PEACE AND CONFLICT STUDIES AN OVERVIEW OF BASIC CONCEPTS

Peace and conflicts resolution started in US College in form of campus club in the years
following the American Civil War; in Sweden in the last years of 19 th century and spread to
other countries later. As at then, it was students originated discussions and not formal courses
in the college curricula. The study of Peace and Conflict can be approached in two ways-
namely theoretically and through research. Through the theory teachers transmit knowledge
to students and through Research, students attempt to discover or create new knowledge
about sources of conflicts.
Definition of Basic Concepts
PEACE: Peace is generally defined as the absence of war, fear, conflict, anxiety, suffering
and violence. Peace implies creating and maintaining a society that thrives on a just order.
Peace is concerned about resolution of conflicts through non-violent means. The above
definitions notwithstanding, there are many other ways through which peace has been defined
by peace researchers. These are: peace as justice and development, peace as respect and
tolerance between people, peace as end state of war. A state devoid of violence, crime, any
form of disturbance and the presence of justice and a state of harmony, free from conflict or
disagreements. In the absence of peace, that is when there is war, the following are
devastating effects: Loss of human lives and suffering, state collapse, society disintegration,
heavy disruption of economic and agricultural activities and the destruction of infrastructural
facilities. In Africa today, Peace is the prime value and most pressing challenge the continent
is facing in the 21st century. For instance it is on record that 18 wars and armed conflicts are
at different levels of intensity and different stages of civil war peace settlement.
Evolution of Peace Research (Origin)
Peace studies or peace research had its origin in Europe as an academic discipline in the late
1940s and 1950s. Institutions for peace research are scattered all over Europe and other parts
of the world where peace studies are treated as specialized study in social science. The
essence of peace research is to evolve ways of understanding the causes of violence and
conditions necessary for peaceful world.
Social Dimensions of Peace: Peace is what we desire in our social institutions, such as
domestic, religious, political, environmental, industrial and cultural spaces. Peace in this area
is said to be achieved when the institution is devoid of dissatisfactions, deprivation,
disequilibrium which leads to mass protest, disaffection, demonstration and other forms
social dislocation.
Psychological or Intrapersonal Peace: This is the peace an individual has when he is free
from anxiety. It can also be called the peace of the mind. Since the idea of violence originates
first from the mind of individuals. Peace of individuals is vital for peace at the higher levels.
Human beings individually through their acts of omission or commission contribute to the
tension that possibly results into war and other bloody conflicts in every community.
Domestic Peace: It explains the harmonious interaction at the family level. It comes with the
unity of purpose with which components of a family adopt in relating with one another. It
should be noted that the family is the first element of a social structure. Therefore, peaceful
coexistence within the family often translates, to a large extent, to a peaceable society at
large.
Religious and Cultural Peace: Religious and Cultural peace connotes human efforts at
tolerance, mutual respect and empathy towards the ethnic and religious difference of other
people. A good religious practitioner must be sensitive to the sensitivity of other religious
worshipers while xenophobia should be avoided for peace to reign in any society.
Industrial Peace: Peace at industrial level involves the creation of conducive working
environment devoid of frequent industrial accident, prompt payment of salaries and creation
of welfare emolument, adequate communication flow and healthy union/management
relations.
Political Peace: This is the kind of peace that exists in a country when all the three tiers of
government and its agencies are working harmoniously in pursuit of good governance,
respect for human rights, and rule of Law and supremacy of the constitution. Under this kind
of peace, the military subordinates itself to the authority of the democratically elected
civilians. Political peace guarantees political stability in the polity as free and fair periodic
elections leading to change of government are held in line with provisions of the law. The
electorates and contestants in any election also respect the wish of the people instead of
embarking on frivolous litigations to upturn the verdict of the people or to instigate violence
in the case of losers at the polls.
Economic Peace: This entails equitable allocation of resources of the state to its component
units or nationalities. It also occurs when the wealth of the nation is distributed in a manner
that the gap between the rich and the poor is wider than necessary. Other conditions necessary
for economic peace include industrial harmony, market forces, free economy and economic
justice.
Environmental Peace: This is the kind of peace we experience in our physical environment
when men respect nature by desisting from any act capable of causing environmental
degradation. Such practice that threatens the environmental peace includes Bush burning,
indiscriminate felling of trees, Blocking of water ways and unhealthy agricultural practices.
Community Peace: There is need for peace in every community. This is to say that people
living together in various communities should not only tolerate one another but desist from
any act capable of causing communal clashes. Thousands of lives and properties worth
millions of naira have been lost in this kind of clash and since the nation or country is a
function of various communities, such conflicts contribute to tension in the country. Clashes
between the Hausas and Ibos living in the northern part of the country started as communal
clashes. Other examples of communal clashes in the past include, the Ife Modakeke crisis,
Ezza-Ezillo community war in Ebonyi state, Aguleri-Umuleri in Anambra state, Zango-kataf
in Kaduna state, the Isekiri-Ijaw conflict in Delta state and the Ogoni Shell in Rivers state.
This is in addition to crises and riots between communities in the northern part of the country
along religious lines.
Peace at the level of a nation or country is necessary for maintenance of order at the lower
levels such as community, family and individual. Internecine wars in Africa have remained
threats to national, world and communal peace. Other threat to national peace includes: ethnic
nationality and identity, religious bigotry, inequality in the distribution of national wealth, sit-
tight leaders, corruption, military intervention in politics and negative politics.
CONFLICT DEFINITIONS AND TYPES
Conflict pertains to opposing ideas and actions of different entities, thus resulting in
antagonistic state. Conflict is an inevitable of life. As many as there are humans, there are
differing ideas, opinions and sets of beliefs. Hence, people often find themselves in conflict in
various scenarios as they relate with others. Consequently, conflict influences peoples
actions and decisions in one way or the other.
Conflict also refers to some form of friction or discord arising within a group as a result of
difference of opinion, disagreements among individuals or scarcity of resources. Another
definition sees conflict as an activity which takes place when individuals or groups wish to
carry out mutually inconsistent act concerning their want, needs or obligations. Conflict is an
escalation of disagreement which could be characterized by aggressive behaviors, in which
conflicting parties actively try to destroy each other.
