Copyright Law for

Librarians and Educators

Creative Strategies and Practical Solutions

THIRD EDITION

Kenneth D. Crews

AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION | CHICAGO 2012

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 ALA Editions purchases fund advocacy, awareness, and
accreditation programs for library professionals worldwide.

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KENNETH D. CREWS has specialized in copyright issues as they relate to education,
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

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Copyright law for librarians and educators: creative strategies and practical solutions /
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CONTENTS
$FNQRZOHGJPHQWV ix
Introduction: This Book and the Importance of Copyright xi

PART I: THE REACH OF COPYRIGHT

1 The Copyright Path: Changing Needs and Copyright Solutions 1
2 The Scope of Protectable Works 9
3 Works without Copyright Protection 15

PART II: RIGHTS OF OWNERSHIP

4 Duration and Formalities: How Long Do Copyrights Last? 23
5 Who Owns the Copyright? 31
6 The Rights of Copyright Owners 39
7  ([FHSWLRQVWRWKH5LJKWVRI2ZQHUV 45

PART III: FAIR USE

8 )DLU8VH*HWWLQJ6WDUWHG 53
9 )DLU8VH8QGHUVWDQGLQJWKH)RXU)DFWRUV 59
10 *HWWLQJ&RPIRUWDEOHZLWK)DLU8VH$SSO\LQJWKH)RXU)DFWRUV 67
11 7KH0HDQLQJRI)DLU8VH*XLGHOLQHV 77

PART IV: FOCUS ON EDUCATION AND LIBRARIES

12 'LVWDQFH(GXFDWLRQDQGWKH7($&+$FW 83
13 Libraries and the Special Provisions of Section 108 93
14 Responsibilities, Liabilities, and Doing the Right Thing 101

PART V: SPECIAL FEATURES

15 Music and Copyright by Dwayne K. Buttler, University of Louisville 111
16 $QWLFLUFXPYHQWLRQDQGWKH'0&$ 119
17 &RS\ULJKW$UFKLYHVDQG8QSXEOLVKHG0DWHULDOV 131
18 Permission from Copyright Owners 139

vii

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viii CONTENTS

APPENDIXES
A Selected Provisions of the U.S. Copyright Act 145

B Copyright Checklist: Fair Use 163

C Copyright Checklist: The TEACH Act and Distance Education 167

D Copyright Checklist for Libraries: Copies for Preservation or Replacement 171

E Copyright Checklist for Libraries: Copies for Private Study 173

F Model Letter for Permission Requests 177

*XLGHWR$GGLWLRQDO5HDGLQJ 179
,QGH[ 185

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 EIGHT

FAIR USE
Getting Started

KEY POINTS
Fair use is vital to the growth of knowledge.
Fair use is based on a balancing of four factors set forth in the statute.
Fair use can apply to a wide range of materials and activities.
Fair use does not have defined boundaries, but is flexible for changing needs.
Fair use ensures that copyrights are not overprotected, and that the law
allows new creativity based on existing works.

FAIR USE HAS PDQ\GHVFULSWLRQVDQGGHQLWLRQV)XQFWLRQDOO\IDLUXVHLVDQ

H[FHSWLRQWRWKHULJKWVRIFRS\ULJKWRZQHUVDOORZLQJWKHSXEOLFWRPDNHOLPLWHG
XVHVRIDSURWHFWHGZRUN,WFDQEHGHQHGDVDOLPLWHGULJKWWRXVHFRS\ULJKWHG
ZRUNVZLWKRXWWKHFRS\ULJKWRZQHUVFRQVHQWRIWHQXQGHUFRQQHGFLUFXP-
VWDQFHVIRUSXUSRVHVVXFKDVHGXFDWLRQUHVHDUFKQHZVUHSRUWLQJFULWLFLVP
DQGFRPPHQWDU\%\VSHFLFDOO\VXSSRUWLQJWKHVHSXUVXLWVWKHODZRIIDLUXVH
is important for the advancement of knowledge and the communication of
LGHDV<HWIDLUXVHGRHVQRWDOORZHYHU\WKLQJ7KLVFKDSWHURIIHUVLQVLJKWLQWR
WKHPHDQLQJDQGWKHOLPLWVRIIDLUXVH

WHAT IS FAIR USE?

Fair use is an essential counterbalance to the widening range of rights that
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ULJKWDSULYLOHJHDQGDGHIHQVH:KDWHYHUWKHODEHOWKHGRFWULQHLVDOHJDOO\
VDQFWLRQHGRSSRUWXQLW\,WDOORZVWKHSXEOLFWRPDNHOLPLWHGXVHVRIFRS\ULJKWHG
ZRUNVXVHVWKDWPLJKWRWKHUZLVHFRQVWLWXWHLQIULQJHPHQWHVSHFLDOO\IRU
DGYDQFLQJNQRZOHGJHRUVHUYLQJRWKHULPSRUWDQWVRFLDOREMHFWLYHV$SSO\LQJ
fair use may be challenging at times, but understanding the law is vital for the
JURZWKRINQRZOHGJH
Fair use can rescue many would-be infringements and turn them into law-
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XVHVRIFRS\ULJKWHGZRUNV$VKRUWTXRWDWLRQIURPDQH[LVWLQJSDSHULQWRD
new report could constitute an unlawful reproduction of the quoted portions
RIWKHZRUN+LWWLQJWKHSULQWNH\IRUDSDSHUFRS\RIDZHESDJHFDQDOVREH

53

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54 PART III: FAIR USE

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LQFOXGHLPDJHVRIRXWGRRUDUWDQGFOLSVRIPXVLFLQWKHEDFNJURXQG7KHULJKWRIIDLUXVHPD\
ZHOOUHVFXHPDQ\RIWKHVHDFWLYLWLHVIURPOHJDOSHUGLWLRQ0DQ\RWKHUXVHVDUHOHVVFHUWDLQ
EXWFOHDUO\SRVVLEOHDSLFWXUHRUVRQJO\ULFVSRVWHGWRDEORJDQHZVSDSHUDUWLFOHSRVWHGWR
DFODVVZHEVLWHRUDEULHIYLGHRFOLSRQ<RX7XEH

THE FLEXIBILITY OF THE LAW

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KDVEHHQWKHWDUJHWRIVWHDG\FKDOOHQJHDQGLWLVWKHREMHFWRIHQRUPRXVSUDLVH)RUHGXFD-
WLRQDQGUHVHDUFKIDLUXVHLVWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWH[FHSWLRQWRWKHULJKWVRIFRS\ULJKWRZQHUV
EHFDXVHLWLVH[LEOHDQGDGDSWDEOHWRWKHPDQ\XQSUHGLFWDEOHVLWXDWLRQVDQGQHHGVWKDWRFFXU
DVZHSXUVXHGLYHUVHSURMHFWVDQGDSSO\LQQRYD-
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WRDOOW\SHVRIPHGLDDQGDOOW\SHVRIZRUNV2Q
IN THE CASE OF Higgins v.
Detroit Educational Television
the other hand, fair use can take on a new scope
Foundation, 4 F.Supp.2d 701 (E.D. DQGPHDQLQJIRUHDFKVHWRIFLUFXPVWDQFHV7KH
Mich. 1998), the court allowed as H[LELOLW\RIWKHODZPD\GHPDQGSDWLHQFHDQG
fair use the incorporation of short DWWHQWLRQEXWWKDWH[LELOLW\LVRQHRIWKHSUL]HG
excerpts of a musical work into YLUWXHVRIIDLUXVH
the background of a production
Consider the short quotations that routinely
that was broadcasted on a local
PBS affiliate and sold in limited DSSHDULQVFKRODUO\ZRUNV7KH\DUHRIWHQHDVLO\
copies to educational institutions. ZLWKLQIDLUXVH2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHORQJHUWKH
TXRWDWLRQWKHOHVVOLNHO\LWZLOOEHIDLU7KHH[-
ibility of the law means that some quotations are
DOORZHGZKLOHRWKHUVDUHQRW6LPLODUO\XVLQJWKHTXRWDWLRQVLQRQHFRQWH[WPLJKWEHIDLU
EXWWKHVDPHTXRWDWLRQVLQDGLIIHUHQWSURMHFWZLWKGLIIHUHQWSXUSRVHVPD\QRWEHZLWKLQWKH
ODZ7KDWVDPHH[LELOLW\HQDEOHVWKHODZWRHQFRPSDVVFUHDWLYHXVHVRIGLVWLQFWLYHPDWHULDOV
VXFKDVVWDQGDUGL]HGVXUYH\LQVWUXPHQWVPRWLRQSLFWXUHVRUFRPSXWHUVRIWZDUH,QUHFHQW
years, courts have ruled on fair use as applied to rap versions of pop songs,1 thumbnail
images of photographs in search engines,2DQGFRQWRUWHG%DUELHGROOVLQPRGHUQDUW3
:KLOHWKHH[LELOLW\RIIDLUXVHLVRQHRILWVJUHDWHVWVWUHQJWKVLWLVDOVRWKHVRXUFHRI
XQFHUWDLQW\5HDVRQDEOHSHRSOHGLVDJUHHRQZKDWLVIDLUDQGXQWLODFRXUWUXOHVRQDSDU-
WLFXODUFDVHWKHODZRIIHUVQRGHQLWLYHOHJDOO\ELQGLQJDQVZHUVWRPRVWIDLUXVHTXHVWLRQV
&RQJUHVVGHOLEHUDWHO\FUHDWHGDH[LEOHIDLUXVHVWDWXWHWKDWJLYHVQRH[DFWSDUDPHWHUV
DOORZLQJIDLUXVHWRWDNHLQWRDFFRXQWWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHVRIHDFKFDVH4

THE FOUR FACTORS

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6HFWLRQRIWKH86&RS\ULJKW$FWVHWVIRUWKWKHIRXUIDFWRUVWRHYDOXDWHDQGEDODQFHLQ
the analysis of fair use:

The purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial
QDWXUHRULVIRUQRQSURWHGXFDWLRQDOSXUSRVHV
The nature of the copyrighted work

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 FAIR USE: GETTING STARTED 55

The amount and substantiality of the portion

used in relation to the copyrighted work as THE CASE OF Folsom v. Marsh
a whole is commonly cited as the
The effect of the use upon the potential mar- wellspring of American fair
ket for or value of the copyrighted work5 use. In his elaborate opinion
from 1841, Justice Joseph
Story isolated variables that
7KHVHFRQFHSWVDUHURRWHGLQDVHULHVRIMXGLFLDO impinge on the determination
UXOLQJVVWUHWFKLQJEDFNWR6&RXUWVH[DPLQHG of fair use, and those variables
DQGUHQHGWKHGRFWULQHIRUPRUHWKDQDFHQWXU\ are remarkably similar to the
XQWLOLQ&RQJUHVVIRUWKHUVWWLPHHQDFWHG four factors of current law.
DVWDWXWHVHFXULQJDQH[SOLFLWSODFHIRUIDLUXVHLQ
WKHODUJHUHTXDWLRQRI$PHULFDQFRS\ULJKWODZ7
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VLWXDWLRQUHTXLUHVIUHVKDSSOLFDWLRQRIWKHIRXUIDFWRUVDQGVKRUWRIDQDXWKRULWDWLYHFRXUW
UXOLQJWKHDQDO\VLVPD\QHYHUSURGXFHHDV\RUDEVROXWHDQVZHUV7RGDWHFRXUWVKDYH
SURYLGHGOLWWOHGLUHFWJXLGDQFHDERXWIDLUXVHLQWKHOLEUDU\RUHGXFDWLRQVHWWLQJ<HWFRXUWV
DUHQRWLQVHQVLWLYHWRDFDGHPLFQHHGVDQGWKHIDLUXVHVWDWXWHDFNQRZOHGJHVH[SOLFLWO\WKH
LPSRUWDQFHRIDQHGXFDWLRQDOSXUSRVH7KHQH[WWZRFKDSWHUVRIWKLVERRNH[DPLQHWKHFRXUW
UXOHVRISDUWLFXODULPSRUWDQFHWRHGXFDWLRQDQGOLEUDULDQVKLS

THE FAIR USE STATUTE

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FOHDUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIIDLUXVHLVWKHVWDWXWHLWVHOIWKHUHDOVRXUFHRIIDLUXVHODZLQWKH
8QLWHG6WDWHV7KHIDLUXVHVWDWXWHWDNHVKDUGO\DPLQXWHWRUHDGDQGLVUHPDUNDEO\VLPSOH
and clear compared to many other federal statutes:

1RWZLWKVWDQGLQJWKHSURYLVLRQVRIVHFWLRQVDQG$WKHIDLUXVHRIDFRS\ULJKWHG
work, including such use by reproduction in copies or phonorecords or by any other
PHDQVVSHFLHGE\WKDWVHFWLRQIRUSXUSRVHVVXFKDVFULWLFLVPFRPPHQWQHZVUHSRUW-
ing, teaching (including multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or research, is
QRWDQLQIULQJHPHQWRIFRS\ULJKW,QGHWHUPLQLQJZKHWKHUWKHXVH
made of a work in any particular case is a fair use the factors to be Recall from chapter
FRQVLGHUHGVKDOOLQFOXGH 4 that timely
registration of the
(1) the purpose and character of the use, including whether
copyright with the
VXFKXVHLVRIDFRPPHUFLDOQDWXUHRULVIRUQRQSURWHGXFDWLRQDO U.S. Copyright Office
SXUSRVHV can have practical
WKHQDWXUHRIWKHFRS\ULJKWHGZRUN and legal advantages,
(3) the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation even if not strictly
WRWKHFRS\ULJKWHGZRUNDVDZKROHDQG required. Later in
this book, chapter
(4) the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value 14 examines an
RIWKHFRS\ULJKWHGZRUN important provision of
7KHIDFWWKDWDZRUNLVXQSXEOLVKHGVKDOOQRWLWVHOIEDUDQG- the Copyright Act that
LQJRIIDLUXVHLIVXFKQGLQJLVPDGHXSRQFRQVLGHUDWLRQRIDOOWKH limits the liabilities
DERYHIDFWRUV that many educators
and librarians may
face as they seek
7KHVWDWXWHHVWDEOLVKHVWKHIUDPHZRUNIRUDQVZHULQJWKHH[WHQ- to understand and
sive variety of questions you might have about clipping materials apply fair use.

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56 PART III: FAIR USE

for websites, quoting from articles, making handouts for teaching, or sam-
SOLQJDQGUHPL[LQJDVRXQGUHFRUGLQJ1XPHURXVFRXUWFDVHVDSSO\WKDW THE FULL TEXT of the entire
framework to the facts at issue in order to determine whether an activity U.S. Copyright Act is available
LVIDLUXVHRULQIULQJHPHQW from many sources. The U.S.
Copyright Office seeks to keep
the full text, updated with all
amendments, available on its
website at www.copyright.gov/
A CLOSER LOOK AT THE STATUTE title17.

