gives a schematic presentation of several possible situations. In cases when there is an outflow with a free water course, the spring discharge is most frequently the function of the water table in the cross section alone. When the flow is formed under pressure the spring discharge 9 can be defined by the following equation g-avTa@,- mT w This equation refers to all the curves in Figure 18, to the section of the curve for ity in Figure 1B and to the section of the curve for Ache, in Fagthe IC. For the ares in Figure IC when foil, equaion t becenes tore’ conplex and has the, Zottowing form o-a, Vise, 1 +a, Vie, - aT @ Parancter a has the dimension of area and can be expressed as the product of the ean eross-sectional area of the main inflow Channel 'R and discharge coefficient c. Using this procedure it is possible, in sone cases, to determine the mean area of the cross section of the main inflow channel. 2), Application of tracers in Karst (Smart 1976, Ramljak et al. 1976) Se one of the oldest detection methods used. One tracer nethod for karst investigation is the use of scke or sone other Gaseous tracers. ‘This makes it possible to study the properties and relationships within a porous karst system with fissures above the groundwater table. ‘The circulation of air mixed with smoke oF gas must be established in the karst zone, BY monitoring the Presence of saoke wo can get an insight into the storage and Eransportation properties of the karst medium above the underground water table.Specific hydrometry of karst regions 323 (@- spring flow capacity Z-piezometric H-spring water teve! O-z3 FIG. 1 Some examples of spring discharge curve in karst.824 Ognjen Bonacci 3) Measuring chemical composition of water and of suspended and mineral substances in water is only partly related to the field of hydrometry. Measurements of this kind can be used (if they are well organized and numerous) for establishing whence in the catchment water on the way to particular springs comes. 4) Measurements of water temperature in reservoirs in karst, in piezometric boreholes, in springs, and in karst caverns are used for collecting data on porosity zones through which the water penetrates into the underground areas from a karst reservoir. Measurements should be taken under various conditions of underground water level and of water level in the reservoir. After numerous, well-organized investigations of this type it is possible to find out how successful grout-injection procedures have been in preventing water losses from the reservoir into the porcus karst underground, It is a well-known fact that the temperature of underground water in_karst is relatively constant. In Yugoslavia it is between +8 and +10°C. The surface water temperature varies from +4 to 25°C. Changes in underground water temperature indicate that it has been mixed with water from other horizons. If the trend of the temperature changes approaches the temperature measured in the basin, it can be supposed that water flows from the reservoir into that part of the karst underground. Understandably, water temperature measurements, however reliable, are not alone sufficient to prove leakage from karst reservoirs. DETERMINATION OF WATER LOSSES ALONG RIVER CHANNELS IN KARST When discussing problems of measuring and establishing water losses along river channels in karst, reference is made primarily to upstzeam and middle reaches of the stream which are not located in typical and easily discernible ponor zones, and where the disappearance takes place through barely perceptible small fissures, most frequently at the bottom, and rarely at the sides, of open streams. To determine these losses the extremely expensive and sensitive process of “simultaneous measurements" must be carried out (Bonacci and Perger 1970). On the basis of these measurements far-reaching and often very expensive engineering decisions are made on the neod for grout injections, on reservoirs locations, or other remedial measures. ‘The most favourable Situation for discharge measurements, and for establishing water losses along sections of open stream flows in karst, occurs when water stage levels romain the sane for a period of several days. In such cases all measurements can be carried out in identical conditions. he work on the site should be organized in such a way ag to carry out the greatest number of discharge measurements While the water table levels do not vary. The miniman number of measurements ranges from eight to ten. With this type of measurement it is very interesting to study the influences of the gauging team and its equipment on the variation of measurenent results. ‘he computation {e carried out using analysis of variance, applying Latin square schemes. The Work scheme with all the necessary explanations is given in Fig.2. To carry out such analysis the measuring instruments and the teams need to be changedSpecific hydrometry of karst regions 328 D water level STAGE HYDROGRAPH to- start of measurements ty end of measurements (0 [measuring instruments t]2[3]4]s| | tte ele|alole z[ejalojele gis[alolelele| |e g[+[elelelela i “[sfelelelalo latin. squares gr2eco-tatin squares FIG.2 Organization scheme for similtancous discharge measurements for defining water losses along river channels in karst,326 Ognjen Bonacci for different cross sections according to a previously established plan. One such possibility is given in the matrix of the Latin Square in Fig.2. Although fulfilling this condition calls for additional time, results can point to significant factors influencing measurements. Further explanation is provided by the mathenatical model given in equation 3, which represents the essence of variance analysis using Latin squares Qij_ B+ 0, + 00, + A He @ where GQ, = influence of the tean on the measurenent, {discharge 91x) 7 80} = influence of measuring