Conflict is broadly classified into these four categories:
Intrapersonal Conflict occurs within an individual. The experience takes place in the mind
of an individual. Hence, it is a conflict that is psychological involving the individuals
thoughts, values, principles and emotions. Intrapersonal conflict may occur on different
scales; from simpler ones like lunching out, doing laundry now or latter, to more serious ones
like choosing a career, getting a divorce, or involvement in criminal activities. It leads to
restlessness and uneasiness or sometimes causes depression. Ones ability to resolve
intrapersonal conflict and gain inner peace will go a long way in determining the way one
interacts with others.
Interpersonal Conflict refers to conflict between two or more individuals. This occurs
mostly to reflect the difference between and among people. Varying personalities result to
incompatibility of goals, choices and opinions. Apparently, it is a natural occurrence which
can eventually lead to personal growth and or develop ones relationship with others.
Intragroup Conflict is a kind of conflict that happens among individuals within a team. The
incompatibilities, mistrust and misunderstanding among these group members lead to
conflict. It arises from interpersonal disagreement, interest preservation or difference in views
and ideas. Within a team, conflict can be helpful in coming up with decisions which will
eventually allow them reach their objective as a group. However, if the degree of conflict
causes disharmony and destructive disruption among member, then they may need an
intervention from a mediating third party in order to resolve. Again, conflict is required
among team members so as to avoid group-think.
Intergroup Conflict takes place when there is misunderstanding between or among groups.
This could be as a result of varied set of goals and interest of these different groups. In
addition, competition also contributes to such conflict. The philosophy of the conflicting
groups sometimes negates the needs and interest of the others within the larger society, thus,
eliciting cause for misunderstanding.
CONFLICT ANALYSIS
Introduction
The word conflict is as old as mankind. This is because the word has been in existence in
all spheres of human life since the inception of the world. In the recent past, the world socio-
political environs have been on the boil despite the colossal amount of human and material
resources expended on global peace and conflict management by several nations, states,
regional organisations and the United Nations (UN). Rather than the global crisis diminishing
in spite of the several steps taken, it is becoming more virulent and destructive because it has
continued to drain the energy and man power resources of the troubled spots if not the entire
world and emasculate governance.
Historical Background and Conceptual Definition of Conflict
The word conflict is derived from the Latin word confligere, meaning to strike together.
Conflict means to strike. A fight, struggle or battle, clash, contention, confrontation, a
controversy or quarrel, active opposition, strife or incompatibility, to meet in opposition or
hostility, to contend, to be contrary or to be at variance.
Conflict also means contradiction arising from differences in interests, ideas, ideologies,
orientations, beliefs, perceptions and tendencies. Although, conflict is a normal, natural and
inevitable phenomenon in any interactive situation of human life, contradictions exists at all
levels of the society intrapsychic/personal, interpersonal, Intragroup, intergroup, institution,
domestic and international. Conflict is not necessarily negative in itself; it is often a by
product of social change and may lead to constructive transformation.
Conflict can also be defined as opposition among social entities directed against one another,
it distinguished competition and defined it as opposition among social entities independently
striving for something of which the resources are inadequate to satisfy all. Competitors may
not be aware of one another, while they are parties to a conflict.
Two points which are directly related to conflict analysis and management can be deduced
from this definition. One is that contrary to the old perspective which regards conflict as
national, it is not inevitable, only competition can be so regarded. Secondly, conflict and
competition are two points of a continuum on which conflict represents aggravated
competition. In order words conflict arises when disagreement emerging from competition
cannot be resolved. It follows therefore that conflict management has to begin with and
include management of supposedly simple competition. The other point that can be inferred
from Wrights definition is that conflicts are themselves processes that tend to degenerate
from non-violent to violent and from crisis to full-scale war.
Causes of Conflict
As earlier mentioned, conflict is inevitable and it keeps occurring in every individual life,
either at home, work, social outings or even when we sleep in our bedroom without
interacting with anyone. Although, we are familiar with those inexhaustible things that cause
conflicts, but in this context, they can be categorised into four namely:
Conflicts over resources
Conflicts over psychological needs
Conflicts involving values
Conflicts over inadequate information
Conflicts over Resources
These types of conflicts are usually easy to identify because they can be seen and are more
potentially easy to resolve. This conflict occurs when two or more people are competing for
inadequate (or perceived to be inadequate) resources over a period of time. The competition
may assume negative or destructive dimension when the available resources are not evenly
and judiciously distributed. The relatively deprived would always struggle to improve their
lot. This view agrees with the Marxian theory of conflict, which posits that the more the rate
of unequal distribution of scarce resources in the society, the greater is the basic conflict of
interest between its dominant and subordinate segments. He also says that when practices of
dominant segment create alienation dispositions the more the subordinate segments of a
system become aware of their collective interests and question the distribution of scarce
resources, the more likely they are to join in overt conflict against dominant segment of a
system. Resources that cause conflict include landed properties, money, vehicles, and
company ownership/shares among others.
Conflict over Psychological Needs
Conflicts over psychological needs of groups and individuals are conflicts which cannot be
seen but affect the psyche of the individual and group self-actualisation, need for individual
and group respect, attempt to project ones group to be better than the others. With particular
reference to Maslows theory, he points out that when an individual psychological need is
achieved or satisfied, such an individual becomes dominated by a drive for the other
unsatisfied needs through a process he calls Fulfilment Progression. Example includes
structural factor, politics, personality clash, and ethnicity.
Conflict Involving Values
Contradicting value systems such as religious beliefs, ideological positions, and
general worldview is another factor responsible for social conflict among the interacting
parties. Conflict involving values are the most difficult to understand and resolve because
most times people could die for what they believe in. According to Weaver, who likens
culture to an iceberg, he says internal culture, is implicitly learnt and difficult to change.
That is part of culture that is below the waterline in the iceberg analogy. It includes some of
our beliefs, our values and thought patterns, attitudes, non-verbal communication and
perception. Beliefs are interrelated and form belief system, which because they are learnt in
life, are difficult to change.