2IFRXUVHWKHODZLVQHYHUVRVLPSOH)DLUXVHLVWKHVXEMHFWRIQXPHU-
RXVERRNVWKRXVDQGVRIDUWLFOHVDQGDJURZLQJFDVFDGHRIFRXUWRSLQLRQV7KHIROORZLQJ
chapters will offer detailed insights, but for now, the graphic on the following page offers a
FORVHUORRNDWWKHODQJXDJHRIWKHVWDWXWHLWVHOI8QGHUVWDQGLQJIDLUXVHLQDQ\SDUWLFXODUVHW-
WLQJEHVWEHJLQVZLWKDQRYHUYLHZRIWKHODQJXDJHIURP&RQJUHVV7KHZRUGVRIWKHVWDWXWH
PD\EHUHODWLYHO\VLPSOHEXWWKH\DUHULFKZLWKPHDQLQJ

PRINCIPLES FOR WORKING WITH FAIR USE

7KHIROORZLQJFKDSWHUVH[SORUHPRUHIXOO\WKHPHDQLQJDQGDSSOLFDWLRQRIIDLUXVHEXW
always keep in mind these practical principles for working with this important copyright Chapter 7 of this
GRFWULQH book summarizes
some of the other
Fair use is a balancing test. You need to evaluate and apply the four factors, but you do statutory exceptions
QRWQHHGWRVDWLVI\DOORIWKHPIRUDXVHWREHIDLU8 The pivotal question is whether of importance to
WKHIDFWRUVRYHUDOOOHDQLQIDYRURIRUDJDLQVWIDLUXVH education and
librarianship.
Fair use is highly fact-sensitive. The meaning and application of the factors will Chapter 18 offers
GHSHQGRQWKHVSHFLFIDFWVRIHDFKVLWXDWLRQ(DFKWLPH\RXIDFHDQHZRUFKDQJHG insights into the
VLWXDWLRQ\RXQHHGWRHYDOXDWHWKHIDFWRUVDQHZ quest for copyright
permissions.
Dont reach hasty conclusions. The question of fair use requires evaluation of all
IRXUIDFWRUV'RQRWFRQFOXGHWKDW\RXDUHZLWKLQIDLUXVHPHUHO\EHFDXVH\RXUXVH
LVIRUQRQSURWHGXFDWLRQRUKDVLPSRUWDQWVFKRODUO\REMHFWLYHV9 You have three
PRUHIDFWRUVWRHYDOXDWH6LPLODUO\DFRPPHUFLDOXVHFDQEHZLWKLQIDLUXVHDIWHU
H[DPLQLQJDOOIDFWRUV10
If your use is not fair, dont forget the other statutory exceptions to the rights of
owners.)DLUXVHDQGWKHRWKHUH[FHSWLRQVDSSO\LQGHSHQGHQWO\RI
RQHDQRWKHU<RXQHHGWRFRPSO\ZLWKRQO\RQHRIWKHPWRPDNH
\RXUXVHODZIXO A work may be in the public
domain for many reasons. Two
If your use is not within any of the exceptions, permission from
common reasons are that the
the copyright owner is an important option. Indeed, unless you copyright has expired, or the
change your planned use of the copyrighted work, you might have work was produced by the U.S.
OLWWOHFKRLFHEXWWRVHHNSHUPLVVLRQ government. Much more about
the public domain appears in
Fair use is relevant only if the work is protected by copyright. Do chapters 3 and 4 of this book.
not overlook the possibility that the work you want to use may
EHLQWKHSXEOLFGRPDLQLILWLVQRWSURWHFWHGE\FRS\ULJKW\RX
GRQRWKDYHWRZRUU\DERXWIDLUXVH6LPLODUO\LI\RXUXVHLVQRWZLWKLQWKHOHJDO
rights of the copyright owner, you are not an infringer, and you also do not have
WRFRQVLGHUIDLUXVH

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 THE TEXT AND MEANING OF FAIR USE
U.S. Copyright Act, Section 107
Sections 106 and 106A of the Copyright Act
grant the basic rights of copyright owners.
The phrase such as means fair use can
apply for many purposes in many situations,
beyond those not mentioned here.
If it is fair use, it is explicitly not an
infringement!
Shall include suggests that other factors
are possible, but realistically, courts almost
always rely on the four stated factors.
The statute only directs that we consider
the factors, but courts in fact weigh the
strength of arguments about each factor
and evaluate whether each factor tips in
favor of or against fair use.
The Fair Use Statute
Notwithstanding the provisions of sections
106 and 106A, the fair use of a copyrighted
work, including such use by reproduction
in copies or phonorecords or by any other
PHDQVVSHFLHGE\WKDWVHFWLRQIRUSXUSRVHV
such as criticism, comment, news report-
ing, teaching (including multiple copies for
classroom use), scholarship, or research, is
not an infringement of copyright,QGHWHU-
mining whether the use made of a work in
any particular case is a fair use the factors
to be considered shall include
(1) the purpose and character of the
use, including whether such use is of a
FRPPHUFLDOQDWXUHRULVIRUQRQSURWHGX-
FDWLRQDOSXUSRVHV

WKHQDWXUHRIWKHFRS\ULJKWHGZRUN

(3) the amount and substantiality of the

These four factors in the statute will be
examined in detail in the following two portion used in relation to the copyrighted
chapters of this book. ZRUNDVDZKROHDQG

(4) the effect of the use upon the poten-

tial market for or value of the copyrighted
ZRUN

Congress added this last sentence in 1992
in response to a series of court rulings that
appeared to severely constrain fair use as
applied to unpublished works.
The fact that a work is unpublished
VKDOOQRWLWVHOIEDUDQGLQJRIIDLUXVHLI
VXFKQGLQJLVPDGHXSRQFRQVLGHUDWLRQRI
DOOWKHDERYHIDFWRUV

.HQQHWK'&UHZVCopyright Law for Librarians and Educators, 3rd ed., Chicago: American Library Association, 2012.

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58 PART III: FAIR USE

NOTES
 Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.86
 Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corporation)GWK&LU
 Mattel Inc. v. Walking Mountain Productions)GWK&LU
 Copyright Law RevisionWK&RQJGVHVV+'RF7KH866XSUHPH&RXUW
KDVVWDWHGFOHDUO\WKDWIDLUXVHLVDFDVHE\FDVHGHWHUPLQDWLRQHarper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v.
Nation Enterprises86
 U.S. Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C.
 Folsom v. Marsh)&DV&&'0DVV
 U.S. Copyright Act of 1976, Public Law 94-553, U.S. Statutes at Large 90 (1976): 2541,
FRGLHGDWU.S.C.
 %HFDXVHWKLVLVQRWDPHFKDQLFDOGHWHUPLQDWLRQDSDUW\QHHGQRWVKXWRXWKHURSSRQHQWRQ
WKHIRXUIDFWRUWDOO\WRSUHYDLOWright v. Warner Books, Inc.)GG&LU
 Encyclopaedia Britannica Educational Corporation v. Crooks)6XSS:'1<

 Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.86

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 NINE

FAIR USE
Understanding the Four Factors

KEY POINTS
Purpose: A nonprofit educational purpose can support a claim of fair use.
A transformative use can also be highly influential.
Nature: Uses of factual, nonfiction works are more likely to be within fair use,
while fair use applies more narrowly to creative works.
Amount: The less the amount of a work used, the more likely it is fair use.
Effect: Uses that do not compete with the market for the copyrighted work
are more likely fair use.

DETERMINING WHETHER a use is fair use depends on an application of the

IRXUIDFWRUVLQWKHVWDWXWHEHIRUHPDNLQJWKDWDSSOLFDWLRQKRZHYHUDWKRXJKW-
IXOGHQLWLRQRIHDFKIDFWRULVFULWLFDO(VSHFLDOO\LQWKH\HDUVVLQFH&RQJUHVV
DGRSWHGWKHUVWIDLUXVHVWDWXWHLQ1 courts have handed down hundreds
RIGHFLVLRQVWKDWJLYHVRPHPHDQLQJWRWKHIDFWRUV7KHVWDWXWHDQWLFLSDWHVWKDW
RWKHUIDFWRUVPD\HQWHULQWRWKHGHFLVLRQDERXWIDLUXVH2 In reality, however,
courts rarely stray beyond the four factors set forth in the statute: purpose,
nature, amount, and effect
7KLVFKDSWHURIIHUVDJHQHUDORYHUYLHZRIWKHPHDQLQJDQGVLJQLFDQFHRI
WKHIDFWRUV$ORQJWKHZD\WKHIRFXVZLOOEHRQLVVXHVRIVSHFLDOLPSRUWDQFH
WRHGXFDWRUVDQGOLEUDULDQV7KLVRYHUYLHZZLOOGHPRQVWUDWHWKDWHGXFDWLRQDO
uses may be more favored than commercial uses, and that transformative
XVHVPD\KDYHHYHQJUHDWHULQXHQFHRQWKHRXWFRPH7KHRYHUYLHZZLOODOVR
VKRZWKDWOHVVLVPRUHEXWQRWDOZD\V7KHOHVV\RXXVHRIDZRUNWKHPRUH
likely it will be a fair use, but sometimes using a limited amount still may be
DQLQIULQJHPHQW1HYHUWKHOHVVVRPHWLPHVXVLQJSHUFHQWRIDZRUNLVVWLOO
DSHUPLWWHGIDLUXVH

FACTOR ONE
THE PURPOSE AND CHARACTER OF THE USE
7KHUVWIDFWRUH[DPLQHVZKHWKHUWKHXVHRIDFRS\ULJKWHGZRUNLVRIDFRP-
PHUFLDOQDWXUHRULVIRUQRQSURWHGXFDWLRQDOSXUSRVHV3 With that crucial
ODQJXDJH&RQJUHVVVLJQDOHGWKDWQRQSURWHGXFDWLRQDOXVHVJHQHUDOO\ZRXOG
EHIDYRUHGZKLOHFRPPHUFLDOXVHVZRXOGEHOHVVIDYRUHG3KRWRFRS\LQJIRU

59

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60 PART III: FAIR USE

FODVVURRPKDQGRXWVLVPRUHOLNHO\WREHIDLUXVHWKDQDUHFRSLHVIRUDSURIHVVLRQDOPHHWLQJ
Posting artwork on a website in connection with a research study is more likely to be fair
XVHWKDQPDNLQJWKHVDPHFRSLHVIRUDFRPPHUFLDODUWFDWDORJ
)DLUXVHLVFRPPRQLQHGXFDWLRQDQGOLEUDULDQVKLSDQGLVRIJURZLQJLPSRUWDQFH:LWK
WKHH[SDQVLRQRIHOHFWURQLFUHVHUYHVDQGFRXUVHPDQDJHPHQWV\VWHPVVXFKDV%ODFNERDUG
0RRGOHRU6DNDLLQVWUXFWRUVDUHFUHDWLQJOHVRI
UHDGLQJVDQGHDVLO\SRVWLQJWKHIXOOWH[WRIDUWLFOHV
THE SIMPLE ACT of password chapters, and other materials for students enrolled
restriction will likely be LQYDULRXVFRXUVHV)RUPDQ\RIWKHVHVLWXDWLRQV
important for the first WKHNH\FRS\ULJKWTXHVWLRQFHQWHUVRQIDLUXVH
factor and for the fourth $WOHDVWRQWKLVUVWIDFWRUHGXFDWRUVVKRXOGEH
factor. Limiting access can
DEOHWRPDNHDVWURQJDUJXPHQWIRUIDLUXVH,IWKH
strengthen the argument that
the materials are specifically materials are directly related to the course, if they
for education; limiting access are posted only at the direction of the instructor,
can also control the number and if passwords and other restrictions limit access
of readers, risks of further only to students enrolled in that one course, then
duplication, and dissemination the claim of an educational purpose should be
of the copyrighted materials,
which may help minimize the
SRZHUIXODQGFRQYLQFLQJ
market harm and therefore $YRLGMXPSLQJWRFRQFOXVLRQV<RXUZHOOLQWHQ-
strengthen the case for fair use. tioned education or research activity may still not
EHZLWKLQIDLUXVH<RXPD\KDYHDQLUUHIXWDEOH
DUJXPHQWRQWKHUVWIDFWRUEXWLWPLJKWEHRXW-
ZHLJKHGE\WKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIWKHUHPDLQLQJWKUHHIDFWRUV6LPLODUO\FRPPHUFLDOQHHGV
DUHFHUWDLQO\QRWEDUUHGIURPWKHEHQHWVRIIDLUXVH40DQ\IRUSURWHQWLWLHVKDYHDUJXHG
VXFFHVVIXOO\IRUIDLUXVH$OWKRXJKWKHUVWIDFWRUPD\QRWZHLJKLQIDYRURIIDLUXVHWKH
UHPDLQLQJWKUHHIDFWRUVFRXOG\HWWLSWKHEDODQFH
$VLQJOHIDFWRUPD\DOVRQRWZHLJKHQWLUHO\IRURUDJDLQVWDQGLQJRIIDLUXVH6RPHVLWX-
DWLRQVFDQFUHDWHDPL[HGUHVXOWRQWKHUVWIDFWRURUDQ\RWKHU)RUH[DPSOHZKHQWKH86
Supreme Court considered whether a rap-parody version of a pop song could be fair use,
the Court noted that the recording was a commercial product with considerable economic
potential, but the use was also criticism or com-
PHQWDU\IRUSXUSRVHVRIIDLUXVH5
CONSIDER THE CRITICAL case of
Random House, Inc. v. Salinger,
Transformative Uses 811 F.2d 90 (2d Cir.), cert.
denied, 484 U.S. 890 (1987). Even
,QDGGLWLRQWRFRQVLGHULQJVSHFLFSXUSRVHVFRXUWV though the user was Random
DOVRIDYRUXVHVWKDWDUHWUDQVIRUPDWLYH$WUDQV- House, a commercial entity, the
formative use may occur when the work is altered court concluded that the first
or transformed into something new, such as a factor weighed in favor of fair
use. The use was, in one respect,
SDURG\RIDVRQJ6 Transformative uses also occur for the commercial purpose of
ZKHQWKHZRUNLVXVHGLQDQHZPDQQHURUFRQWH[W selling books for profit. At the
GLVWLQFWIURPWKHLQWHQGHGXVHVRIWKHRULJLQDO)RU same time, the quotations from
H[DPSOHDUWLPDJHVLQDVFKRODUO\VWXG\WUDQVIRUP J. D. Salingers correspondence
the use of the works from aesthetic creations to were for the research purpose
of writing a biographical study.
REMHFWVRIDFDGHPLFDQDO\VLV7
Overall, the first factor tipped
The notion of a transformative use is increas- in favor of fair use. After
ingly important to education and librarianship as evaluating all four factors,
GLYHUVHZRUNVEHFRPHWKHVXEMHFWRIVWXG\DQG however, the court concluded
analysis, and as technologies allow clipping, alter- that the use was not fair.
ing, and reworking of materials for research and

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 FAIR USE: UNDERSTANDING THE FOUR FACTORS 61

WHDFKLQJ([DPSOHVRIWUDQVIRUPDWLYHXVHVFDQLQFOXGHTXRWDWLRQVLQFRUSRUDWHGLQWRDSDSHU
RUSHUKDSVSLHFHVRIDZRUNPL[HGLQWRDPXOWLPHGLDSURMHFWIRUWHDFKLQJSXUSRVHV7KH
deployment of multimedia tools and innovative
online courses will give rise to cutting and pasting,
DGGLQJFRPPHQWDU\DQGH[SORULQJSRVVLELOLWLHV IN A 1994 decision, Campbell
ZLWKLPDJHVWH[WDQGVRXQG0DQ\RIWKHVHXVHV v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.,
PD\ZHOOEHWUDQVIRUPDWLYH the U.S. Supreme Court
emphasized the importance of
transformative uses. Yet the
Multiple Copies Court pointedly noted: The
obvious statutory exception to
$WHDFKLQJSXUSRVHJHWVRQHPRUHLPSRUWDQWEHQ- this focus on transformative
HWLQWKHODZRIIDLUXVH7HDFKLQJLVH[SOLFLWO\RQH uses is the straight reproduction
RIWKHIDYRUHGSXUSRVHVVWDWHGLQWKHVWDWXWH8 The of multiple copies for
VWDWXWHDOVRVSHFLFDOO\SHUPLWVPXOWLSOHFRSLHV classroom distribution.
IRUFODVVURRPXVHVXEMHFWWRWKHIRXUIDFWRUV
$FFRUGLQJWRWKH6XSUHPH&RXUWPXOWLSOHFRSLHV
PD\WKHUHIRUHEHDOORZHGHYHQLIQRWWUDQVIRUPDWLYH9%XWEHFDUHIXO7KLVODQJXDJHGRHV
QRWPHDQWKDWDOOFRSLHVIRUFODVVURRPGLVWULEXWLRQDUHIDLUXVH<RXVWLOOQHHGWRHYDOXDWH
DQGEDODQFHDOOIDFWRUV<RXPD\ZHOOFRQFOXGHWKDWSKRWRFRSLHGKDQGRXWVRIDQHZVSDSHU
article are within the law, while also concluding that copies of multiple chapters posted on
%ODFNERDUGRURWKHUV\VWHPDUHQRWIDLUXVH