instriments, hg, = influence of measurement cross section, ¢ = influence of uniontrolled factors (nost often taken as a random Unexplained part), Q = expectation (approximated by the arithnetic mean). The scheme above can also be combined with an analysis of the influence of water Level change on variations of measurenents. This can be achieved applying Graeco-Latin squares in analysis of variance as exemplified in Pig.2. The mimber of measurements Fenains the same as in Latin squares, being N= n°. Tt is not always possible to carry out discharge measurements in steady flow conditions, mich as these are to be preferred. But the determination of water losses denands a very high accuracy; unstable channels whose section varies over a period of tine should be avoided at all costs. An example Of meassrononts obtained on a river in Yugoslav karst is given in Fig.2. The computation of swallow capacity per Section vas effocted on the basis of a budget equation given by the following expression vWevyrs R a where V, = the water volume at the inflow cross section, V, = water vblune at the outflow cross section, G = volume of Josses along a section, R= volune of water retention along chat section. Since the inflow and outflow quantities are approximately the same, the whole computation is carried out with successive approximation, with the requirement that during measurement period T fron the beginning of ty to the end of ty, condition of conservation should be fulfilled, i.e. ,Vj the water volume at the inflow cross section during the whole of time period T should be equal to the sum of 7G, wie (1,2,.-+n) the Volume of water sinkage into the karst Underground in the i-th Section during the whole of time period T. It is supposed that the retention volume dees not change, and the computation begins and finishes with the same retention, an empty riverbed and a ponor zone. During the period when storage is decreasing a budget equation for each time increment At (from t, to t,) within time 7 must be satisfied. ‘The main disadvantage of such measurenents is that results and conclusions obtained in this way are often valid only for a specific situation, whereas with different conditions of time and underground water in karst they(©) DIAGRAMS OF SINKING IN SECTIONS. +O +- © 04S river 590m _, 630m _ 310m (240m \ | etsarge tn nm mn we | ‘measurement profiles zone of swallow holes @ SCHEME INDICATING SECTIONS AND MEASUREMENT PROFILES 5 water loved 70 ves at Hmax * 14em_2, 160 ° 1504 y a 5 T 0 (B) RATING CURVE FOR PROFILE discharge [ms] L | } | | @ time : ° * Sia oan One I s elo mean me! oon eo ws we we EM i 8 we FIG.3 Measurement results for water losses along river channels with karst non-steady flows,928 ognjen Bonacci cannot be directly applied. For this reason it is necessary to measure levels of underground water near the river bed on lines hydrogeologically connected with the analysed open watercourses of ponor zones, for water levels can have a significant influence on the swallow capacity of the karst underground. DETERMINATION OF SWALLOW CAPACITY OF “PONORS In Yugoslav karst the most interesting subsystem is the *polje. Poljes afford great scope for research on hydrological phenomena. A general scheme of the shape and system of water flow in the polie, and under it, in Yugoslavia is given in Fig.4. If we are to determine the hydrologic budget the swallow capacity of ponors must be known, The different forms of water fluctuation from the *polje can be classified in terms of independent large ponors, ponor zones with several large or small ponors, and ponors acting temporarily as Yestavelles. The third category is very frequent and calls for additional measurements. ‘The swallow capacity of ponor or ponor zones (including estavelles) can be established indirectly by using the water budget in the polje together with the equation for the change of water volume in the reservoir. It is very difficult to obtain accurate results using this method as there are many unknowns involved vhich are difficult to measure, above all the underground and surface inflow into the polje. A specific situation arises when the capacity of ponors depends exclusively on the water level in the pre-ponor retention. This was the case in the situation presented in Fig.3 where there is a karst polje on the highest horizon. The maximun swallow capacity of a ponor in the field was obtained by an approximating procedure based on the solution of a system consisting of two equations au, au, «sy where 94, is the inflow into the polje in time ty(i-1 or 2), G, is the swallow capacity of ponors in the same time period, Fj is the watercourse surface area in the sane time pericd, Hy is the corresponding water level. When computing the ponor swallow capacity we take time t; and ty when the water stage is HH and consequently the Watercourse surface area is F1=F), and we suppose G, to be equal to Gy. Inflows into the polje are known and measured quantities. By plotting tangents on the hydrograph at points (ty, Hy) and (to, Hg) values of dHy/dt and dH2/dt are obtained. Before selecting the final value the procedure should be repeated for several different water stages, but all have to be close to the top of the nivogran. A general presentation of how the ponor functions is given in Fig.5A. In the case where ,H>H, the ponor acts as an estavella, ¥” See glossary at end of text.Specific hydrometry of karst regions 320 (@) SITUATION OF TYPICAL KARST POLJE LONGITUDINAL CROSS SECTION aa @ cwrmanen sring (9) emporery indies Sesto) © swt holo (FY D> tameerny seen © sing of water nto. kart P= semerine song C) SCHEME INDICATING CROSS SECTION THROUGH SEVERAL KARST POLJE Aim Le FIG.4 Schematic presentation of outflows in karst poljes.390 ognjen Bonacci @ TYPES OF PONOR FUNCTIONING smote tr now mH noe AH > oH —-estavets KH oH poer Os: const Hp high © RATING