Examples of values laden conflicts include the Cold War, terrorism (suicide
bombij.bhn`/ng), religious conflicts such as 1980 Maitatsine crisis, the 1991 Bonnke crisis in
Kano, the 2002 Beauty Pageant crisis. Others include the September 30, 2005 Cartoon crisis
over a Danish newspaper, JyllandsPosten, published cartoons caricaturing Prophet
Mohammad, the most recent of all the religious crisis in Nigeria is the Boko Haram crisis that
has killed an estimated 3,500 people.
Conflict over Information
The last but not the least of the factors causing conflict in any society is
manipulation of information. The pivotal role of information in societal conflict cannot be
over-emphasised; they can either be manipulative or constructive. Especially in a widespread
conflict situation, the role of information becomes more crucial, difficult and dangerous.
When the information system in a society is tampered with, there is bound to be conflict. The
information system can be tampered with in different ways. This can be either by feeding
people with lies or giving the right information at the wrong time. In our contemporary
societies, the quantity and quality of information vary dramatically and are dependent on
wide range of factors, from level of literacy to social cohesiveness and stability to available
technology. Central to the availability and quality of public information is the media (print,
audio and audio-visual).
 Also, in deeply divided societies, the media can also shape opinion and decisions
related to the nature and scope of conflicts, as well as the potential alternatives to conflict,
where social, political and economic conflict have degenerated into widespread violence, the
role of information in mitigating the effects of violence or in presenting alternatives can be
crucial. Because communication is an integral part of conflict, it comes as no surprise that
those participating in organised violence often use the media to attack opponents, and spread
disinformation or misinformation and rally external and internal support. Some of the
communication barriers that are capable of distorting meanings are physical distance,
language, and the listeners value judgement.
Classification of Conflict
Wright for instance distinguishes between ordinary conflict which involves small-
scale violence usually at the individual and group levels and war, which is carried out by
armed forces and involves violence of considerable magnitude. Similarly, Gurr distinguishes
between turmoil, which includes both non-violent and small-scale violent conflict and
rebellion or internal war. The point in this latter classification is that notwithstanding their
peculiarities, conflicts differ largely in degree rather than kind and should therefore be
analysed in terms of continuum which has non- violent conflict at one end and violent ones at
the other. This enables us to pay close attention to the possible escalation or worsening of
conflicts, sometimes a simple non-violent/violent classification appears to shape the other.
Another popular classification categorises conflict into structural and non-structural
conflicts. Structural conflicts which tend to be endemic are those which are predisposed by
the innate character of the polity. Typically, they result from unjust repressive and
oppressive socio-political structure. Structural factors also include inequality among groups
in obtaining access to socioeconomic and political privileges and benefits such as education,
income distribution, unemployment, and control of political power, as well as low levels of
national integration which encourage zero-sum context for state power.
The third classification of conflicts is based on the character of the parties in conflict.
Thus, ethnic and religious conflicts (which are most prevalent in Africa) tend to be the most
important bases of identity for most individuals and as such attract strong loyalties to the
groups involved.
Conflict prevention
This is the anticipation of conflict that seeks to redress causal grievances to avoid the
escalation of violent forms of conflict engagement or to curtail the re-occurrence of violent
exchanges or some combination of these elements. The term conflict prevention can be
misleading, because theoretically none of the aforementioned aspects aspire to prevent
conflict as such. Instead, the aim is often to resolve a conflict at hand or more typically to
prevent escalation or violent manifestations. Although at times referred to as preventive
diplomacy and crisis prevention, such activities usually involve maintaining the status quo
due to potential threats associated with crises or the anticipated outcomes from engaging in a
dispute.
Conflict prevention, however, recognises that in order to avoid the catastrophes
associated with strife, particularly violent upheaval, change is usually necessary, for example,
through new institutions, revitalised processes, or the sharing of power. Such efforts are
collectively categorised as early warning systems, which vary in complexity and approach.
They may include fact-finding missions, consultations, inspections, report mechanisms, and
monitoring. The predictive nature of conflict prevention raises several issues, particularly
regarding the timing of intervention and the possibility of precipitating pre-emptive action by
parties beyond the conflict.
Humanitarian and moral concerns are often insufficient for initiating effective conflict
prevention efforts, even in the face of egregiously violent circumstances. As a result,
numerous arguments are put forth on behalf of conflict prevention, for example, geo-strategic
concerns, security interests, cost-benefit analyses, and refugee issues. Despite the increasing
technical capacity and human ability to identify deadly conflicts before they erupt, as well as
the likelihood of extreme costs in life, social cohesion, and regional instability, conflict
prevention remains in the realm of theory more than practice.
Conflict prevention has predominantly been viewed as the task, if not the
responsibility, of international organisations or nation-states neutral to the given conflict. It,
however, does not necessarily rely nor should it depend solely on external parties. The most
effective method of conflict prevention, although not described as such, is accountable
governance, whereby citizens and groups have access to effective avenues and mechanisms
for resolving the range of disputes and conflicts that ordinarily arise within societies. Such
access not only involves governmental structures, but also requires the cooperation of civil
societies and business communities. This is particularly true in settings where violent conflict
has already occurred and conflict prevention focuses on inhibiting recurrences, for example
through some form of reconciliation.
CONFLICT RESOLUTION AND TRANSFORMATION
This is the management of conflict, using peaceful and non-violent methods. These
methods are available at individual, family, group, community and international levels. This
topic introduces these methods on two broad categories at proactive and reactive levels. The
aim of conflict transformation is to change parties perception and attitude so that causes of
conflict can be recognized and avoided in the future.