FACTOR TWO
THE NATURE OF THE COPYRIGHTED WORK
7KLVIDFWRUH[DPLQHVFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDQGTXDOLWLHVRIWKHZRUNEHLQJXVHG7KHXQGHUO\LQJ
FRQFHSWLVWKDWVRPHW\SHVRIZRUNVDUHPRUHDSSURSULDWHIRUIDLUXVHWKDQDUHRWKHUV10 This
VHFRQGIDFWRUUHTXLUHVDQH[DPLQDWLRQRIWKHTXDOLWLHVDQGDWWULEXWHVRIWKHFRS\ULJKWHGZRUN
allowing assessment of whether the work is of a type that merits greater protection and less
IDLUXVHRULVWKHNLQGRIZRUNWKDWIDLUXVHHQFRXUDJHVXVWREXLOGXSRQLQRUGHUWRH[SDQG
WKHJURZWKDQGGLVVHPLQDWLRQRINQRZOHGJH
Courts have had the occasion to draw some
OLQHV GHPRQVWUDWLQJ WKLV SRLQW )RU H[DPSOH IN 1985, THE U.S. Supreme
several court decisions have concluded that the Court ruled in Harper & Row,
unpublished nature of historical correspondence Publishers, Inc. v. Nation
FDQZHLJKDJDLQVWIDLUXVH11 The courts have rea- Enterprises, that fair use applied
soned that copyright owners should have the right narrowly to an unpublished book
manuscript, in order to preserve
WRGHWHUPLQHWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHVRIUVWSXEOLFDWLRQ the right of first publication.
and whether, when, and how to make the works Where did this right come
SXEOLFO\DYDLODEOH$VDFRUROODU\ZKHQFRXUWV from, and what does it mean?
QGWKDWDZRUNKDVEHHQSXEOLVKHGWKH\WHQGWR Chapter 17 of this book offers
EHPRUHOHQLHQWZLWKIDLUXVH some insights. That chapter
also traces the series of rulings
about historical manuscripts
Fiction and Nonfiction that the Harper & Row decision
spawned. Confusion about the
Fair use perhaps applies most generously to issue eventually led Congress
SXEOLVKHGZRUNVRIQRQFWLRQ$UWLFOHVERRNV to modify the fair use statute.
DQGRWKHUZRUNVRIQRQILFWLRQZKHWKHUDERXW

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62 PART III: FAIR USE

PDWKHPDWLFVVRFLRORJ\SROLWLFVRUDQ\RWKHUVXEMHFWDUHH[DFWO\WKHW\SHVRIZRUNVIRU
ZKLFKIDLUXVHFDQKDYHPRVWPHDQLQJ:K\"%HFDXVHWKHFHQWUDOSXUSRVHRIFRS\ULJKW
ODZLQFOXGLQJIDLUXVHLVWRDOORZIRUWKHJURZWKRINQRZOHGJH12 To accomplish that goal,
ZHUHJXODUO\QHHGWRXVHDQGEXLOGXSRQHDUOLHUZRUNV0RVWRIWHQWKHVXFFHVVIXOJURZWK
RINQRZOHGJHGHSHQGVRQXVLQJWKHQRQFWLRQZRUNVRIHDUOLHUVFKRODUVKLS&RXUWVKDYH
UHFRJQL]HGWKDWUHDOLW\
%\FRQWUDVWFRS\ULJKWODZJLYHVJUHDWHUSURWHFWLRQIRUDQGDOORZVOHVVIDLUXVHRI
ZRUNVRIFWLRQ13 Fair use will be relatively constrained for clips of novels, poetry, and
VWDJHSOD\V<RXZLOOOLNHO\QGDVLPLODURXWFRPHIRUXVHVRIRWKHUPRUHFUHDWLYHPDWHULDOV
VXFKDVDUWSKRWRJUDSK\PXVLFDQGPRWLRQSLFWXUHV,QGHHGDQDGGLWLRQDOSXUSRVHRIFRS\-
ULJKWODZLVWRSURWHFWDQGUHZDUGFUHDWLYLW\/LPLWLQJIDLUXVHIRUWKHPRVWFUHDWLYHZRUNV
DGYDQFHVWKDWREMHFWLYH7KLVUXOHGRHVQRWPHDQWKDWIDLUXVHYDSRUL]HV,WVLPSO\PHDQV
WKDWWKHVHFRQGIDFWRUPD\EHFRQVWUXHGDJDLQVWDQGLQJRIIDLUXVHLIWKHRULJLQDOZRUNLV
RIDFUHDWLYHQDWXUH'HSHQGLQJRQWKHVWUHQJWKRIWKHDUJXPHQWVRQWKHRWKHUIDFWRUVDXVH
RIDKLJKO\FUHDWLYHZRUNPD\VWLOOEHZLWKLQWKHODZ

Consumable and Out-of-Print Works

THE EXAMPLE OF consumable
2WKHUH[DPSOHVFDQKHOSEULQJSUDFWLFDOPHDQLQJWRWKHQDWXUHIDFWRU)RU works is another good
demonstration of one fact being
H[DPSOHWKLVIDFWRUPD\ZHLJKDJDLQVWIDLUXVHZKHQDSSOLHGWRFRSLHV
important to the evaluation
RIZRUNERRNSDJHVDQGH[FHUSWVIURPRWKHUFRQVXPDEOHPDWHULDOV of more than one factor. In
3XEOLVKHUVRIWHQSURGXFHDQGVHOOZRUNERRNVZLWKWKHH[SHFWDWLRQWKDW evaluating the fair use of
WKH\ZLOOEHIXOO\FRQVXPHGDQGUHSXUFKDVHGZLWKHDFKXVH&RSLHVFDQ a workbook, for example,
XQGHUPLQHWKHFRS\ULJKWRZQHUVH[SHFWHGPDUNHWE\KDUPLQJWKHGHPDQG you might conclude that the
IRULQGLYLGXDODQGUHSHDWHGVDOHV14 nature factor leans against
fair use. Because the copies
$PRUHFRPSOLFDWHGEXWFRPPRQFLUFXPVWDQFHKDVVSOLWOHJDODXWKRUL- would also interfere with the
WLHV0DQ\FRS\ULJKWHGZRUNVJRRXWRISULQWHYHQWKRXJKWKHFRS\ULJKW continuous marketing of the
PD\OLYHRQIRUGHFDGHVORQJHU$VHQDWHUHSRUWIURPDQGRQHHDUO\ workbook to students, you
MXGLFLDORSLQLRQDVVHUWHGWKDWLIDZRUNLVRXWRISULQWFRS\LQJWKDWZRUN might find that the fourth factor,
PD\QRWKDUPWKHPDUNHW15$IWHUDOOWKHFRS\ULJKWRZQHURIDQRXWRISULQW the effect on the market,
also weighs against fair use.
ERRNLVQRWDFWLYHO\FODLPLQJDPDUNHWDQGVHHNLQJVDOHV
$WOHDVWRQHFRXUWKDVUXOHGGLIIHUHQWO\DERXWRXWRISULQWPDWHULDOV,Q
WKHZHOONQRZQGHFLVLRQLQYROYLQJ.LQNRVDQGFRXUVHSDFNVWKHFRXUW
KLJKOLJKWHGWKDWRZQHUVRIRXWRISULQWPDWHULDOVPD\VWLOORIIHUDOLFHQVHWRPDNHFRSLHV
The Kinkos court reasoned that even though a work is out of
print, photocopying can still interfere with the marketing of
NOTICE AGAIN THAT DOLFHQVHWRPDNHFRSLHV7KHFRXUWIXUWKHUIRXQGWKDWZKHQ
one factin this case licensing is the primary market for an out-of-print work, the
the fact that a work FRSLHVDUHHVSHFLDOO\KDUPIXOWRWKHOLFHQVLQJPDUNHW16
is out of printcan :KDWFDQ\RXFRQFOXGHIURPWKHVHH[DPSOHV"<RXPD\
become important
often need to investigate the realistic and current marketing
in the evaluation
of two factors: the RIWKHZRUN\RXZDQWWRXVH,IWKHZRUNLVDYDLODEOHIRUSXU-
nature factor and FKDVHRUDFWLYHO\OLFHQVHG\RXPLJKWEHDIIHFWLQJWKDWPDUNHW
the effect factor. If the copyright owner has not made reasonable arrangements
for licensing, out of print may not mean tough luck for fair
XVH2QWKHRWKHUKDQGRXWRISULQWPD\EHFRPHDQREVR-
OHWHFRQFHSW,WPD\EHXQHFRQRPLFDOWRNHHSDERRNLQVWRFNDVDSULQWHGYROXPHEXWLW
PLJKWEHIHDVLEOHWRUHWDLQWKHERRNLQGHQLWHO\DVDGLJLWDOGRZQORDG0DQ\SXEOLVKHUVDQG
UHWDLOHUVKDYHPLJUDWHGWRGLJLWDOERRNVDQG*RRJOHDSSHDUVUHDG\DQGZLOOLQJWRGLJLWL]H

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 FAIR USE: UNDERSTANDING THE FOUR FACTORS 63

UHWDLQDQGGHOLYHUDQ\ERRNDWDQ\WLPH7KHVHUHYROXWLRQVLQSXEOLVKLQJDUHFHUWDLQWRKDYH
LPSRUWDQWFRQVHTXHQFHVIRUIDLUXVH

FACTOR THREE
THE AMOUNT AND SUBSTANTIALITY
OF THE PORTION USED

2QUVWLPSUHVVLRQWKHDPRXQWIDFWRUSHUKDSVVRXQGVOLNHLWVKRXOGEHUHDVRQDEO\VWUDLJKW-
IRUZDUG+RZHYHUDPRXQWLVPHDVXUHGERWKTXDQWLWDWLYHO\DQGTXDOLWDWLYHO\DQGQRH[DFW
PHDVXUHRIDOORZHGTXDQWLW\H[LVWVLQWKHODZ17 Rules about word counts and percentages
KDYHQRSODFHLQWKHODZRIIDLUXVH$WEHVWVXFKPHDVXUH-
PHQWVDUHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVLQWHQGHGWRVWUHDPOLQHIDLUXVHDW
ZRUVWWKH\GLVWUDFWIURPWKHH[LELOLW\WKDWPDNHVIDLUXVH ONE COURT
PHDQLQJIXODQGDGDSWDEOHWRQHZVLWXDWLRQV4XDQWLW\LVEHVW CAUTIONED that
even fleeting images
evaluated relative to the length of the entire original work and of artistic works in a
WKHDPRXQWQHHGHGWRVHUYHDSURSHUSXUSRVH television production
The appropriate amount can also depend on the nature of might be within fair
WKHZRUN&RXUWVKDYHPHDVXUHGDPRXQWGLIIHUHQWO\IRUGLI- use, but still not
IHUHQWW\SHVRIZRUNV:KHQHYDOXDWLQJWKHIDLUXVHRIMRXUQDO tip the amount
factor sufficiently
DUWLFOHVIRUH[DPSOHDFRXUWKDVUXOHGWKDWHDFKDUWLFOHLVDQ
to outweigh
LQGHSHQGHQWZRUN7KXVSKRWRFRS\LQJDQDUWLFOHFRQVWLWXWHV other factors.
FRS\LQJRIWKHHQWLUHZRUN18 Pictures and other visual works
Ringgold v. Black
SRVHFKDOOHQJHVIRUGHWHUPLQLQJWKHDSSURSULDWHDPRXQW$ Entertainment
user nearly always wants the full image, and ordinarily copy- Television, Inc., 126
LQJDOORIDZRUNZLOOOHDQVWURQJO\DJDLQVWIDLUXVH&RXUWV F.3d 70 (2d Cir. 1997).
KDYHIRXQGVRPHH[LELOLW\E\UHDVRQLQJWKDWFRSLHVRIIXOO
images that are thumbnail size or are of low resolution may
VWLOOFRQVWLWXWHIDLUXVH197KHFRS\LQJPD\EHTXDQWLWDWLYHO\ODUJHEXWTXDOLWDWLYHO\OLPLWHG
ORZUHVROXWLRQRUWKXPEQDLOLPDJHVDUHXQOLNHO\WRFRPSHWHZLWKWKHIXOOVL]HRULJLQDOV

Quantity and Quality: The Heart of the Work

The tension between quantitative and qualitative measures is most vivid with the concept
RIWKHKHDUWRIWKHZRUN7KH6XSUHPH&RXUWLQDQDO\]HGZKHWKHUThe Nation maga-
]LQHKDGH[FHHGHGIDLUXVHZKHQLWTXRWHGVRPHWKUHHKXQGUHGZRUGVIURP3UHVLGHQW)RUGV
WKHQXQSXEOLVKHGPHPRLULQDQHZVDUWLFOH7KH&RXUWUXOHGWKDWZKLOHWKHTXRWDWLRQVPD\
have been quantitatively small, they were the pieces of the book that a reader would likely
QGPRVWLQWHUHVWLQJ3UHVLGHQW)RUGVDFFRXQWRIKLVGHFLVLRQWRSDUGRQ3UHVLGHQW1L[RQ

THE NEXT CHAPTER of this book examines court rulings about textual materials, and
whether sizable excerpts from books are beyond the limits of the allowed amount. Those
cases were brought against for-profit companies, and the courts ruled that they did
not have a favored purpose. As suggested in other decisions, the amount that may be
copied could be greater if the use is for education, research, or other favored purpose.

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64 PART III: FAIR USE

Thus, The Nation had impermissibly lifted

SOMETIMES COPYING THE full work WKHKHDUWRIWKHPDQXVFULSW7KHTXRWDWLRQ
can be within fair use. A company was quantitatively small, but the amount
copied an entire software program factor nevertheless weighed strongly against
made for a Sony PlayStation in order IDLUXVH20
to reverse engineer it and create
an emulator. The court ruled that
the amount factor weighed only Practical Sense
slightly against fair use, because
the Sony program never became How do you make reliable and practical sense
part of the new emulator. of the amount factor? One simple rule
Sony Computer Entertainment, Inc. v. UHPDLQVLQPRVWVLWXDWLRQV6KRUWHUH[FHUSWV
Connectix Corporation, 203 F.3d 596 (9th are more likely than longer pieces to be within
Cir.), cert. denied, 531 U.S. 871 (2000).
IDLUXVH<HWVRPHWLPHVWKHEULHIHVWVOLFHPD\
constitute the heart of the work and be out-
VLGHIDLUXVH1HYHUWKHOHVVHYHQLI\RXQHHG
a relatively large portion of the copyrighted work, you can strengthen the claim of fair use
E\W\LQJWKHDPRXQW\RXERUURZWR\RXUHGXFDWLRQDORUUHVHDUFKSXUSRVH,I\RXFDQPHHW
\RXUIDYRUHGREMHFWLYHVRQO\E\H[FHUSWLQJWKHDUWLFOHPRYLHRURWKHUZRUNWKHDPRXQW
PD\EHDSSURSULDWH3HUKDSVWKHVWURQJHVWFDVHIRUIDLUXVHLQWKLVFRQWH[WZRXOGLQFOXGHDQ
unequivocal educational purpose, combined with a clear demonstration of the importance
RIWKHZRUNIRUDFKLHYLQJWKHHGXFDWLRQDOQHHGV