CURVE FOR A (B) RATING CURVE FOR PONORS ZONE ~~ A SINGLE PONOR io fer FIG.5 Functioning of ponors with swallows capacitySpecific hydrometry of karst regions 391 the swallow capacity of ponor Qs depending on the relation between the piezometric levels in the karst underground H and the elevation in the pre-ponor retention H. ‘wo curves indicating the ponor capacity and ponor zone defined in Yugoslav karst are presented in Figs 5B and Sc. in order to determine the swallow capacity of independent ponors we use specially designed measurement devices based on the principle of measuring velocities or pressure changes at certain points (Mikulec and Bagarié 1966). In certain situations, when possible, a scale model of a ponor is constructed and the cross section of the velocity field is defined for different conditions of ponor or estavelle operation. Measurements are carried out continuously, with specially designed instruments at one or more points. According to the similarity between the model and the real ponor, the flow to be discharged through the controlled cross section of the ponor is defined, There are nuperous problers related to such measurement and it is particularly difficult to protect the instruments from floating bodies and provide the equipment with enough energy for a long operation, because it is not possible to control all these things when the polje is inundated and consequently inaccessible. The dimensions of the equipment are limited to avoid alterations in the conditions of the flow. Equipment satisfying most of these conditions has been designed at the Institute for Hydrotechnics of the Faculty of Civil Engineering in Sarajevo. ‘The usefulness of all the above-mentioned procedures is Limited to selving specific problems and obtaining useful but incomplete data. To determine the swallow capacity of ponors it is absolutely necessary, besides measuring the level of pre-ponor retention, to establish the piezometric levels in hydrogeological zones close to the polje. These zones are not easily identified and the water flow in then is very complex both temporally and spatial consequently the influence of their piezonetric level on the swallow capacity of ponors varies, To obtain more reliable data fon the swallow capacity of ponors a great number of measurements must be carried out over a period of at least three years, one of which has to be extremely damp. Such conditions, although rare, an give the most reliable data on the system. In periods of extreme dampness ponors can sometimes act as estavelles. In such cases there are overflows from one hydro- Geological zone into another. Figure 6 presents a scheme for dividing one karst polje in Yugoslavia into 6 hydrogeological zones. In several zones there are large enclosed ponors which completely swallow all the water from the zone, whereas in some zones sinkage takes place through smaller ponors or along fissures of the karst system alone. ‘the approximate swallow capacity of all the ponors can be determined in such conditions according to measurenents of the water level in piezoneters of all the zones and of the water level in the lake. These data are included in the mathematical model suggested by Avdagié 1976. A suggested improvement on that model is to use the complete budget equation of the polje as the continuity equation, rather than the equation expressing only changes in water accumulation through swallowing. Experience has shown, however, that the resultsa ® @) © SITUATION OF KARST POLJE CROSS SECTION a-a 7 {pHmas 325, tL [ze vara poe \ ; ty hes vo | a 2 \ ee sounds hymen ne H2i~ hydrogeological zones © piezometers 424 piozometric tevel in i-th zone FIG.6 Scheme of one karst polje with hydrogeological zones and system of measurement. yooruog uofubo zeeSpecific hydrometry of karst regions 333 obtained in complex situations are not always completely satisfactory and acceptable. REFERENCES Avdagié, I. (1976) Determination of flow through flooded karst poljes by use of poljes' and piezometric boreholes water levels (Proc. Karst Hydrology and Water Resources) W.R.P., Colorado, usa, 341-354, Bagarié, 1., Kovacina, N, (1976) Simulation of tracer diffusion in underground flow by simple geonetry (Proc. Karst Hydrology and Water Resources) W-R.P., Colorado, USA, 237-258. Bonacci, 0., Perger, V. (1970) Utvrdivanje gubitaka vode kod stagnirajuéin vodostaja na potezima kragksh vodotoka (Evolution of water losses on a river in the karst), Gradevinar 22 (5), 155-164. Hajdin, G., Ivetié, M. (1978) Jedan primjer pokusaja objasnjenja hidraulickin usiova u kraskom podzennom toku na esnova opazanja piezometarskin stanja i izlaznih proticaja (An attempt to explain hydraulic conditions in karst underground flow based on observation of piezonetric levels and outflow discharges), Na¥ kr¥ 4 (4), 27-32. Mikulec, S., Bagarié, I. (1966) Izbor najpogodnije metode mjorenja kapaciteta ponora (Choice of the most suitable method for measuring sink capacity) Radovi i saopstenja 6, 119-130, Mitanovié, P. (1981) Karst, hydrogeology, Water Resources Publications, 1981. pp 434. Ranljak et al 1976 Smart, P.L. (1976) Use of optical brightencr-cellulose detector systems for water tracing (Proc. 3. SUNT, Ljubljana-Bled, September 1976) 203-213. Stringfield, V.7., Rapp, J-R., Anders, R.B. (1979) Bffects of karst and geologic structure on the circulation of water and permeability in carbonate aquifers. J. Hydrol. 43, 313-332. GLOSSARY ESTAVELLA A cave that produces a spring during some periods and takes in a sinking stream during others. POLE A large depression in limestone karst, elliptical in plan and flat floored, often covered with terra rossa, sometimes with a marsh or small lake. PONOR A swallow-hole or oven, i.e. a vertical shaft in Limestone country, leading from the surface into an underground cave system, possibly with a stream falling into it.