Conflict management
Conflict management is an interventionist effort towards preventing the escalation and
negative effects, especially violent ones, of on-going conflicts. Rarely are conflicts
completely resolved. More often, they are reduced, downgraded, or contained. Such
developments can be followed by a reorientation of the issue, reconstitution of the divisions
among conflicting parties, or even by a re-emergence of past issues or grievances. Conflict
management when actively conducted is, therefore, a constant process. A variety of
techniques have been identified and employed in conflict management efforts. The following
are the most prominent: First, conflicting parties are brought together to establish a mutual
agreement. Second, governments or third parties to the strife may directly intervene to
introduce or impose a decision. Third, new initiatives, programmes, or institutional structures
(for example, elections) are implemented to address the conflict in question. Fourth,
contending parties are compelled or coerced to utilise previously established means of
resolution or containment. Fifth, government or another third party may use coercion to
eliminate or instil fear among one or all those engaged in a given conflict, leading to
subsidence. Conflict management should not be viewed as a simple, linear or structured
process. Those assuming or charged with such a task must usually overcome an intensely
chaotic situation. Conflicts are frequently managed directly by the society in which they
occur. When not possible or when conflicts become national in scope, government normally
assumes the task, provided it is not a party to the conflict. In cases where a government is
unable or unwilling to intervene, international organisations increasingly assume the role of
conflict manager.
Conflict is an inevitable aspect of human interaction, an unavoidable concomitant of choices
and decisions. . . . The problem, then, is not to court the frustrations of seeking to remove
inevitability but rather of trying to keep conflicts in bounds. Zartman 1997: 197. Conflict
management correctly posits that conflicts could be protracted in span, which makes it
difficult to be swiftly resolved, but management implies that people can be directly or
remotely manipulated, as they were physical objects. Furthermore, the notion of management
implies that its goal is the mitigation or control of volatility without dealing with the real
source of the problem.
Conflict resolution
It is a variety of approaches aimed at resolving conflicts through the constructive solving of
problems distinct from the management or transformation of conflict. Conflict resolution is
multifaceted in that it refers to a process, a result, and an identified field of academic study as
well as an activity in which persons and communities engage every day without ever using
the term. The antagonisms in question may involve interpersonal relationships, labour-
management issues, business decisions, intergroup disputes, disagreements between nation-
states, or international quarrels. Not all conflicts are harmful. Some may ultimately result in
positive social change. As noted by Nigerian sociologists Onigu Otite and Isaac Olawale
Albert (1999: 17), although conflicts have negative connotations . . . [many] constitute an
essential creative element for changing societies and achieving the goals and aspirations of
individuals and groups. Conflict resolution involves recognition by the clashing parties of
one anothers interests, needs, perspectives, and continued existence. The most effective
forms identify the underlying causes of the conflict and address them through solutions that
are mutually satisfactory, self-perpetuating, and sustaining. Conflict resolution can also be
practised with a variety of emphases, including but not limited to cooperation, non-
confrontation, non-competition, and positive-sum orientation. Serious challenges are found
when parties at times favour, for various reasons, continuation of conflict over its resolution.
In such cases, the role of external parties can be critical in creating a balance of power,
enacting sanctions or incentives, or acting as neutral mediators or invested facilitators. Not all
conflicts lend themselves to conflict resolution techniques.
Conflicts arise from both systemic and individual perceptions. Therefore, a lasting
resolution for any conflict requires both systemic and individual analysis and intervention.
Conflict resolution and peace building thus call for a collaborative approach that addresses
both of these levels. The parties to the conflict are the experts in defining their needs and how
to satisfy them. The role of a third party is to assist parties in identifying and understanding
those needs and values when negotiations have deadlocked. Imposing outside resolution may
provide temporary relief, but a lasting arrangement can only be designed and implemented by
the parties themselves. Conflict Resolution opines that most conflicts in Africa are endemic
by definition to the extent that the predisposing factors are not embedded in the political
system. They result from specific policies or actions by the state or groups and do not
generally last for too long.
Conflict transformation
Conflict transformation is essentially integrative conflict resolution orientation that aims at
positively altering those perceptions, communication and root factors that instigate conflicts.
This laborious approach is preferred because it focuses on:
 producing transformation in the whole conflict environment
producing transformation in the relationship of the conflicting parties, or
producing empowerment-based transformation in parties to the conflict
Conflict transformation is the aggregate of all efforts that concentrate on the developmental
stages or processes of a conflict, rather than simply on its end point. In addition, it pays
attention to how conflict transforms relationships, communication, perceptions, issues and
social organisation. Based on this, conflict transformation aims to transform the conflict from
violent manifestation characterised by armed conflict and war to constructive and peaceful
expression.
Conflict transformation also focuses on transformation and sometimes the removal of all
structures that impede sustainable positive peace. It also seeks ways of involving all
stakeholders including erstwhile combatants, local individuals, communities and external
third parties in a concerted way.
Conflict transformation can also be defined as an improvement of the whole context of the
conflict, a positive change in the disputants relationships or complete behavioural and
attitudinal changes of the disputants. Conflict transformation entails an informed
reassessment and redefinition of the disputants to explore avenues for new compensations
and appointments. The aim of this is to transcend zero-sum (win-lose) phase to arrive at a
positive-sum (win-win) agreement.
Conflict transformation has also been defined as a particular approach that takes into
cognisance the grievances, needs and issues of all the parties. In approaching conflict
transformation, there is a major theory to look at and that is the Gandhi theory also known to
be the non-violent conflict transformation. The non-violence theory or Gandhi theory is
vehemently intolerant of the use of either structural violence or physical violence because it
will contradict the spirit and letter of the non-violence theory. In addition, non-violence is an
admonition to struggle against both direct and structural violence, and an equally strong
admonition not to use them in the struggle. Non-violence or Gandhi theory will also not
condone the fair protractile devices earlier mentioned because they are antithetical to the non-
violence theory of conflict transformation. For Gandhi; there is no way to peace; peace is the
way; to be taken, now.
Conflict transformation may occur through the unintended consequences of actions taken by
parties internal or external to the conflict, yet deliberate attempts at transformation may also
be made. The latter aims to generate opportunities for conflict resolution or conflict
management and ultimately more equitable outcomes, particularly where a given conflict is
considered intractable or where it has encountered a seemingly insurmountable impasse.
Conflict transformation requires that the parties involved alter their previous strategies of
handling or avoiding the discord in order to implement new approaches towards ameliorating
the situation. The non-violent transformation of conflict and the weaponry of non-violent
struggle are desirable for those who seek non-lethal means of conflict engagement, which can
improve the odds for reconciliation.