FACTOR FOUR
THE EFFECT OF THE USE ON THE MARKET
7KHIRXUWKIDFWRUH[DPLQLQJPDUNHWHIIHFWVFDQDOVRUDLVHVRPHVXEWOHLVVXHVDQGVRPH
FRXUWVKDYHFDOOHGLWWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWIDFWRU21 The effect factor encompasses whether
WKHXVHKDUPVWKHPDUNHWIRUWKHZRUNRULWVYDOXH,QPDQ\FDVHVWKHTXHVWLRQLVZKHWKHU
the use is one that replaces what should have been a sale of the work or a license to use
LW,I\RXUXVHGHWULPHQWDOO\DIIHFWVWKHFRS\ULJKWRZQHUVDELOLW\WRUHDOLVWLFDOO\PDNHD
VDOHUHJDUGOHVVRI\RXUSHUVRQDOZLOOLQJQHVVRUDELOLW\WRSD\IRUVXFKDSXUFKDVHWKH
FRXUWPD\WLSWKLVIDFWRUDJDLQVWIDLUXVH2FFDVLRQDOTXRWDWLRQVRUSKRWRFRSLHVPD\SRVH
OLWWOHVLJQLFDQWPDUNHWKDUPEXWIXOOUHSURGXFWLRQVRIVRIWZDUHDQG'9'VFDQPDNHGLUHFW
LQURDGVRQWKHRZQHUVSRWHQWLDOPDUNHWIRUWKRVHZRUNV
The easy cases occur when the use directly replaces a potential sale
RIDZRUNWKDWLVPDUNHWHGDWUHDOLVWLFSULFHV,QDFDVHIURPVHYHUDO
years ago that has been widely publicized, a court ruled that down-
THE U.S. SUPREME Court, in the
loading free music from the original version of Napster superseded Harper & Row case, called this factor
OLNHO\VDOHVRI&'V(DV\DFFHVVWRIUHHGRZQORDGVGHPRQVWUDEO\ most important. Realistically,
KDUPHGWKHFRS\ULJKWRZQHUVPDUNHW22,QDODZVXLWDJDLQVW.LQNRVD one can see that the Court put at
FRXUWUXOHGWKDWZKHQ.LQNRVPDGHDQGVROGFRSLHVRIERRNFKDSWHUV least comparable weight on the
the company eliminated any realistic likelihood that students would unpublished nature of the work. Many
other cases have cited that language
HYHUEX\WKRVHERRNV 23
from the Supreme Court, but a close
0RUHGLIFXOWFDVHVLQYROYHXVHVWKDWGRQRWLQWHUIHUHZLWKVLPSOH reading suggests that those courts
VDOHVEXWPD\XQGHUFXWOLFHQVLQJRIWKHZRUN3KRWRFRS\LQJRILVR- are also just giving added weight
ODWHGDUWLFOHVPLJKWQRWUHSODFHVXEVFULSWLRQVWRWKHHQWLUHMRXUQDO to the factors that have greatest
but the copying might interfere with the system of permissions and prominence under the given facts.
FROOHFWLRQRIIHHVSXWLQSODFHE\WKHSXEOLVKHURURWKHUULJKWVKROGHUV 24

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 FAIR USE: UNDERSTANDING THE FOUR FACTORS 65

Courts also look to potential harm to deriva-

WLYHVDQGUHODWHGPDUNHWV$FRXUWUHFHQWO\ Chapter 10 includes further
ruled on whether a dictionary book, written to examination of American Geophysical
accompany the Harry Potter stories, infringed Union v. Texaco Inc. The court
WKRVHFRS\ULJKWV7KHFRXUWFRQFOXGHGWKDW ruled that the existence of the
Copyright Clearance Center and the
the dictionary would not harm sales of the
relatively easy licensing of rights
original books, but it would harm the ability of to make copies of journal articles
-.5RZOLQJWRDXWKRUL]HDQRWKHUGLFWLRQDU\ established a possible market
RURWKHUDFFRPSDQ\LQJSURMHFW25 that the user may have affected
3RVVLEOHPDUNHWHIIHFWVFDQYDU\JUHDWO\ through its copying activities.
<RXPD\EHVXUQJWKH,QWHUQHWDQGQGD
document, blog, picture, or other copyrighted
ZRUNSURSHUO\SRVWHGE\WKHULJKWIXORZQHU7KHFRS\ULJKWRZQHUFOHDUO\KDVLPSRVHGQR
UHVWULFWLRQVRUFRQGLWLRQVRQDFFHVVDQGLVDVVHUWLQJQRFODLPWRSD\PHQWIRUXVH<RXPD\
liberally copy, download, or print the materials in full, and you prob-
DEO\KDYHGRQHQRWKLQJWRKDUPDQ\UHDOLVWLFPDUNHW,QDQRWKHUVLWX-
Chapter 12 examines the TEACH ation, you are creating original instructional materials that you want
Act for distance learning. While that WRSRVWRQDFRXUVHZHEVLWH<RXZDQWWRLQFOXGHLQ\RXUGRFXPHQW
law is not at all the same as fair VL]DEOHTXRWDWLRQVDQGH[FHUSWVRIYDULRXVFKDUWVDQGLPDJHVIURP
use, it does include some analogous
RWKHUVRXUFHV7KHHIIHFWIDFWRUPD\DJDLQVXSSRUWDSSOLFDWLRQRIIDLU
concepts. For example, the TEACH
Act explicitly does not allow uses XVHEHFDXVHPRYLQJWKRVHSLHFHVLQWRDQHZFRQWH[WDQGHPEHGGLQJ
of materials marketed for digital WKHPLQWKHFRQWH[WRIDQDQDO\WLFDOVWXG\IRUHGXFDWLRQDOSXUSRVHV
distance education. Fair use has LVQRWOLNHO\WRLQWHUIHUHZLWKDUHDOLVWLFPDUNHW7KHPRUH\RXDOWHU
no such bar. On the other hand, WKHFRQWH[WRIXVHDQGVXUURXQGWKHZRUNVZLWKRULJLQDOFULWLFLVPRU
that the owners are targeting the comment, the less likely you are impeding a market that the copyright
specialized market means that such
a use is more likely to harm the
RZQHUKDVWKHULJKWWRFRQWURO
defined marketand hence more 0DUNHWLVVXHVDUHFKDOOHQJLQJIRUFRXUWVWRR2QFHDJDLQFRXUWV
likely not to be within fair use. have addressed this factor in close connection to the purpose of the
XVH,I\RXUSXUSRVHLVUHVHDUFKRUVFKRODUVKLSPDUNHWKDUPPD\EH
GLIFXOWWRSURYHDQGFRXUWVZLOOJHQHUDOO\DSSO\WKHIDFWRUVRPHZKDW
JHQHURXVO\,I\RXUSXUSRVHLVFRPPHUFLDOKRZHYHUVRPHKDUPWRWKHPDUNHWLVSUHVXPHG26
Still, one can imagine how the rules become blurred when you have an educational purpose,
but the copyrighted work is one that is created and marketed especially for the academic
FRPPXQLW\7KHKDUGUHDOLW\LVWKDWHYHQVRPHHGXFDWLRQDOXVHVKDYHGLUHFWDQGDGYHUVH
PDUNHWFRQVHTXHQFHV
0DUNHWLVVXHVFDQJHWFRPSOLFDWHGEXWLQWKHFRQWH[WRIIDLUXVHWKH\XOWLPDWHO\GULYH
this line of thinking: How is the work actually marketed? What are the realistic potential
markets? Is the work realistically marketed
IRUP\QHHGVDQGP\XVHV"$P,KDUPLQJ
RULQKLELWLQJWKDWPDUNHWSRWHQWLDO"$P, DO NOT OVERLOOK the possibility
UHSODFLQJDVDOH"$UHP\PDUNHWHIIHFWV that your use might actually help the
VLJQLFDQW":RXOGWKHPDUNHWHIIHFWVEH market for the work. References, clips,
VLJQLFDQWLIXVHVOLNHPLQHZHUHZLGH- quotations, images, and other such uses
spread? invariably draw attention to the original
work. In some cases the uses might
Like almost all matters of applying fair take away a market. In other cases, the
use, this fourth factor depends on an array use might lead someone to want more
RIIDFWV7KRVHIDFWVPD\EHWKHFLUFXP- and to make a purchase. Quotations in
stances of your use, and they are most cer- a book review are a familiar example of
tainly about the active or likely marketing a use that probably helps the market.
RIWKHZRUN\RXSODQWRXVH<RXQHHGWR

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66 PART III: FAIR USE

KDYHDUPJUDVSRI\RXUVLWXDWLRQDQGLQYHVWLJDWHWKHZRUNLQTXHVWLRQ<RXPLJKWDOVRQG
WKDWPDUNHWVFKDQJH$ZRUNPD\KDYHQRPDUNHWWRGD\EXWQGDQHZPDUNHWWRPRUURZ$
ZRUNPD\EHDEHVWVHOOHUWKLV\HDUEXWEHRXWRISULQWLQWKHQHDUIXWXUH7HVWLQJWKHPDUNHW
PLJKWDOVRPHDQUHWHVWLQJLWDJDLQIRUODWHUXVHV

NOTES
 U.S. Copyright Act of 1976, Public Law 94-553, U.S. Statutes at Large 90 (1976): 2541,
FRGLHGDWU.S.C. 
 7KHXVHRIWKHZRUGinclude when listing factors of fair use in the statute denotes that the
IDFWRUVOLVWHGGRQRWFRQVWLWXWHDQH[FOXVLYHOLVWU.S. Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C.
 U.S. Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C.
 $FRPPHUFLDOXVHZHLJKVDJDLQVWDQGLQJRIIDLUXVHEXWLVQRWFRQFOXVLYHRQWKHLVVXH
A & M Records, Inc. v. Napster Inc.)GWK&LU
 Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.86
 Blanch v. Koons)GG&LU8QGHUWKLVIDFWRUFRXUWVRIWHQDVNZKHWKHU
WKHQHZZRUNPHUHO\UHSODFHVWKHREMHFWRIWKHRULJLQDOFUHDWLRQRULQVWHDGDGGVVRPHWKLQJQHZ
ZLWKDIXUWKHUSXUSRVHRUGLIIHUHQWFKDUDFWHUDOWHULQJWKHUVWZLWKQHZH[SUHVVLRQPHDQLQJRU
PHVVDJHLWDVNVLQRWKHUZRUGVZKHWKHUDQGWRZKDWH[WHQWWKHQHZZRUNLVWUDQVIRUPDWLYH
Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.86
 Bill Graham Archives v. Dorling Kindersley Ltd.)GG&LU
 U.S. Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C.
 Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.86Q
 7KLVIDFWRUFDOOVIRUUHFRJQLWLRQWKDWVRPHZRUNVDUHFORVHUWRWKHFRUHRILQWHQGHGFRS\ULJKW
SURWHFWLRQWKDQRWKHUVZLWKWKHFRQVHTXHQFHWKDWIDLUXVHLVPRUHGLIFXOWWRHVWDEOLVKZKHQWKH
IRUPHUZRUNVDUHFRSLHGCampbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.86
Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enterprises86Peter Letterese &
Associates, Inc. v. World Institute of Scientology Enterprises)GWK&LU
Salinger v. Random House, Inc.)GG&LUcert. denied86
 86&RQVWLWXWLRQDUW,VHFFO
 Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.86
 Copyright Law RevisionWK&RQJGVHVV+'RF
 Copyright Law RevisionWK&RQJVWVHVV6'RFMaxtone-Graham v.
Burtchaell)GG&LUcert. denied86
 Basic Books, Inc. v. Kinkos Graphics Corporation)6XSS6'1<
 Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.86Elvis Presley Enterprises, Inc.
v. Passport Video)GWK&LU
 American Geophysical Union v. Texaco Inc.)GG&LUcert. dismissed, 516
86
 Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corporation)GWK&LU
 Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enterprises86
 Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enterprises86
 A & M Records, Inc. v. Napster Inc.)GWK&LU
 Basic Books, Inc. v. Kinkos Graphics Corporation)6XSS6'1<
 American Geophysical Union v. Texaco Inc.)GG&LUcert. dismissed, 516
86
 $IWHUHYDOXDWLQJDOOIDFWRUVWKHFRXUWUXOHGWKDWWKH+DUU\3RWWHUGLFWLRQDU\ZDVQRWDIDLUXVH
Warner Brothers Entertainment Inc. v. RDR Books)6XSSG6'1<
 Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enterprises86

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 TEN

GETTING COMFORTABLE
WITH FAIR USE
Applying the Four Factors

KEY POINTS
Few court rulings about fair use directly address education and libraries.
A variety of other court rulings concerning fair use offer important guidance
for teaching and research activities.
Fair use ultimately depends on a balancing of the four factors in the statute
as applied to specific facts.
Appendix B of this book includes a checklist for assisting with decisions about
applying fair use.

AMERICAN COURTS HAVE analyzed and applied fair use in hundreds of

cases, but rarely have they interpreted fair use for education or library activi-
WLHV$JURZLQJQXPEHURIFROOHJHVXQLYHUVLWLHVOLEUDULHVDQGRWKHURUJDQL]D-
tions may face accusations of copyright infringement, or may be analyzing and
DSSO\LQJIDLUXVHWRVXSSRUWLQQRYDWLYHSURMHFWV6HOGRPGRWKHVHVLWXDWLRQV
SURJUHVVRUGHJHQHUDWHLQWRODZVXLWV7KHSDUWLHVVHWWOHWKHTXHVWLRQDEOH
DFWLYLWLHVVWRSWKHSURMHFWUDUHO\VWLUVSURORQJHGOHJDODQ[LHWLHV
Whatever the reason, copyright dilemmas are usually resolved long before
DMXGJHKDVDFKDQFHWRWHOOXVZKDWWKHODZUHDOO\LV&RQVHTXHQWO\HGXFDWRUV
and librarians are left to infer what they can from the few cases that have some
UHOHYDQFHWRWKHDFDGHPLFFRPPXQLW\,QFUHDVLQJO\HGXFDWRUVDQGDGPLQLVWUD-
WRUVPXVWSUHHPSWLYHO\FRQVLGHUWKHIDLUXVHLPSOLFDWLRQVRIWKHLUSURMHFWVDV
innovative activities continue to raise questions regarding the boundaries of
IDLUXVHODZ
$PRGHVWQXPEHURIFDVHVRIIHUVRPHLQVLJKWLQWRMXGLFLDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVRI
IDLUXVHODZLQVLWXDWLRQVVLPLODUWRWKRVHIDFHGE\HGXFDWRUVDQGUHVHDUFKHUV
$OHDGLQJH[DPSOHLQYROYHV.LQNRV*UDSKLFVWKHZHOONQRZQQDWLRQDOFKDLQ
of photocopy shops, which was sued more than two decades ago for making
SKRWRFRSLHGFRXUVHSDFNVZLWKRXWSHUPLVVLRQ17KHFRXUWUHMHFWHG.LQNRV
IDLUXVHGHIHQVHLQODUJHSDUWEHFDXVH.LQNRVZDVDIRUSURWHQWLW\DQGZDV
SKRWRFRS\LQJIRUDFRPPHUFLDOSXUSRVH,PDJLQHDVLPLODUFDVHQRWDJDLQVW
.LQNRVEXWDJDLQVWDXQLYHUVLW\&RS\LQJIRUQRQSURWHGXFDWLRQDOSXUSRVHV
PD\VZD\WKHUVWIDFWRULQWKHRSSRVLWHGLUHFWLRQ$FRXUWPD\ZHOOQGWKDW
VRPHFRS\LQJLQWKHKDQGVRIWKHHGXFDWLRQDOLQVWLWXWLRQFRXOGEHIDLUXVH8QWLO
DFRXUWUXOHVRQH[DFWO\\RXUVSHFLFQHHGZHFDQRQO\XVHRXUEHVWMXGJPHQW
WRLQIHUWKHODZVSRVVLEOHPHDQLQJXQGHUDQ\JLYHQFLUFXPVWDQFHV