PEACE EDUCATION AND PEER MEDIATION
Introduction
Peace Education is the deliberate attempt to education school and adult in the dynamics of
conflict and the promotion of peace-making skills in home, schools and communities
throughout the world, using all the channels and instruments of socialization. It provides
education for global securities and focuses on direct, organized violent, particularly the
institutions of war and army conflict, employing the frame work based on recent theories of
human securities. Peace Education concerns itself with human and social dimensions of
peace. It introduce the concept of human dignity and human right with specific reference to
such values as economic equity, political participation, ecological balance and particularly the
formative principle fundamental to international human right standard. It concerns itself with
the global ethnics, gender issues and various aspects of cultural violence. Global governance
is also of the great concerns to peace education which create the concept of global civic
society. Overall, peace education is an investment in the younger generation and attests to the
fact that Educating younger minds in virtues of peace, the skills of conflict analyses and
management, identification of conflict and source of conflict e.t.c, a more peaceable future
could be secured for humanity.
Peace Education is an integral part of the work of the United Nations. Through the
harmonizing process of teaching and learning, this education is out to enlighten students and
adults concerning the ill that confronts the human race on daily basis. These dehumanizing
ills which are caused by man and womans inhumanity to human kind among other include
discrimination on the basis of sex, religion, poverty, prejudices and war e.t.c, but peace
education will create a culture of peace based upon fundamental specific and ethnical
principle.
THE USE OF SCHOOLS SUBJECT FOR TEACHING PEACE
This is primarily directed towards developing students capacity for critical thinking inquiry
and reflective skills that enables them not only to understand obstacles to peace but more
importantly to develop skills and abilities to confront issues, envision realistic alternative and
device implement strategies for the realization of the alternative.
Religion: Since most world religion have peace entrenched in their holy books,
religion can easily be used as an instrument for peace education among person as well as
other followers and adherents. Members of different faith should respect one another opinion
and religious belief. There should be unity and respect in the diversity of religions. Religions
should teach and promote the virtues of peace, forgiveness, reconciliation, love, respect for
life and other values that promote non violent change. Failing to do this, religions has also
been known to have capacity to socialize and indoctrinate young person into vicious cycles of
hate and violence. This can and should be turned around.
Geography: All human being share basic fundamental things which can be endowed
by nature. This is clearly seen in ability of all human to live on earth, share the beauty and the
resources of the earth and protect it for its sustainability and the good of generations yet
unborn. This is regardless of which part of it one live on variety, they say is the spice of life,
meaning that people differ but should be able to learn from each other culture, background,
exposure or the lack of it, without prejudice
History: Historically, we should respond to the various historical events in the past
which have tended to divide rather than unite. In this case, our experience should not be the
best teacher rather than we should learn from the mistake of others. Mysteries have too many
lessons of the inhumanity of human kind propelled by violent conflict. West Africa is a rich
case study. The violence unleashed in innocent civilians in the Nigerian Civil war, the
conflicts in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast and Guinea, among others, can constitute rich
case studies for the teaching of peace education. The lessons of history as part of education
should not be exposed the ills in the past, and draw attention to the potential good in non-
violent alternatives.
Science: Science as a subject avails us with the need and aspirations of the human
being. This knowledge exposed all to the requirements of all being which should make us
have respect for others. It can become an important aspect of peace education at the primary
and secondary school level.
Music: Music can also be used to teach peace education. Young people can
differentiate between good music and bad music, between the musical note and instrument
that are in harmony and those that are riotous. As good music that is sweet to the air and
smoothens to the soul is likely to peace, so is bad music likely to conflict.
Fine Art: Fine Art coming in form of drawing, painting, design, cartoon etc also help
to geographically portray the message of peace and conflict. The creativity in Art students can
help to depict the ill of war, the beauty of peace and how young person may be channeled to
love and pursue non-violence.
TYPES OF PEACE EDUCATION
Formal Peace Education
Formal peace education can be incorporated into school curriculum and taught within
many school subject area including religion, geography, history, science, social studies,
literature, drama, music, art and mathematics. In formal peace education, the following
programs are emphasized:
1. Knowledge: Since the saying goes that, Knowledge is power students should
therefore know the following about: themselves and others: the poor and the rich: of
peace and conflict: our environment and the world tomorrow.
2. Attitudes: Positive attitudes are very necessary for the attainment of peace. Such
attitudes affect our responses to conflict and the ways we look at and do things. They
include factors such as human dignity, curiosity, appreciation for culture, empathy,
justice and fairness.
3. Skills: Peace is built over time, through processing of encounter and reflection that
address not only practical issues of conflict but also deeper issues of relationship,
human development and structural varieties. Peace education requires that the
students acquire skills which will equip them to be peace builders. Some of these
skills are: enquiry, communication skills, grasping concepts, critical thinking and
political skills,
Informal Peace Education
Schools and colleges are not the only place one can acquire knowledge. Much peace
education takes place in formal settings where people gather for work or lecture, through
socialization and initiation processes within the communities, in family settings e.t.c. just as
in schools, formal peace education address attitude and aim to have a direct impact on
personal behaviours. Peace education, in both formal and informal settings, requires a more
relaxed atmosphere than the standard lecture. People-relationship needs to be credited in
more opened and inviting arrangement where people can be encouraged to embark on the
difficult task of looking at issues that are important to them, reflect on their own
behaviour/attitude and generate alternatives for the future. Peace education can help people to
become aware of bias and prejudice in themselves and their society.
 Informal peace education can tackle important issue in almost an infinite number of
ways. It can take the form of a work shop. Item to discuss could include publishing story
books for children, designing posters, print badges and printing of T-Shirts and posters with
peace messages.
One important way of informal peace Education is using folk languages and identifies
all proverbs, all poems and anecdotes that promotes peace. This raises peoples awareness of
how language can shape attitudes and behaviours and even come up with proposals to make
the language more peace sensitive, and respect for others.
THE CULTURE OF PEACE EDUCATION
A culture of peace is built from values, attitudes, behaviours and ways of life based on
non- violence, respect for life, liberty, justice, solidarity, tolerance, human rights, equality
between men and women, appreciation of cultural diversity, and respect for others. In a
cultural of peace, powers grow not from the barrel of a gun but from participation, dialogue,
and cooperation. A culture of peace rejects violence in all its form, including war and the
culture of war. It replaces domination and exploitation by the strong over the weak with
fairness through respect for its rights of everyone both economically and politically. It
protects the right of the handicapped, the elderly and the social disadvantaged.
The movement for a culture of peace brings together the rich diversity of lives,
together in an atmosphere marked by intercultural understanding, tolerance and solidarity.
Where others are contradictions such as xenophobia, racism or designating others as enemies,
they are resolved through non-violent means. The culture of peace must take to cognizance
the following:
1. The respect of Life: Since most human beings like themselves, such should be
accorded other fellow beings that have the same feelings. All holy books teach
about the sanctity of life.
2. Liberty: Nobody wants to live in bondage. People need to have their liberty in as
much as others rights and freedoms are not impeded by their liberty. When liberty
is tampered with, a crisis ensues.
3. Justice: There is no talking about peace without talking about justice, for peace to
abound there must be individual and social justice. Justice that focuses on healing
of social relationships, and attempts to build the types of society that reflects the
value of those who suffer and so bring about peace. But if justice is seen as
retribution or revenge for what has been done, it then becomes difficult to see how
the pursuit of justice is not contradicted by the concept of mercy, and amnesty in
particular.
4. Human Rights: Douzinas, (1996:119) in Joeng (2000), sees human rights as
Universal reason and assertion of common humanity. Their application
undoubtedly reflects the uniqueness of each separate situation. The rights of all
actual and potential parties to a conflict, and indeed every person, must not be
infringed upon. When rights are denied or deprived, conflicts becomes likely.

Peer Group Meditation

Peer group meditation has been identified as a potent instrument for the promotion of
peace education among young persons. This is against the feeling that young persons can do
lot among themselves when properly guided, and better understand themselves. The lessons
and principles of peace promotion and non-violence can be enhanced.
 A peer is a person who is approximately the same age as another. In most cases, peers
are heavily influenced by others of their age bracket at school or in the community. Their
actions are usually done in groups, which are known as peer groups. A peer group is a social
relationship beginning with the preschool years. The relationship become increasingly
sophisticated which influenced the childrens value and behavior. Membership of groups
change with age: pre- adolescent groups are homogenous and come from the same
neighborhood.
Peer group meditation is a concept which stems from the belief that children and
young persons may prefer to confide in other children of their age than adults. Since conflict
is inevitable and can either be productive or disparaging, depending on how it is handled,
there is need to confront it, sometimes through peer meditation. Peer meditation works
because it empowers young people who are usually vulnerable to being used for conflicts, to
resolve their own disputes themselves. This is done by equipping them with skills that remain
with them long after the resolution of the dispute.
For peer meditation to work, it should be built on positive relationships, trust, support, open
communication, mutual respect and tolerance, cooperation and readiness to work through
problems.

Skills for peer Meditation

The goal for peer mediation is to reduce conflict and provide children and young persons
with problems solving skills. Students should participate in activities and role plays that
promote empathy, self respect, self discipline, responsibility, bias awareness, patience and
respectfulness. The gain is understanding of conflict and learns strategies for dealing with
anger. Confidentiality is stressed. Students should know and practice the following
meditation techniques and skills:
1. Communication verbally and Non -verbally: Mediators are required to be
persons who can effectively communicate both verbally and non-verbally. It has
been said that negotiations begin the moment communication is made to another
person that there is a conflict and you wish to resolve it. In communicating, the
mediator should be able to facilitate dialogue, such as getting round rules,
paraphrasing, and coping with strong emotions.
2. Active Listening: A good mediator remains an active listener always. He/she is
alert, asks questions to clarify accuracy with the speaker and ensures that the
other party has heard the point. Mediators show understanding of each partys
perspective through non-verbal reactions and comments.
3. Problem Analysis/conflict Analysis: An analysis can be seen as an intervention
as well as preparation for action. It provides understanding to background and
history of the situation as well as current events, it helps in identifying all the
groups involved in the problem, helps to understand the perspectives of all the
groups and how they relate to each other; identify factors and trends that
underpin conflicts and to learn from failures as well as successes. It is not a one-
time exercise but is an ongoing process as the situation is developing. The
mediator must be able to analyse the problem before attempting to mediate.
There are very many problems analysis tools that exists, which the mediator will
have to use either singly or collectively.
4. Identifying common Interests: A problem identified is a problem half-solved.
The onus lies on the mediator to identify and capitalize on common interest.
He/she evaluates alternatives in relation to needs and interest of both (all) sides.
He/she encourages creativity in combining options and seeking common
 ground. Together, decide what to try. Identify who will do what and when. Write
down the solutions in an agreement and have both (all) sides sign it.
5. Plan development: For meditation to succeed, adequate development plans
must be made. Tasks like getting the parties participate, selecting mediators and
preparing oneself for meditation are invaluable (Kraybill Evans and Evans 2011)

Characteristics of Peer Meditation

A peer mediator must possess qualities that will endear him/her to both (all) parties.
He/she should be seen to show to care for all parties, be serious about helping peers solve
their problems, provide an opportunity for both disputants to tell their story, listen carefully
and respectfully, show sensitivity to each persons feelings and exhibit patience and be
friendly. Mediators must not physically restrain peers, place blame on any party, takes sides,
judge guilt or innocence, make decisions regarding a solution or force a solution on
disputants.