67

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68 PART III: FAIR USE

Courts have also addressed the applica-

A MAJOR CASE against a university WLRQRIIDLUXVHWRGLYHUVHPHGLDLQHGXFDWLRQ
involving questions of copyright In Higgins v. Detroit Educational Broad-
infringement and fair use for casting Foundation,2 the court allowed as
educational copies is pending as fair use the incorporation of short pieces
of this books publication against
of a musical work into the background of a
various officials of Georgia State
University. Filed in 2008, a group of video production broadcast on a local PBS
publishers has accused the university DIOLDWHDQGVROGLQOLPLWHGFRSLHVWRHGX-
of exceeding the limits of fair use FDWLRQDOLQVWLWXWLRQV7KHFRXUWV\PSDWKL]HG
when copying excerpts from various with the educational and public-service
books, particularly for posting to SXUSRVHRIWKHSURGXFWLRQ7KHGHIHQGDQW
electronic reserves. A decision may
be forthcoming in 2011 or later. At the
XVHGDEULHIDPRXQWRQO\DERXWWKLUW\YH
least, a ruling from the court will likely VHFRQGVRIDSRSXODUVRQJDQGRQO\LQWKH
motivate educators and librarians EDFNJURXQGRIWKHRSHQLQJVFHQHV$VRQJLV
to take a fresh look at their internal generally a creative work, so that its nature
policies and practices of fair use. tipped in favor of stronger protection and
DJDLQVWIDLUXVH7KHFRS\ULJKWRZQHUGLG
not actively license the song for such uses,
VRWKHXVHKDGQRDGYHUVHPDUNHWHIIHFW7KUHHRIWKHIRXUIDFWRUVZHLJKHGLQIDYRURIIDLU
XVHDQGWKHFRXUWDOORZHGWKLVXVHRIPXVLF
2WKHUGHFLVLRQVUHYHDOWKHOLPLWVRIIDLUXVH&RQVLGHUWKHVHFRQFOXVLRQVIURPYDULRXV
courts:

7KHIXOOWH[WRIQHZVSDSHUDUWLFOHVSRVWHGWRDQXQUHVWULFWHGZHEVLWHHYHQWRIXUWKHU
DVRFLDOFDXVHLVQRWIDLUXVH3
Playing music in the background while phone callers are placed on hold is not fair
XVH4
*OLPSVHVRISKRWRJUDSKVLQWKHEDFNJURXQGRIDPRYLHRUWHOHYLVLRQSURGXFWLRQKDYH
OHIWFRXUWVVHHPLQJO\GLYLGHG2QHFRXUWUXOHGWKDWLIWKHLPDJHVDUHIDLUO\SURPLQHQW
LQWKHVHWIRUDFDEOH79VKRZWKH\PD\QRWEHIDLUXVH5$QRWKHUFRXUWUXOHGWKDW
IX]]\LPDJHVLQDPRWLRQSLFWXUHVFHQHDUHIDLUXVH6
)LOHVKDULQJRIPXVLFWKHXSORDGLQJDQGGRZQORDGLQJRIUHFRUGLQJVWKURXJKWKH
RULJLQDO1DSVWHUDQGVLPLODUVHUYLFHVLVQRWZLWKLQIDLUXVH7
'RZQORDGLQJDQGFDFKLQJIURPWKH,QWHUQHWWKHIXOOWH[WRIFRQWHQWIURPPXOWLWXGHVRI
websites, for the purpose of facilitating web searching and reliable access to websites,
LVIDLUXVH8

6WLOOQRQHRIWKHVHFDVHVH[DFWO\DGGUHVVHVWKHFRPPRQQHHGVRIHGXFDWLRQUHVHDUFKDQG
OLEUDULDQVKLS&RXUWVKDYHQRWGLUHFWO\UXOHGRQTXHVWLRQVRIFODVVURRPKDQGRXWVOLEUDU\
UHVHUYHVRQOLQHFRXUVHVDQGGLJLWDOOLEUDULHV1HYHUWKHOHVVZHRIWHQQHHGWRGHFLGHLI
WKHVHDFWLYLWLHVDUHZLWKLQIDLUXVHHYHQZLWKRXWWKHEHQHWRIH[SOLFLWGLUHFWLRQIURP
WKHODZ
This chapter offers guidance for thinking about fair use in a variety of situations, ranging
IURPIDPLOLDUQHHGVWROHJDOO\XQH[SORUHGWHUULWRU\7KLVFKDSWHUGHPRQVWUDWHVWKHSUDFWL-
FDODSSOLFDWLRQRIIDLUXVHWRPHHWLPSRUWDQWREMHFWLYHV,WRIIHUVVLPSOHVFHQDULRVWKDWDUH
DWWKHFRUHRIFRPPRQSUDFWLFHDPRQJHGXFDWRUVDQGOLEUDULDQV7KHVFHQDULRVEHJLQZLWK
WKHVLPSOHVWDQGEXLOGWRODUJHUVFDOHSURMHFWVDQGQHZHUWHFKQRORJLHV7KHSULQFLSDOSRLQW
of each scenario is to model the process of thinking through the four factors and moving
WRZDUGDFRQFOXVLRQDERXWIDLUXVH

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 GETTING COMFORTABLE WITH FAIR USE 69

QUOTING IN PUBLICATIONS
SCENARIO
Professor Tran is writing a lengthy historical study and wants to include
various quotations and clips of other copyrighted materials. Is she protected
by fair use?

Whether or not Professor Tran is staying within the boundaries of the law will depend on
a multitude of variables, but start with the most familiar situation and move to the more
FRPSOH[%HJLQZLWKDVLPSOHTXRWDWLRQIURP
RQHZRUNLQFOXGHGLQKHUQHZKLVWRULFDOVWXG\
She may be writing about aviation and quote WHEN PROFESSOR TRAN prepares
sentences from a biography of Charles Lind- her book, assembles her materials
bergh, or for a study of historical epidem- for teaching, or makes other uses
ics she may comment critically on studies of of existing works, she should
SODJXHVDQGVRFLDOVWUXFWXUH3URIHVVRU7UDQ almost always be sure to cite her
source. She should add footnotes
needs to consider the four factors, and she
or other references. Citing sources
FDQQGKHOSIXODQGUHOHYDQWFDVHVVXFKDV is crucial for academic honesty,
Penelope v. Brown9 but it is not a major variable in fair
In that case, a professor, Penelope, wrote use. Fair use is about copyright
a book about English grammar and language and law. Citing sources goes to
XVDJH%URZQDZULWHURISRSXODUFWLRQODWHU issues of ethics and plagiarism.
ZURWHDPDQXDOIRUEXGGLQJDXWKRUV$PLGVW
ILYHSDJHVRI%URZQVSDJHERRNVKH
DSSDUHQWO\FRSLHGVHQWHQFHH[DPSOHVIURP3HQHORSHVZRUN:KHQ3HQHORSHVXHGWKHFRXUW
UXOHGWKDW%URZQVXVHZDVIDLU+HUHLVKRZWKHFRXUWDGGUHVVHGWKHIRXUIDFWRUV
Purpose7KHFRXUWIRXQGWKDWWKHVHFRQGERRNJUHDWO\H[SDQGHGRQSLHFHVERUURZHG
IURPWKHUVWPDNLQJWKHXVHSURGXFWLYHDQGQRWPHUHO\VXSHUVHGLQJWKHRULJLQDO
7KHFRXUWDOVRIRXQGOLWWOHFRPPHUFLDOFKDUDFWHULQWKHXVHRIWKHVPDOOH[FHUSWV
DQGLWIRXQGQRLPSURSHUFRQGXFWE\%URZQ7KLVIDFWRUIDYRUVIDLUXVH
Nature7KHFRXUWORRNHGWRWKHQRQFWLRQQDWXUHRIWKHZRUNXVHGDQGLWVOLPLWHG
DYDLODELOLW\WRWKHSXEOLF7KLVIDFWRUIDYRUVIDLUXVH
Amount7KHH[FHUSWVZHUHDVPDOODPRXQWRIWKHUVW The notion of a productive
ZRUN7KLVIDFWRUIDYRUVIDLUXVH use is a breed of the
transformative use
Effect: The court found little adverse effect on the examined in chapter 9.
market for the original, noting that the two books Courts are more generous
with fair use when the
might appear side-by-side in a store, but a buyer is
new work transforms the
QRWOLNHO\WRVHHRQHDVDUHSODFHPHQWIRUWKHRWKHU original and gives it a new
7KLVIDFWRUDOVRIDYRUVIDLUXVH purpose or functionor
if the use builds on the
The Penelope case might give Professor Tran consider- original in some productive
manner. In either instance,
able peace of mind if she is using short quotations from a the court is allowing
SXEOLVKHGQRQFWLRQZRUN7KHRQHFDVHKRZHYHUGRHV greater fair use in order to
QRWWHOOKRZIDU3URIHVVRU7UDQFDQJR:KDWDERXWORQJ promote the progress of
TXRWDWLRQV":KDWLIVKHZHUHQRWFRS\LQJSXEOLVKHGWH[W knowledge and creativity.
but instead pictures, poetry, unpublished manuscripts, or
other types of works?10

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70 PART III: FAIR USE

The case of Maxtone-Graham v. Burtchaell suggests how Professor

7UDQPLJKWWHVWWKHOLPLWVRIWKHODZZLWKOHQJWK\TXRWDWLRQV11$ERRN EVEN THOUGH PERMISSION was
about pregnancy and abortion included interviews with women about denied by the copyright holder, the
WKHLURZQH[SHULHQFHV6RPHWLPHODWHUDQRWKHUDXWKRUSUHSDUHGKLV use may still be within fair use.
RZQERRNRQWKHVDPHVXEMHFWDQGVRXJKWSHUPLVVLRQWRXVHOHQJWK\ Sometimes the denial of permission
can mean that fair use is the only
H[FHUSWVIURPWKHUVWZRUN7KDWDXWKRUWKHSODLQWLIILQWKLVFDVH
means for using the work, and courts
refused permission, and the defendant proceeded to publish his work seem to be especially sympathetic
ZLWKWKHXQSHUPLWWHGH[FHUSWV7KHERUURZHGPDWHULDOHQFRPSDVVHG if the use has some social good,
slightly more than 4 percent of the work, including many insightful such as examining important
SDVVDJHVIURPWKHLQWHUYLHZV7KHFRXUWUHOLHGRQWKHIDFWRUVWRFRQ- issues. In the case of Bill Graham
FOXGHWKDWWKHOHQJWK\TXRWLQJZDVIDLUXVH Archives v. Dorling Kindersley
Ltd., 448 F.3d 605 (2d Cir. 2006),
efforts to obtain permission failed,
Purpose7KHGHIHQGDQWVERRNZDVSXEOLVKHGE\DFRPPHUFLDO yet the court eventually ruled
press with the possibility of monetary success, but the main that the unpermitted publication
purpose of the book was to educate the public about abortion of artistic posters was fair use in
DQGDERXWWKHDXWKRUVYLHZV7KLVIDFWRUIDYRUVIDLUXVH the context of a historical study.

Nature: The interviews were largely factual, which also favors

IDLUXVH
Amount4XRWLQJSHUFHQWRIWKHSODLQWLIIVZRUNZDVQRWH[FHVVLYHDQGWKH
YHUEDWLPSDVVDJHVZHUHQRWQHFHVVDULO\FHQWUDOWRWKHSODLQWLIIVERRN$JDLQWKLV
IDFWRUVXSSRUWVIDLUXVH
Effect7KHFRXUWIRXQGQRVLJQLFDQWWKUHDWWRWKHSODLQWLIIVPDUNHW,QGHHGWKHFRXUW
QRWHGWKDWWKHSODLQWLIIVZRUNZDVRXWRISULQWDQGQRWOLNHO\WRDSSHDOWRWKHVDPH
UHDGHUV
7KLVFDVHDIUPVWKDWTXRWDWLRQVLQDVXEVHTXHQWZRUN
DUHVRPHWLPHVSHUPLVVLEOHHYHQZKHQWKH\DUHH[WHQVLYH
IF LENGTHY QUOTATIONS can be within fair use,
This case also suggests much about using materials in then should using large portions of copyrighted
an educational setting, where an instructor may be using works in the context of teaching materials also
pieces and clips of various works to prepare teaching be okay? Consider the case of Marcus v. Rowley,
PDWHULDOVRUDQRQOLQHFRXUVH(YHQODUJHSLHFHVFRXOGEH 695 F.2d 1171 (9th Cir. 1983). A schoolteacher
within fair use, especially for the favored purpose of edu- prepared a twenty-four-page pamphlet on cake
decorating for her adult education classes.
FDWLRQ)DLUXVHLVDOVRVWURQJHULIWKHLQVWUXFWRULVXVLQJ Eleven of those pages were taken directly from
WKHPDWHULDOVLQWKHFRQWH[WRIRULJLQDOWHDFKLQJPDWHULDOV a copyrighted pamphlet prepared by another
DQGZLWKDFFRPSDQ\LQJFRPPHQWVDQGFULWLFLVP teacher. Even though both pamphlets were of
What if the user is doing more than merely copying limited circulation and were for teaching purposes
pieces and embedding them in a new original publication? only, the court held that the copying was not fair
use. The defendant copied a substantial part of
What if Professor Tran is looking to copy materials in full
the original pamphlet, the copying embraced the
ZLWKRXWRULJLQDOFRPPHQWDU\"7KHQH[WFDVHVVKHGVRPH original pamphlets most significant portions,
OLJKWRQVWUDLJKWFRS\LQJ and the second pamphlet competed directly with
the original pamphlets educational purpose.
Our fictitious Professor Tran should be hesitant
about extensive copying of materials created
specifically to serve the educational market.

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 GETTING COMFORTABLE WITH FAIR USE 71

COPYING FOR COURSE PACKS

SCENARIO
Professor Tran teaches at a community college and wants to make photocopies
of articles and book excerpts as handouts for her students. Is she within fair
use?

$PHULFDQFRXUWVKDYH\HWWRUXOHRQWKHTXHVWLRQRIIDLUXVHIRUSDSHURUHOHFWURQLFFRSLHV
PDGHIRUHGXFDWLRQDOSXUSRVHV12%XWWZRFDVHVIURPWKHVH[DPLQHGIDLUXVHIRUFRP-
PHUFLDOSKRWRFRS\LQJDQGWKH\RIIHUVRPHDQDORJRXVLQVLJKWV7KHUVWFDVHLVWKHODQGPDUN
ruling in Basic Books, Inc. v. Kinkos Graphics
Corporation13
.LQNRVZDVIRXQGWREHLQIULQJLQJFRS\- THE PUBLISHERS IN the Kinkos
rights when it photocopied book chapters for case urged the court to rule that
sale to students as course packs for their uni- any anthology or course pack could
not be allowed under fair use. The
YHUVLW\FODVVHV
court rejected that contention,
concluding instead that one must
Purpose$OWKRXJKWKHPDWHULDOVZHUH analyze each article, chapter,
ultimately used in education, they or other work separately and
were copied for the commercial determine whether each item in
EHQHILWRI.LQNRV7KHUHIRUHWKLV the course pack is within the law.
IDFWRUZHLJKHGDJDLQVWIDLUXVH
Nature0RVWRIWKHZRUNVZHUHIDFWXDOWKH\ZHUHZRUNVRIKLVWRU\VRFLRORJ\DQG
RWKHUHOGVRIVWXG\ZKLFKWLSSHGWKLVIDFWRULQIDYRURIIDLUXVH
Amount7KHFRXUWDQDO\]HGWKHSHUFHQWDJHXVHGRIHDFKZRUNQGLQJWKDWFRS\LQJ
WRSHUFHQWRIWKHRULJLQDOIXOOERRNZDVH[FHVVLYHWLSSLQJWKLVIDFWRUDJDLQVW
IDLUXVH
Effect: The court found a direct adverse effect on the market for the books, because
the course packs competed with the potential sales of the original books as assigned
UHDGLQJIRUWKHVWXGHQWV7KHSKRWRFRS\LQJRIVHOHFWFKDSWHUVUHDOLVWLFDOO\XQGHUFXWV
VDOHVRIWKHERRNVWRWKRVHVWXGHQWVWLSSLQJWKLVIDFWRUDJDLQVWIDLUXVH
7KUHHRIWKHIRXUIDFWRUVOHDQHGDJDLQVWIDLUXVH$OWKRXJKIDLUXVHLVQRWVWULFWO\DFRXQW
of factors for and against, the reality of having solid arguments tipping three factors in
RQHGLUHFWLRQLVXVXDOO\SHUVXDVLYH7KHFRXUWKHOGWKDW.LQNRVWKHUHIRUHKDGFRPPLWWHG
LQIULQJHPHQW
The second case is Princeton University
Press v. Michigan Document Services, Inc14
$SULYDWHFRS\VKRSFUHDWHGDQGVROGFRXUVH EVEN JUDGES HAVE different views
packs under circumstances similar to Kinkos about fair use. The Princeton case
The copy shop was also found to have acted was decided by a panel of thirteen
RXWVLGHWKHOLPLWVRIIDLUXVH7KLVFDVHVKDUSO\ judges. Eight of them ruled that the
use was not fair, but five of them
GLYLGHGWKHSDQHORIMXGJHVZKRUXOHGRQLW
dissented. If experienced judges
1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHFRXUWVUHDVRQLQJZDVVLPL- disagree about the law, no one
lar to the Kinkos decision, with at least one should be surprised when educators
important difference: the court gave most of and librarians also debate the
LWVDWWHQWLRQWRWKHTXHVWLRQRIPDUNHWKDUP scope and application of fair use.
The court was particularly persuaded by the