Procedure for peer Meditation

In a general sense, peer mediation is a long process that is akin to the general principles of
mediation, and could include the following procedure:
a) General instruction: the mediator introduces him/herself and also the disputants
b) Explain the mediators neutral role and discuss ground rules e.g. doing their best to
solve the problem, telling the truth, being polite, no put-down or threats, listening to
each other without interrupting, agreeing to a solution, signing a written agreement,
and keeping the meditation confidential.
c) Define the problem by asking each student to their story.
d) Listen to and reflect on the content and feelings expressed by both students.
e) Shows understanding of each childs perspective through non-verbal reactions and
comments.
f) Verify the stories by paraphrasing what was said.
g) Ask the disputants to speak directly to each other as they discuss their issues, feelings,
needs and hopes.
h) Keep them on the topic.
i) Ask clarifying questions and summarise the concerns and issues
j) Ask them to brainstorm ways to solve the problem.
k) Look for area of agreement and present possible solutions.
l) Together decide what to try. Clarify the first step that needs to be taken. Who will do
what and when? Write down the solutions in an agreement.
m) Decide on a consequence if either party does not follow through and add it to the
agreement.
n) Have both parties sign the agreement,
o) Congratulate them and have them shake hands. (Davies, 2005)

CONCLUSION
The teaching of peace education and peer meditation in various institutions of
learning is an invaluable decision. It will go a long way in equipping young persons and
youths with knowledge and skills that would help bring about world peace through better
understanding. Peace Education exposes students to concept of peace, conflict, violence and
non-violence with the inherent values and problems. Students gain formal knowledge of self
and the environment they live in; and appreciate poverty and wealth and the world as a
whole. Attitudes to human dignity, change, human rights and the rights of the child and
appreciate other peoples culture are taught. Students are able to empathize with others in
difficult situations; they improve in their communication skills, critical thinking and political
skills. Peace education encourages peer group meditation which empowers young people who
are vulnerable to being manipulated into engaging in negative acts which would inevitably
lead to conflicts, an insight into the likely dire consequences that might result when those
negative acts are perpetrated. This knowledge regulates the rise and spread of conflict.
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT, PEACE AND CONFLICT
The focus of this topic is to discuss issues relating to the environment, peace and
conflict. It looks at the environment as a resource and defence, and the way it constitutes new
forms of threat to peace and security based on the activities of man. The influence of culture
on the environment and the influence of the environment on human nature are also checked.
In the last years there has been a "greening" in this research field, environmental
issues becoming on the one hand part of a widened concept of security and being on the other
hand assumed to play a rapidly increasing role as causes of violent conflicts. But, referring to
this; example of human interference which often affects the ecological equilibrium in the
concerned regions. But it is only about these affected life-supporting conditions, or the
negative impact on human beings and society that environmental degradation comes to focus.
Nature or the ecosystem has no consciousness by which value it could be valued. It is
only from the point of view of a subject, in specific case human beings, that an environmental
change can mean a loss of quality, degradation. Surely there are environmental changes
whose impacts on human living conditions have been and still must be seen as positive. This
valuation depends, of course, partly on the social and cultural context. The term
environmental degradation is understood as a human-made environmental change having a
negative impact on human society which may ultimately be the cause of environmental
conflict. And this definition allows a distinction to the traditional resource scarcity problem.
The concept of environmental change and degradation allows or even forces a
differentiation between renewable and non-renewable natural resources. The term resources
encompass in a wide sense not only material "goods" provided by nature. The capability of
the environment to serve as a sink for wastes and products of human activities can, in its
instrumental dimension, also is interpreted as a natural resource; but rather in the sense of a
service". However, the main fields of discussing environmental problems is narrowed to fresh
water, soil, forests, air, atmosphere and climate, oceans, and biodiversity, represent all
renewable "goods" or "services". They are renewable because they are ecologically integrated
in a feedback circle system which guarantees their replacement or the preservation of their
quality.
Minerals and fossil fuels, on the other hand, which are the traditional objects of
resource conflicts, are non-renewable resources because they are not integrated in such an
ecosystem. Therefore they can be depleted but they cannot be degraded. The extraction of
oil, for example, does not mean by itself an environmental degradation. Even the total
depletion of oil stocks would not cause any destabilization of the ecosystem; but it would, of
course, represent a serious economic problem. Therefore, conflicts over the possession of or
the access to oil cannot be regarded as environmental conflicts. They are originally economic
or social conflicts. Only the consequences of the combustion of oil derivates, for example the
greenhouse effect, or the damages caused by its production and transport may lead to
environmental degradation which should be regarded as possible causes of environmental
conflicts. Significantly, problems of resource degradation seem to have become more urgent
than problems of resource depletion which dominated the debate until 20 years ago.
 A further characteristic of renewable resources is that they can be less substituted than
non-renewable ones, and in several cases not substituted at all. Food, fresh water, clean air
and life-supporting climatic conditions are not just sources of wealth in an economic sense
but also biological prerequisite of life. So, in addition to environment as a bank of material
resources and as a sink for wastes a third dimension of environment as a space of living
should be considered.
Surely, this last dimension is interrelated with the others, but it is not a synonym and
should not be subsumed under the concept of resources. The loss of settlement areas due to
the rise of the sea level, to desertification, or to industrial accidents means more than just a
shortage of the resource 'land'.
Furthermore it includes an existential dimension. In less dramatic cases of
environmental degradation it should also be considered anaesthetic dimension of
environment's impoverishment.
The concept of environmental degradation leads to another important differentiation
concerning the concept of resource scarcity.
Four distinct types of scarcity should be distinguished:
1) Physical scarcity means that a resource is only available in a finite amount;
2) Geopolitical scarcity means that resources are often distributed unequally on the surface of
earth so that some countries depend on deliveries from others;
3) socio-economic scarcity concerns the unequal distribution of purchasing power and of
property rights to provide natural resources between or within societies;
4) last type of scarcity concerning resources that have traditionally been regarded as plentiful
and naturally renewable but are becoming scarce now because of the failure of human beings
to adopt sustainable methods of their management.
We should call this type environmental scarcity-scarcity caused by environmental
degradation! The four types of resource scarcity can be causally interrelated. Unequal
geopolitical and socio-economic distribution are often a source of degrading behaviour; and
the physical scarcity of a renewable resource can be a reason for the depletion of the
resources' capital stock'
An environmental conflict is a conflict caused by the environmental scarcity of a resource
that is, caused by a human-made disturbance of its normal regeneration rate. Environmental
scarcity can result from the overuse of a renewable resource or from the over-stretch of the
ecosystem's sink capacity that is pollution. Both can reach the stage of a destruction of the
space of living.