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72 PART III: FAIR USE

DYDLODELOLW\RIRSWLRQVIRUOLFHQVLQJWKHPDWHULDOVRUVHFXULQJSHUPLVVLRQIURPWKHFRS\-
ULJKWRZQHUVEHIRUHPDNLQJWKHFRSLHV7KHFRXUWDOVRQRWHGWKDWVHFXULQJSHUPLVVLRQVKDG
EHFRPHVWDQGDUGSURFHGXUHDPRQJFRPPHUFLDOVKRSVPDNLQJSKRWRFRSLHGFRXUVHSDFNV
:KDWGRWKHVHFDVHVWHOOXVDERXW3URIHVVRU7UDQVQHHGV"6KHKDVDGHQLWHDGYDQWDJH
ZKHQVKHPDNHVOLPLWHGFRSLHVKHUVHOIRQWKHFROOHJHVSKRWRFRSLHUVWKHUHE\DYRLGLQJWKH
GLVIDYRUHGFRPPHUFLDOSXUSRVH6KHFDQDOVRKHOSKHUFDXVHE\NHHSLQJWKHPDWHULDOVDV
EULHIDVSRVVLEOHWKDWLVOLPLWLQJKHUFRS\LQJWRMXVWWKHDPRXQWQHHGHGIRUKHUHGXFDWLRQDO
SXUSRVHDQGSHUKDSVE\FKHFNLQJWKHPDUNHWIRUWKHUHDVRQDEOHDYDLODELOLW\RISHUPLVVLRQ
IURPWKHFRS\ULJKWRZQHU
What if Professor Tran wants to post the materials to a secured website or course man-
DJHPHQWV\VWHP")XQGDPHQWDOO\IDLUXVHDSSOLHVWRHOHFWURQLFXVHVMXVWDVLWGRHVWRSDSHU
FRSLHV+RZHYHUGLJLWDOFRSLHVPD\EHHDVLO\FRSLHGXSORDGHGDQGVKDUHGZLWKRXWWKH
SUDFWLFDOOLPLWVWKDWFRQVWUDLQKDUGFRSLHV7RKHOSKHUFDVHIRUIDLUXVH3URIHVVRU7UDQ
should restrict access to the materials with password protections or other controls, and she
should take the occasion to help her students understand the copyright implications of any
PLVXVH'HOLYHU\WKURXJKDVHFXUHGV\VWHPUDWKHUWKDQWKURXJKHPDLORUKDQGRXWVJLYHV
greater opportunity to inform students and prevent possible misuse of the copyrighted
ZRUNV&KDSWHUH[DPLQHVVLPLODULVVXHVIRUOLEUDU\HOHFWURQLFUHVHUYHV\VWHPV0DQ\RI
the considerations Professor Tran faces for her own work are similar to the issues of fair use
WKDWDULVHLQWKHGHYHORSPHQWDQGLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIOLEUDU\UHVHUYHV\VWHPV

SINGLE COPIES FOR RESEARCH

SCENARIO
Professor Tran needs to make single copies of articles, chapters, and other
materials to support her research or to help her prepare for teaching. Are
individual copies within fair use?

*HQHUDOO\VLQJOHLVRODWHGFRSLHVRIEULHILWHPVVKRXOGHDVLO\IDOOZLWKLQIDLUXVH,QWKH
FRQWH[WRIQRQSURWHGXFDWLRQDQGUHVHDUFKWKH\SUREDEO\DUHZLWKLQ
WKHODZ7KHFDVHRIAmerican Geophysical Union v. Texaco Inc.,15
however, is a reminder that the limits of fair use can arise in seemingly IN AN UNUSUAL development,
WKHPRVWLQQRFXRXVFLUFXPVWDQFHV7KHFDVHLQYROYHGSKRWRFRS\LQJRI the court amended its opinion in
LQGLYLGXDOMRXUQDODUWLFOHVE\D7H[DFRVFLHQWLVWIRUKLVRZQUHVHDUFK the Texaco case several months
QHHGV7KHFRPSDQ\FLUFXODWHGOLVWVRIQHZMRXUQDOVDQGDUWLFOHVDQG after its original issuance, adding
language that limited the ruling
HPSOR\HHVZHUHDOORZHGWRPDNHFRSLHVIRUWKHLULQGLYLGXDOUHIHUHQFH
to systematic copying that may
7KHFRXUWKHOGWKDWWKHFRS\LQJZDVQRWZLWKLQWKHOLPLWVRIIDLUXVH advance the profit goals of the larger
organization. Apparently, the judges
Purpose: While research is generally a favored purpose, the were still debating the wisdom of
XOWLPDWHSXUSRVHZDVWRVWUHQJWKHQ7H[DFRVFRUSRUDWHSURWV the ruling long after issuing it.
0RUHRYHUH[DFWSKRWRFRSLHVDUHQRWWUDQVIRUPDWLYHWKH\GR
QRWEXLOGRQWKHH[LVWLQJZRUNLQDSURGXFWLYHPDQQHU
Nature7KHDUWLFOHVZHUHIDFWXDOZKLFKZHLJKVLQIDYRURIIDLUXVH
Amount$QDUWLFOHLVDQLQGHSHQGHQWZRUNVRFRS\LQJWKHDUWLFOHLVFRS\LQJWKHHQWLUH
FRS\ULJKWHGZRUN7KLVIDFWRUZHLJKVDJDLQVWIDLUXVH
Effect7KHFRXUWIRXQGQRHYLGHQFHWKDW7H[DFRUHDVRQDEO\ZRXOGKDYHSXUFKDVHGPRUH
VXEVFULSWLRQVWRWKHUHOHYDQWMRXUQDOVEXWWKHFRXUWGLGFRQFOXGHWKDWXQSHUPLWWHG

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 GETTING COMFORTABLE WITH FAIR USE 73

photocopying directly competes with the ability of publishers to collect licensing

IHHV$FFRUGLQJWRWKHFRXUWWKH&RS\ULJKW&OHDUDQFH&HQWHU&&&SURYLGHVD
practical method for paying fees and securing permissions, so the copying undercut
WKHDELOLW\WRSXUVXHWKHPDUNHWIRUOLFHQVLQJWKURXJKWKH&&&

'HVSLWHDQLPSDVVLRQHGGLVVHQWIURPRQHMXGJHZKRDUJXHG Chapter 18 provides

for the realistic needs of researchers, the court found three guidance and insight
of the four factors to weigh against fair use in the corporate about seeking
FRQWH[W7KLVFDVHZDVDFOHDUVLJQDOWRPDQ\IRUSURWHQWL- permissions, and it
includes additional
ties that they ought to evaluate the option of securing licenses
information about
that cover their copying and other uses of many copyrighted the role and function
ZRUNV7KDWDSSURDFKPD\EHHVSHFLDOO\WUXHLIDEODQNHW of the Copyright
license from the CCC is affordable and actually encompasses Clearance Center.
PDQ\RIWKHZRUNVWKDWWKHXVHUDFWXDOO\QHHGV 16

)RUQRQSURWXVHUVWKHFDVHLVDGRVHRIFDXWLRQDERXW
simple photocopying, although a court is not likely to construe fair use so narrowly in that
FRQWH[W7KHTexaco decision emphasizes that the ruling applies only to systematic com-
PHUFLDOFRS\LQJDQGWKHFRXUWH[SOLFLWO\QRWHGWKDWLWZRXOGQRWOLNHO\H[WHQGWKHUXOLQJWR
LQGLYLGXDOUHVHDUFKHUVDFWLQJVROHO\DWWKHLURZQEHKHVWIRUWKHLURZQUHVHDUFKLQLWLDWLYHV
2XUFWLWLRXV3URIHVVRU7UDQLVOLNHO\WRFRQFOXGHWKDWPXFKRIKHUFRS\LQJRIVLQJOHEULHI
LWHPVLVIDLUXVH6KHZRXOGOLNHO\UHDFKWKHVDPHFRQFOXVLRQDERXWVLQJOHGRZQORDGVDQG
SULQWRXWVIURPWKH,QWHUQHWRUIURPOLFHQVHGGDWDEDVHV

CUTTING AND PASTING FOR AN EDUCATIONAL WIKI

SCENARIO
Professor Tran wants to create an innovative teaching tool, cutting and
pasting a variety of works into a single cohesive set of materials for the
students enrolled in her classes. She plans to gather and edit the materials
as an evolving wiki, available to her students, and to be further revised and
edited with newer materials all semester. Students access the wiki through a
password-protected site.
,I3URIHVVRU7UDQVZLNLLVOLWWOHPRUHWKDQFRSLHVRIUHDGLQJDQGRWKHUPDWHULDOVWKHQKHU
analysis of fair use may be much like the scenarios involving course packs or selected quot-
LQJ2QHFRXOGDUJXHWKDWVKHLVMXVWSURGXFLQJDGLJLWDOYHUVLRQRIWKHIDPLOLDUSULQWPDWHULDOV
DQGPDNLQJWKHPDYDLODEOHWRRQO\WKHVWXGHQWVLQKHUFODVV(YHQVRVKHSUREDEO\KDVPRUH
H[LELOLW\DERXWIDLUXVHWKDQ.LQNRVKDGIRULWVFRPPHUFLDOFRS\LQJ
6LPLODUO\LIVKHLVFOLSSLQJSLHFHVDQGH[FHUSWVRIPDWHULDOVDUUDQJLQJWKHPWRVXLWKHU
innovative needs, and enveloping them with original commentary and instructional content,
WKHQVKHPD\EHPDNLQJDKLJKWHFKYHUVLRQRIDERRNRURWKHUWHDFKLQJPDWHULDOV,QPDQ\
respects, her fair use questions and challenges are not unlike the approach she might have
DSSOLHGWRPRUHFRQYHQWLRQDORUIDPLOLDUVLWXDWLRQV6KHPD\EHVDIHO\ZLWKLQIDLUXVHZKHQ
VKHXVHVEULHISRUWLRQVWKDWDUHLQFRUSRUDWHGLQDWUDQVIRUPDWLYHPDQQHUVKHPD\QHHGWR
UHHFWPRUHFDUHIXOO\ZKHQXVLQJODUJHSRUWLRQVRIZRUNVDVVWUDLJKWUHSURGXFWLRQV
In any event, the question of fair use will turn on the circumstances surrounding each
LQGLYLGXDOLWHP,IVKHLVXVLQJFOLSVRIQRQFWLRQWH[WIDLUXVHVKRXOGEHUHDVRQDEO\H[-
LEOH,IVKHLVXVLQJPXVLFDUWSRHWU\DQGRWKHUPRUHFUHDWLYHZRUNVVKHVKRXOGEHPRUH

Purchase the entire book at: http://www.alastore.ala.org/detail.aspx?ID=3043

74 PART III: FAIR USE

FLUFXPVSHFW,IVKHLVZUDSSLQJWKHXVHLQFRPPHQWDU\DQGFULWLFLVPKHUXVHVPD\EH
WUDQVIRUPDWLYHDQGVKHLVRQVDIHUJURXQGWKDQVKHZRXOGEHZLWKVWUDLJKWFRS\LQJ$IHZ
instructive court cases remind us that one can still face limits on fair use:
In Los Angeles Times v. Free RepublicWKHFRXUWUXOHGWKDWSRVWLQJWKHIXOOWH[WRIQHZV-
paper articles to a website, even for the purpose of allowing readers to comment on those
DUWLFOHVWKURXJKWKHZHEVLWHLVQRWIDLUXVH17 Professor Tran, by contrast, is proposing to
XVHPDWHULDOVIRUQRQSURWHGXFDWLRQDQGRQO\ZLWKUHVWULFWHG
DFFHVV6KHFDQVWUHQJWKHQWKHSRVVLELOLWLHVRIIDLUXVHE\ One of the advantages of a wiki and many
XVLQJRQO\H[FHUSWVRIDUWLFOHV6KHFDQDYRLGLVVXHVRIIDLUXVH other technologies is the ability to link to
other sources and to embed video and other
entirely by linking to databases that might be available from materials from sites such as YouTube. Linking
KHUOLEUDU\RUWRVRXUFHVRSHQO\DYDLODEOHRQWKH,QWHUQHW and embedding do not require copying and
In Tiffany Design, Inc. v. Reno-Tahoe Specialty, Inc., the pasting of the content, and as a result seldom
court ruled that digital cutting and pasting of photographic stir serious copyright questions. To the extent
HOHPHQWVLQWRDPRQWDJHRIWKH/DV9HJDVVN\OLQHZDVQRWIDLU that Professor Tran can avoid copying, she
also has likely avoided the need to evaluate
XVH The purpose was to create a commercial product for sale
18
fair use. Apart from fair use, Professor Tran
WRWKHSXEOLF3URIHVVRU7UDQE\FRQWUDVWLVSURGXFLQJWHDFKLQJ may also be able to use the TEACH Act, a
PDWHULDOVWRVHUYHKHULQVWUXFWLRQDOQHHGV,QWKHUHFHQWFDVH separate statute that offers an alternative
of Bill Graham Archives v. Dorling Kindersley Ltd.,19 a court set of rules for using copyrighted works
ruled that the reproduction of small-size images of artistic in distance education or transmissions.
SRVWHUVZDVIDLUXVHSDUWLFXODUO\LIWKH\DUHXVHGLQWKHFRQWH[W Chapter 12 examines the TEACH Act in detail.
RIDKLVWRULFDOVWXG\7KHUHSURGXFWLRQVZHUHIDLUXVHHYHQLQ
DERRNSURGXFHGIRUVDOHE\DFRPPHUFLDOSXEOLVKHU6KRXOG3URIHVVRU7UDQODWHUGHFLGHWR
publish her teaching materials, she will likely need to discuss and even negotiate with her
SXEOLVKHUDQDSSURSULDWHVWDQGDUGRIIDLUXVH
In NXIVM Corporation v. The Ross Institute, the court ruled that fair use could allow
VRPHRQHWRSURGXFHDFULWLFDODQDO\VLVRIFRS\ULJKWHGPDWHULDOVXVHGLQEXVLQHVVVHPLQDUV20
Fair use allowed the defendant to make a critical analysis of the materials and to post that
FULWLTXHRQWKH,QWHUQHWHYHQLILWLQFOXGHGDSSUR[LPDWHO\VHYHQWHHQSDJHVIURPWKHYH
KXQGUHGSDJHVLQWKHRULJLQDOZRUN7KHFRXUWZDVHVSHFLDOO\LQFOLQHGWRDOORZVXEVWDQWLDO
FRS\LQJDQGSXEOLFDFFHVVLELOLW\ZKHQWKHXVHZDVLQWKHFRQWH[WRIRULJLQDOFULWLFLVPDQG
DQDO\VLV7KLVFDVHLVLPSRUWDQWUHDVVXUDQFHWR3URIHVVRU7UDQLIVKHLVQRWVLPSO\PDNLQJ
VWUDLJKWFRSLHVEXWLVUDWKHULQFOXGLQJVHOHFWHGH[FHUSWVDPLGVWRULJLQDOWHDFKLQJPDWHULDOV

MOVING FORWARD WITH FAIR USE

Most scenarios in this chapter have the advantage of being roughly comparable to situa-
WLRQVWKDWKDYHDULVHQLQFRXUWGHFLVLRQV&RQVHTXHQWO\3URIHVVRU7UDQKDVWKHEHQHWRI
OHDUQLQJIURPUHOHYDQWLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVRIWKHIRXUIDFWRUV+RZHYHUWKHODZLVDORQJZD\
IURPDGGUHVVLQJPDQ\RIKHUFRPPRQQHHGV)RUH[DPSOHVKHZRXOGOLNHWRSRVWWRKHU
FRXUVHPDQDJHPHQWVLWHYLGHRFOLSVIRUVWUHDPLQJWRVWXGHQWV)DLUXVHDEVROXWHO\DOORZV
VRPHXVHVEXWH[DFWO\KRZPXFKRIDQ\YLGHRFDQ3URIHVVRU7UDQGLJLWL]HDQGVWUHDP",Q
thinking about the factors of fair use, she might consider:

Nature,VVKHXVLQJDIHDWXUHUHOHDVHOP",VVKHXVLQJDQHGXFDWLRQDOYLGHR",VWKH
OPPDUNHWHGVSHFLFDOO\IRUHGXFDWLRQ",VLWKLJKO\FUHDWLYHRULVLWUHODWLYHO\
VLPSOHFRQWHQWVXFKDVQHZVHYHQWVRUH[SODQDWLRQV"
Amount: Is she using brief clips? Does she need the heart of the work? Can she post
the entire video? Does it matter if the entire work is ten minutes or two hours?

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 GETTING COMFORTABLE WITH FAIR USE 75

Effect,VWKHOPUHDVRQDEO\DYDLODEOHIRUVWXGHQWVWRSXUFKDVHDGGLWLRQDOFRSLHVDW
DORZSULFH",VLWDIRUHLJQOPWKDWLVQRWHDVLO\DYDLODEOHRULVRQO\LQDGLIIHUHQW
UHJLRQFRGH",VWKHYLGHRPDUNHWHGVSHFLFDOO\IRUHGXFDWLRQRULVLWRIPRUHJHQHUDO
DSSHDO"+DV3URIHVVRU7UDQRUKHUOLEUDU\RUXQLYHUVLW\SXUFKDVHGWKHOPWKHUHE\
contributing to the market for such works?

Professor Tran and many educators throughout the country are struggling with these
TXHVWLRQVDQGDUHUHDFKLQJGLIIHUHQWDQVZHUVDERXWWKHVFRSHRIIDLUXVH/LNHDOODSSOLFD-
WLRQVRIIDLUXVHWRQHZWHFKQRORJLHVWKHODZODJVEHKLQG5HFHQWO\8&/$ZDVWKUHDWHQHG
ZLWKOLWLJDWLRQLQYROYLQJVLPLODUXVHVRIYLGHR7KHXQLYHUVLW\KDVUHHYDOXDWHGLWVVWDQGDUG
RIIDLUXVHDQGWKHSRVVLEOHDSSOLFDWLRQRIWKH7($&+$FWFRQFOXGLQJWKDWLWFDQGLJLWL]H
DQGVWUHDPPDQ\YLGHRV:HZLOOQHHGWRZDWFKWKHVHGHYHORSPHQWVDQGOHDUQIURPWKH
H[SHULHQFHVDW8&/$DQGHOVHZKHUH
$V3URIHVVRU7UDQSXUVXHVDUDQJHRIDFWLYLWLHVIURPVLPSOHTXRWLQJWRFUHDWLQJLQQRYD-
WLYHWHDFKLQJPDWHULDOVVKHUHJXODUO\HQFRXQWHUVTXHVWLRQVDERXWIDLUXVH7KHDQVZHUWR
WKHVHTXHVWLRQVLVURXWLQHO\,WGHSHQGV7KHPRVWLPSRUWDQWWKLQJWRUHPHPEHULVWKDW
IDLUXVHLVH[LEOHDQGKLJKO\GHSHQGHQWRQWKHVSHFLFIDFWVRIHDFKVLWXDWLRQ)DLUXVHFDQ
DSSO\LQDOORIWKHVHVLWXDWLRQVDQGPRUH,WFDQDSSO\WRDIXOOUDQJHRIPDWHULDOVIURPWH[W
DQGVRIWZDUHWRPXVLFDQGDUW)DLUXVHKDVHQRUPRXVSRWHQWLDOWRVXSSRUW3URIHVVRU7UDQV
ZRUNHYHQLILWGRHVQRWDOZD\VDOORZHYHU\WKLQJ
7KHH[LELOLW\RIIDLUXVHFDQDOVRPDNHLWFKDOOHQJLQJDQGDWWLPHVGRZQULJKWIUXVWUDW-
LQJ7KHH[LELOLW\RIIDLUXVHPHDQVWKDWLWRIWHQKDVQRFOHDUUPRUHVWDEOLVKHGOLPLWV,W
LVYDULDEOHLQLWVVFRSHDQGLWVPHDQLQJLVRSHQWRGHEDWH7KHQH[WFKDSWHUH[DPLQHVWKH
JXLGHOLQHVWKDWKDYHDWWHPSWHGWREULQJVRPHFODULW\WRWKHODZ,QWKHSURFHVVKRZHYHU
WKH\DOVRKDYHGRQHFRQVLGHUDEOHKDUPWRWKHJUHDWHVWYLUWXHVRIIDLUXVHLWVH[LELOLW\DQG
DGDSWDELOLW\WRQHZVLWXDWLRQVDQGQHZGHPDQGV

ACTING IN GOOD FAITH

$VVKHZRUNVWKURXJKIDLUXVH3URIHVVRU7UDQLVOLNHO\WRIHHODEXUGHQRIUHVSRQVLELOLW\DQG
DQDFFRPSDQ\LQJULVNRIOHJDOOLDELOLW\,QGHHGFKDSWHU
of this book tells of severe consequences that may befall an When Congress enacted
LQIULQJHURIVRPHRQHVFRS\ULJKWHGZRUN&RQJUHVVUHFRJ- the fair use statute in
nized the dilemma, however, that educators and librarians 1976, it recognized that
IDFHZKHQDSSO\LQJIDLUXVH7KHODZWKHUHIRUHLQFOXGHVDQ educators and librarians
LPSRUWDQWSURYLVLRQWKDWHOLPLQDWHVPXFKRIWKHQDQFLDO would need to make
difficult judgments about
liability Professor Tran could otherwise face, but she will
fair use. The Copyright Act
have that advantage only if she applies the law of fair use therefore includes some
LQDUHDVRQDEOHDQGJRRGIDLWKPDQQHU important protection for
Chapter 14 of this book offers more details, but for now users who act in good
the message is clear: If Professor Tran takes the initiative to faith as they strive to
learn and apply the factors of fair use, she likely will have learn about and apply
fair use. Chapter 14
WKHEHQHWRIJUHDWO\UHGXFHGOLDELOLW\'RQRWRYHUORRNWKH provides the details.
better and more direct message: if Professor Tran learns
and applies the factors of fair use, she also stands a good
FKDQFHRIDFWXDOO\EHLQJZLWKLQWKHODZDQGLQIXOODFFRUGZLWKIDLUXVH,QWKHSURFHVV3UR-
fessor Tran should keep notes about her decision, and possibly use the fair use checklist in
DSSHQGL[%WRKHOSGRFXPHQWKHUWKLQNLQJDQGFRQFOXVLRQ0DLQWDLQLQJUHFRUGVDQGQRWHV

Purchase the entire book at: http://www.alastore.ala.org/detail.aspx?ID=3043

76 PART III: FAIR USE

FDQJRDORQJZD\WRKHOSFRQUPKHULQIRUPHGDQGJRRGIDLWKGHFLVLRQVDQGSURWHFWKHULQ
WKHHYHQWRIOHJDOFKDOOHQJH

NOTES
 Basic Books, Inc. v. Kinkos Graphics Corp.)6XSS6'1<7KHDXWKRU
RIWKLVERRNH[DPLQHGWKHFRXUWVUXOLQJVKRUWO\DIWHULWZDVKDQGHGGRZQ.HQQHWK'&UHZV
)HGHUDO&RXUWV5XOLQJ$JDLQVW3KRWRFRS\LQJ&KDLQ:LOO1RW'HVWUR\)DLU8VHChronicle of
Higher Education$SULOS$
 Higgins v. Detroit Educational Television Foundation)6XSSG('0LFK
 Los Angeles Times v. Free Republic8634G&'&DO
 Innity Broadcasting Corporation v. Kirkwood)6XSSG6'1<
 Ringgold v. Black Entertainment Television, Inc.)GG&LU
 Sandoval v. New Line Cinema Corporation)GG&LU7KHGLVWULFWFRXUW
ruled that the activity was within fair use, but the court of appeals was even more generous and
FDOOHGWKHXVHGHPLQLPLV
 A & M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.)GWK&LU
 Field v. Google Inc.)6XSSG'1HY
 )6XSS'0DVV
 $IHZFDVHVKDYHDGGUHVVHGIDLUXVHRIVXFKGLYHUVHZRUNVDQGVRPHRIWKHPDUHVXPPDUL]HG
ODWHULQWKLVFKDSWHU
)GG&LUcert. denied86
 7KHSHQGLQJFDVHLQYROYLQJHOHFWURQLFUHVHUYHVDW*HRUJLD6WDWH8QLYHUVLW\PD\EHFRPH
WKHUVWFDVHWRDGGUHVVVTXDUHO\WKHVHLVVXHV6HHCambridge University Press v. Patton1R
FY1'*DOHG$SUSHQGLQJ
 )6XSS6'1<
 )GWK&LUcert. denied86
 )GG&LUcert. dismissed86
 7KH&&&KDVEHJXQWRRIIHUDQDQQXDOOLFHQVHWRHGXFDWLRQDOLQVWLWXWLRQV7KHVHUYLFHKDVQRWEHHQ
ZLGHO\DGRSWHGDQGH[SHULHQFHWKXVIDULVOLPLWHG(GXFDWLRQDOLQVWLWXWLRQVPD\ZDQWWRIROORZ
developments and the debates among bloggers about the merits of and problems with such a
OLFHQVH
 8634G&'&DO
 )6XSSG'1HY
 )GG&LU
 )GG&LU$QRWKHULPSRUWDQWFDVHDOORZHGLQDVFKRODUO\VWXG\WKHXVHRI
OHQJWK\H[FHUSWVIURPDQXQSXEOLVKHGQRYHOE\0DUMRULH.LQQDQ5DZOLQJVSundeman v. The
Seajay Society, Inc.)GWK&LU

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INDEX
Page numbers in italicUHIHUWRLQIRUPDWLRQLQWH[WER[HV
A as copyrightable, 48
abandonment of copyright, 19
academic libraries and use of
independent contractors,
34
See also educational purposes
accredited institutions and
7($&+$FW
Agreement on Guidelines
for Classroom Copying
in Not-For-Prot
Educational
Institutions with Respect to
Books and Periodicals, 78
amount of portion in fair use
and educational uses, 70
as factor in determining, 55,
6364
DQWLFLUFXPYHQWLRQOHJLVODWLRQ
See Digital Millennium
artworks, fair use of, 74
$6&$3$PHULFDQ6RFLHW\RI
&RPSRVHUV$XWKRUVDQG
Publishers), 116, 141
audiovisual works
copying by libraries, 94, 95
XQGHU7($&+$FW
B FHOOSKRQHVH[FHSWLRQVWR
backup copies of software, 48
Berne Convention, 24
best practices for fair use, 80
bibliographies as compilations
of facts, 16
blind persons, materials for,
4849, 49, 126
BMI (Broadcast Music
International), 116, 141
ERRNVHOOHUVDQGUVWVDOH
Braille versions of works, 48
broadcast programming
guidelines, 78
and musical works, 116117
television programs, 63, 68
C
calendars, 19
case law, application of, 67
technological protection
for wireless apps, 125
circumvention of technological
SURWHFWLRQSee
technological protection
citation of sources, 69
classroom copying
guidelines, 78
multiple copies as fair use, 61
classroom handouts, 68
&RS\ULJKW$FW'0&$ doctrine, 114115 classroom performances and
technological protection books displays
architectural works copying by libraries, 94 of digitized materials, 4
copying by libraries, 94 copyright issues, 3 H[FHSWLRQVIRU

185

Purchase the entire book at: http://www.alastore.ala.org/detail.aspx?ID=3043

186 INDEX

(classroom performances and protection of unpublished generic notice for, 94

displays, cont.) works, 131132 on ILL forms, 96
and public performances, 42 consumable materials and fair use, legislative history, 26
VKRZLQJRIOPVLQFODVVURRP 62 on materials for students, 85
4 FRQWH[WRIFRSLHGPDWHULDODQGIDLU on materials photocopied by
WH[WRI6HFWLRQ use, 6364
uses of motion pictures,
H[FHSWLRQVWRWHFKQRORJLFDO
SURWHFWLRQRQ'9'V
collective works as works made
for hire, 34
commercial uses
and fair use, 60
DQGUVWVDOHGRFWULQH115
and section 108 requirements,
94
vs. educational uses, 67
See alsoFRQWH[WRIXVHDQGIDLU
use
compilations
WH[WRI6HFWLRQ
as uncopyrightable, 1617
of unpublished works, 17
computer software
circumvention of anti-copying,
122
copying by libraries, 94
copying for repair of computer,
48
copying of entire program, 64
as copyrightable, 12
H[FHSWLRQVWRWHFKQRORJLFDO
protection for obsolete
dongles, 126
H[FHSWLRQVWRWHFKQRORJLFDO
protection for wireless apps,
125
guidelines, 78
reproduction of, 40
rights of ownership, 48
as unpublished work, 131
&RQIHUHQFHRQ)DLU8VH
FRQWH[WRIXVHDQGIDLUXVH
contributory infringement, 104
&21781DWLRQDO&RPPLVVLRQ
RQ1HZ7HFKQRORJLFDO8VHV
of Copyrighted Works),
9798, 98
copies, multiple, as fair use, 61
copy machines in the library, 98
FRS\SURWHFWLRQSee technological
protection
copying of materials created to
serve educational market, 70
copyright
consideration of in everyday
work, 8
eligibility for copyright, 2425
instruction on, 85, 85
overview, 25
scope of protectable works, 7,
9, 1213
&RS\ULJKW$FWSee86&RS\ULJKW
Code
Copyright Clearance Center
DQG&2178JXLGHOLQHV
and licensing, 65, 76n16
and securing permissions, 141,
141
copyright decisions, strategies for,
7 protection of in European
FRS\ULJKWH[SLUDWLRQ
See also public domain
FRS\ULJKWLQIULQJHPHQWSee
infringement
copyright management
information, 24, 120
copyright management options, 7
libraries, 94
on photocopying machines, 98
and requesting permission, 140
requirement for, 24
FRS\ULJKWRZQHUVSee ownership
of copyright
copyright policies, institutional,
DQG7($&+$FW85
FRS\ULJKWUHJLVWUDWLRQSee
registration of copyright
course packs and fair use, 62,
7172
Creative Commons, 6, 37, 140
creative works, fair use of, 73
creativity criterion
and fair use, 62
and protection of ideas, 15
as requirement for copyright,
1011, 16
D
damaged or lost published works,
6
dance notations, copying by
libraries, 94
databases
licensing of as permission from
copyright owner, 140
noncopyrightable, 15, 17
8QLRQ17
trends, 127
See also licensing
derivative works
GHQLWLRQQ
and originality, 910
right to make, 4041
&21)879 copyright notice WH[WRIVWDWXWH
FRQGHQWLDOLW\LVVXHVDQG H[DPSOHV25 digital audio transmissions, 43

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 INDEX 187

digital libraries, 68 and musical works, 115116 employers as author of works

'LJLWDO0LOOHQQLXP&RS\ULJKW$FW performances and displays in, made for hire, 33
'0&$ 42, 45, 48 H[FHSWLRQV
case law, 120123 WH[WRI6HFWLRQ to the anticircumvention law, 5
and circumvention of copy distribution, right of, 40 to rights of owners, 3, 4549
protection, 119129 '0&$See Digital Millennium See alsoIDLUXVHOLEUDU\
computer software, 48
H[FHSWLRQVIRUOLEUDULHVDQG
education, 123127
and preservation copying, 46,
96
removal of copyright
management information, 24
rights of copyright owners,
4344
and Safe Harbor, 104, 104
106
sanctions in, 121122, 122
WH[WRI6HFWLRQ
trends, 127128
digital resources
copying by libraries, 95
fair use of, 7374
guidelines, 79
preservation copying, 96
as tangible medium, 1112
digital rights management (DRM)
codes, circumvention of, 128
digitization
as copyright infringement, 41
RIOPV
DQG7($&+$FW H[FHSWLRQVWRWHFKQRORJLFDO
disabled persons, special formats
for, 4849
GLVSOD\ULJKWVSee performances
and displays
dissemination of materials, limits
on, 86
distance education, 8391
checklist for compliance,
167169
and fair use, 90
guidelines, 79
and institutional policies, 3637
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&RS\ULJKW$FW'0&$ H[FHSWLRQV
GRFXPHQWDU\OPPDNLQJ
H[FHSWLRQVWRWHFKQRORJLFDO
SURWHFWLRQRQ'9'V
dongles, obsolete, 126
drafts as unpublished works, 131
dramatic musical works and
7($&+$FW115, 115116
duration of copyright, 2329
foreign works, 2627
MRLQWFRS\ULJKW32
and renewal of copyright, 26
unpublished works, 132134
works created in or after 1978,
2425
works made for hire, 25, 33
works published before 1978,
2526
'9'VGHFU\SWLRQRI
125
E DVH[FHSWLRQWRFRS\ULJKW
e-books
DXGLELOLW\DVH[FHSWLRQWR
anticircumvention law, 121
protection for, 126
educational purposes
and fair use, 64
vs. commercial uses, 67, 68
See alsoFODVVURRPFRS\LQJ
distance education
effect of use in fair use
as determining factor, 55,
6466
and out-of-print materials, 62
electronic reserve systems, 60, 78
HPSOR\HHVGHQLWLRQ
H[SLUDWLRQRIFRS\ULJKW
See also duration of copyright
F
Facebook as creative work, 9, 10
facts and discoveries as
noncopyrightable, 16
faculty as authors and works made
for hire, 3536, 38n15
fair use
after permission is denied, 143
alternatives to use of, 12
amount and substantiality
factor, 6364
applications of, 6776
best practices, 80
checklist for, 163165
GHQLWLRQ
effect on the use on the market
factor, 6466
factors in determining, 5455
four factors in determining, 80
guidelines for, 7780
nature of the copyrighted work,
6163
principles of working with fair
use, 56
purpose factor, 5961
WH[WRI6HFWLRQ
152153
unpublished works, 134136
vs. requesting permission,
140
vs.7($&+$FW89
See alsoH[FHSWLRQVWRULJKWVRI
owners
188 INDEX
Fair-Use Guidelines for Electronic
Reserve Systems, 78
)HGHUDO5HVHDUFK3XEOLF$FFHVV
$FWQ
FWLRQIDLUXVHRI
OPV
copyright issues, 34
as derivative work, 10, 41
digitization of, 45
documentaries, 125
See also motion pictures
UVWVDOHGRFWULQH
and book sellers, 114115
commercial uses and, 115
GHQLWLRQ
and educational uses, 3
OLEUDU\H[FHSWLRQVWR
musical works and, 114115
I legal help, 78
ideas as noncopyrightable, 1516
illustrations, copying by libraries,
95
independent contractors and works
made for hire, 33, 34
infringement
consequences, 101102
persons liable for, 103104
and registration of copyright,
102, 102
by state institutions, 106
institutional policies, 3638
interlibrary loan
DVOLEUDU\H[FHSWLRQ
of musical works, 114
international copyright and
institutional policies, 36
letters, unpublished, copyright
protection for, 134
Library and Classroom Use of
Copyrighted Videotapes and
Computer Software, 78
OLEUDU\H[FHSWLRQV
copy machines in the library, 98
copyright issues, 56
eligibility requirements, 9394
WRUVWVDOHGRFWULQH
and interlibrary loan (See
interlibrary loan)
library copies, 5, 6
and musical works, 113114
preservation or replacement
copies (See preservation or
replacement copying)
WH[WRI6HFWLRQD
156158
foreign works, duration of
copyright, 2627
formalities, elimination of, 2425
formats, obsolete, replacement
copies for, 6, 96, 96
G SURJUDPVH[FHSWLRQ124
garage doors and library research,
122123
good faith, acting in, 7576, 103
104, 106
See also right thing, doing
JRYHUQPHQWZRUNVSee86
government works
Guidelines for Educational Uses
of Music, 78
Guidelines for Off-Air Recording
of Broadcast Programming
for Educational Purposes, 78
guidelines on fair use, 7780
H law enforcement requirements as
heart of the work criterion and
fair use, 6364
Internet
copyright of materials on, 19
and digital audio transmissions,
43
Internet service providers (ISP),
safe harbor protection for,
104106
interoperability with other
J and copyrights, 46
MRLQWFRS\ULJKWRZQHUVKLS
3133, 32
MRXUQDOV
DQG&2178JXLGHOLQHV
98
copying by libraries, 94
copyright of issues, 17
open access, 37
transfer of copyright to
publisher, 35
L
H[FHSWLRQWRDQWLFRS\LQJ
law, 124
private study (See private study,
copies for)
WH[WRIVWDWXWH
types of works that may be
copied, 9495
Library of Congress and
UHJXODWRU\H[FHSWLRQVWR
'0&$
library-made copies, 5, 46
licensing
and fair use, 62, 6465, 73
MRLQWO\RZQHGFRS\ULJKW
for performance of nondramatic
musical works, 116, 116117
as permission from copyright
owner, 140
and transfer of copyright, 3435
trends, 127
licensing agencies and securing
permissions, 116, 141
linking to materials on Internet, 40
M
market harm
and course packs, 7172

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effect of fair use on, 6466
mediated instructional activities,
89
Model Policy Concerning College
and University Photocopying
for Classroom, Research and
Library Reserve Use, 78
moral rights
of visual artists, 4243, 44n10
of works made for hire, 33
motion pictures
circumvention of copy
SURWHFWLRQH[DPSOH
copying of, 94, 122123
H[FHSWLRQVWRWHFKQRORJLFDO
SURWHFWLRQRQ'9'V
photographs in, fair use of, 68
See alsoOPV
multimedia resources, 68, 79
multiple copying requests, 94
music videos on YouTube, 105
musical compositions
in classroom use, 4
H[FOXGHGIURP6HFWLRQ
fair use of, 68
musical works, 111118
GHQLWLRQ112
dramatic and nondramatic, 115,
115116
fair use of, 68, 73
DQGUVWVDOHGRFWULQH
guidelines, 78
licensing agencies for, 116, 141
trends, 117
N H[FHSWLRQVWR
names, copyright on, 19
nature of copyrighted work in fair
use, 54, 6162, 66n10
newspaper articles
copying by libraries, 94
and fair use, 68
nondramatic musical works, 115,
115116
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QRQFWLRQIDLUXVHRI
1RUWK$PHULFDQ)UHH7UDGH
$JUHHPHQW27
notice and takedown, 105
O securing, 4, 49
obsolete formats, 6, 96, 96
RQOLQHHGXFDWLRQSee distance
education
open access, 6, 19, 3738
originality criterion, 910
out-of-print materials and fair use,
6263
owners, locating, 4
ownership of copyright, 3138
RIMRXUQDODUWLFOHV
WH[WRIFRS\ULJKWODZRQ
152
tracing of, 2728, 28
P checklist for, 171172
SDURGLHVSee transformative uses
as fair use
password restriction on
educational materials, 60,
72, 86
patent law as protection for ideas,
19
performance rights of sound
recordings, 113
performances and displays
in the classroom (See classroom
performances and displays)
in distance education, 42, 45,
48, 8788
RIDOP
private, 1, 39
right to make, 4142
performing rights societies, 116117
permission, fair use after denial of,
70, 70, 143
permissions from copyright
owners, 139143
INDEX 189
contacting the owner, 140141
determination of need for, 140
drafting the request, 141142
model request letter for, 177178
musical works, 116117
strategies for, 139
unsuccessful efforts, 143
vs.7($&+$FW89
when fair use does not apply, 56
photography
of architectural works, 48
as creative work, 1011
fair use of, 68
pictures, copying by libraries, 95
player piano rolls, 112
plays as derivative work, 10
poetry, fair use of, 73
preservation or replacement
copying
DVOLEUDU\H[FHSWLRQ
of musical works, 114
number of copies allowed, 94
of unpublished archival
materials, 6, 136137
privacy issues and protections on
unpublished works, 131
private performances, 1, 39
private study, copies for
checklist for, 173175
and library copying of musical
works, 114
DVOLEUDU\H[FHSWLRQ
productive use, 69
See also transformative uses as
fair use
Proposal for Educational Fair
Use Guidelines for Digital
Images, Conference on Fair
Use, 79
Proposal for Educational Fair
Use Guidelines for Distance
Learning, 79
190 INDEX
Proposal for Fair Use Guidelines
for Educational Multimedia,
79
SXEOLFGLVSOD\VSee performances
and displays
public domain materials
categories of, 1819
and fair use, 56
OPV
works published before 1923,
26
publication agreements, 6, 35, 37
purpose factor in fair use, 54,
5961
Q ULJKWRIUVWSXEOLFDWLRQ
quality of copied material and fair
use, 6364
quantity of copying and fair use, 63
quotations in scholarly works as
fair use
determining factors in, 69
H[LELOLW\RIDSSOLFDWLRQ
and heart of the work
criterion, 63
from unpublished works, 61,
134136
R of musical works and
5$0DV[HGDQGWDQJLEOH
medium, 12
read-aloud feature of e-books,
126, 126
renewal of copyright
duration of, 26
legislation on, 24
UHSODFHPHQWFRSLHVSee
preservation or replacement
copying
reproduction, right of, 40
reproductions, photography as,
1011
research, copying for, 7273,
122123
restoration of foreign
copyrights, 27
retention of materials, limits on,
86, 86, 159
court decisions on, 61
and unpublished works, 135
right thing, doing, 106107
See also good faith, acting in
rights of copyright owners, 3944
and derivative works, 4041
digital audio transmissions,
43
display rights, 4142
distribution, right of, 40
H[FHSWLRQVWR T
moral rights, 4243
recordings, 113
public performance, 4142
reproduction, right of, 40
rights of distribution, 3
6(6$&6RFLHW\RI(XURSHDQ
6WDJH$XWKRUVDQG
Composers), 116
6KHUSD5R0(23URMHFW35
VRIWZDUHSee computer software
sound recordings
absence of copyright protection
on recordings before 1972,
19
copyrights for, 42, 43, 95
GHQLWLRQ112
library copying of, 95, 114
performances of, 116
restoration of copyright, 27
WH[WRI6HFWLRQ
sovereign immunity, 106
specialized formats
GHQLWLRQ126
and disabled persons, 4849
VSRNHQZRUGUHFRUGLQJVSee
sound recordings
spontaneous copying, 79
state governments, copyrights of
documents, 18
systematic copying requests, 94
tangible medium criterion
ZRUNV[HGLQWDQJLEOHIRUP
works not recorded in tangible
form, 19
7($&+7HFKQRORJ\
Education and Copyright
reasonable and limited portions
of audiovisual works, 4
region codes, circumvention of,
128
registration of copyright
EHQHWVRI
importance of, 102
and locating copyright owners,
140141, 141
no longer needed, 24
sources of information, 25
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ULVNEHQHWDQDO\VLVRIXVLQJ
works without permission,
143
S and circumvention of
safe harbor protection for service
providers, 104106
security codes, decryption, 124,
125
service providers, safe harbor
protection for, 104106
+DUPRQL]DWLRQ$FW
application of, 8990
checklist for compliance,
167169
technological protection, 128
and displays and performances
in distance education, 48,
8788
institutional requirements,
8586

instructional requirements, 87
and musical works, 115116
technology requirements, 8687
vs. fair use, 89
WHDFKHUVPDQXDOVDVGHULYDWLYH
works, 41
technological protection, 119129
circumvention of, 5, 4344,
119129
copyright issues, 5
unpublished materials, 4, 131138
H[FHSWLRQVIRUOLEUDULHV
and fair use, 61, 61
preservation copying of, 95
8UXJXD\5RXQG$JUHHPHQWV$FW
27
86&RS\ULJKW&RGH
6HFWLRQGHQLWLRQV
149
Section 102(a) scope of
INDEX 191
Section 110(8) special formats
for disabled persons, 4849
Section 114 sound recordings
(See sound recordings)
Section 117 computer software
(See computer software)
Section 120 architectural
works, 48, 94
Section 121 special formats for
disabled persons, 4849
and digitization, 89
effectiveness of, 122
H[FHSWLRQVIRUOLEUDULHVDQG
education, 123127
DVKDPSHUWRH[HUFLVHRI
H[FHSWLRQV46
DQG7($&+$FW
See also Digital Millennium
protectable works, 7, 9, 12
13, 149150
Section 103 compilations and
derivative works, 150 (See
alsoFRPSLODWLRQVGHULYDWLYH
works)
6HFWLRQ86JRYHUQPHQW
works, 15, 1718, 150
6HFWLRQEMRLQWO\RZQHG
works, 7, 3133, 32
Section 405-406 copyright
notice (See copyright notice)
Section 504 infringement (See
infringement)
Section 511 liability of state
employees for infringement,
&RS\ULJKW$FW'0&$ Section 106 rights of copyright 106
telephone books, creativity in, 1011 owners, 150152 Section 512 (Safe Harbor),
television programs, fair use of, and Digital Millennium 104, 104106
63, 68 &RS\ULJKW$FW Section 1201 circumvention of
See also broadcast on rights of copyright copyright protection systems
programming owner, 39 (See Digital Millennium
termination of transfer Section 107 fair use (See fair &RS\ULJKW$FW'0&$
right of owner, 35, 35n14 use) 86JRYHUQPHQWZRUNV
and works made for hire, 33 Section 108 (See library copyrighted materials in, 18
thumbnail images as fair use, 63 H[FHSWLRQV noncopyrightable, 15, 1718
titles, copyright on, 19 6HFWLRQ6WXG\*URXS WH[WRIVWDWXWH
trade secret law as protection for 98100 Using Software: A Guide to the
ideas, 19 6HFWLRQDUVWVDOH Ethical and Legal Use of
trademark coverage of titles and doctrine (SeeUVWVDOH Software for Members of the
names, 19 doctrine) Academic Community, 78
transfer of copyright
by authors, 3435
MRLQWO\RZQHGFRS\ULJKW
See also termination of transfer
transformative uses as fair use,
6061, 61, 66n6
translations, 10, 41
6HFWLRQFH[FHSWLRQIRU
public displays, 47
Section 110(1) displays and
performances in face-to-face
teaching (See classroom:
performances and displays in)
Section 110(2) (See distance
education)
V
vicarious liability, 104
video games
circumvention of region codes,
128
H[FHSWLRQVWRWHFKQRORJLFDO
protection for testing and
U 6HFWLRQ7($&+$FW review, 125
unbundling rights of copyright and distance education (See videos
ownership, 37 7($&+$FW clips, fair use of, 7475, 125

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192 INDEX

(videos, cont.)
guidelines, 78
licensing of, 140
XQGHU7($&+$FW
W duration of copyright, 25, 33
websites, secure, and posting of
materials, 72
wikis and fair use, 7374
wireless telephone hand-sets/cell
phones, 125
workbook pages and fair use, 62 World Intellectual Property
works made for hire Organization, 99
FRQLFWVZLWKLQVWLWXWLRQDO
policies, 36 Y
GHQLWLRQ133 YouTube, copyrighted materials
on, 105
and moral rights, 43
ownership of, 3334
unpublished, 133
works without copyright
protection, 1520

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