This definition has two crucial implications: First, it excludes non-renewable
resources from our specific interest. These resources can only be physically, geopolitically or
economically scarce. Second, in the case of renewable resources the definition forces to a
differentiation. As scarcity can also have just a physical, geopolitical or economic origin the
emphasis is not primarily on the characteristic to be renewable. The emphasis is on the
specific context of an environmental degradation in which renewable resources become
environmentally scarce and relevant for a conflict.
 Conflicts over agricultural land, for example, which is explained as a renewable
resource, have to be seen as environmental only if the land becomes an object of contention
as a result of soil erosion, climate change, changes of river flows or any other environmental
degradation. They are not environmental conflicts in the case of simply territorial conflicts
like both World Wars and most colonial and decolonization wars. And they are neither
necessarily environmental conflict in the case of an anti-regime war with the goal of a more
equal land distribution. This does not diminish the importance and the gravity of the conflict.
And such a war can even be an environmental conflict, if unequal land distribution becomes
for example a source of soil overuse. But it does not have to in every case.
It also should be kept in mind what war and the danger of war are, including both
international and civil wars. But, of interest is early recognition of possible future wars
caused by environmental degradation and in strategies for war prevention and peaceful
conflict resolution, analysis should begin at an earlier stage than just already ongoing or
imminent wars.
The conflict stage of interest should begin depends on the remaining political and
historical conditions. In cases in which the relations between the parties are strained because
of other issues or there are recent precedents of armed confrontation the attention should
begin earlier than in cases in which regimes of peaceful conflict resolution are successfully
installed. Nevertheless, examples of political crises caused by environmental degradation
which have been or are being managed peacefully by working institutions can serve as
patterns for conflict resolution proposals.
Environmental Degradation and Violent Conflicts
The idea of struggle over increasingly scarce resources which is often used to
characterize the linkage between environment and conflict is not totally wrong, but it does
not explain very much. The simple, density-dependent model of resource competition
commonly used by biologists to study animal populations cannot be applied directly to
human societies. Surely the scarcity of a resource represents an important challenge for every
society. But if this will lead to conflicts and how these will develop always depends on a
multitude of other factors which are socially and historically conditioned. "Social facts, such
as conflicts, cannot be explained by natural facts, such as environment, but only by other
social facts". Thus, a more complex model of analysis is needed which takes into account the
'culturally mediated' nature of human behaviour.
The figure suggests that the total effect of human activity on the environment in a
particular region or at a global level is mainly a function of two variables: first, the product of
the total population and the economic activities consumption per capita; and second, the
vulnerability of the ecosystem to those particular activities. Population pressure is an
important variable in the figure. But human-made environmental degradation is not alone a
variable of population number as it would be in the case of animals. It is just as much a
variable of the intensity of the polluting and damaging habits.
DEVELOPMENT AND PEACE BUILDING
This topic views conflict as having the capacity to severally constrain development
endeavours by destroying infrastructures, interrupting the production processes and diverting
resources from productive uses. However, the need for development could be used to
facilitate the process of conflict de-escalation and peace building. Here, students are exposed
to the rudiments of peace process and military/civil relations.
Peace building can be defined as a term describing outside interventions that are designed to
prevent the start or resumption of violent conflict within a nation by creating a sustainable
peace. It addresses the root causes or potential causes of violence, create a societal
expectation for peaceful conflict resolution and stabilize society politically and
socioeconomically. Peace building strategies must be coherent and tailored to the specific
needs of the country concerned, based on national ownership, and should comprise a
carefully prioritized, sequenced, and therefore relatively narrow set of activities aimed at
achieving the above objectives. The critical importance of strengthening the rule of law to
peace building, and to avoiding relapse into conflict, has long been recognized by the United
Nations. The Brahimi panel, with its aim of strengthening the overall strategic and
operational capacity of the UN system in peace operations, defined peace building for its
purposes as activities undertaken on the far side of conflict to reassemble the foundations of
peace and provide the tools for building on those foundations something that is more than just
the absence of war. According to the Canadian Peace building Coordinating Committee
(CPCC):
Peace building is the effort to strengthen the prospects for internal peace and decrease the
like hood of violent conflict. The overarching goal of peace building is to enhance the
indigenous capacity of a society to manage conflict without violence
The definition varies depending on the actor, with some definitions specifying what activities
fall within the scope of peace building or restricting peace building to post-conflict
interventions. In 2007, the UN Secretary General s policy Committee defined peace
building as follows : "Peace building involves a range of measures targeted to reduce the
risk of lapsing or relapsing into conflict by strengthening national capacities at all levels for
conflict management, and to lay the foundations for sustainable peace and development.
Peace building strategies must be coherent and tailored to specific needs of the country
concerned, based on national ownership, and should comprise a carefully prioritized,
sequenced, and therefore relatively narrow set of activities aimed at achieving the above
objectives."

Peacemaking involves stopping an ongoing conflict, whereas peace building happens before a
conflict starts or once it ends. Peacekeeping prevents the resumption of fighting following a
conflict; it does not address the basic causes of violence, as peacebuiding does. It also differs
from peace building in that it only occurs after conflict ends, not before it begins. Conflict
resolution does not include some components of peace building, such as state building and
socioeconomic development. Like peacekeeping, conflict resolution can only follow, not
precede, conflict. The tasks included in peace building vary depending on the situation and
the agent of peace building. Successful peace building activities create an environment
supportive of self-sustaining, durable peace; reconcile opponents; prevent conflict from
restarting; integrate civil society; create rule of law mechanisms; and address underlying
structural and societal issues. For these goals to be accomplished, peace building must
address functional structures, emotional conditions and social psychology, social stability,
rule of law and ethics and cultural sensitivities (Nitze 2012).

Pre-conflict peace building interventions aim to prevent the start of violent conflict. These
strategies involve a variety of actors and sectors in order to transform the conflict. Even
though the definition of peace building includes pre-conflict interventions, in practice most
peace building interventions are post conflict. In a nutshell many peace building scholars
advocate an increased focus on pre-conflict peace building in the future.
Barnett et al. divides post conflict peace building into three dimensions: stabilizing the post
conflict zone, restoring state institutions and dealing with social and economic issues.
Activities within the first dimension reinforce state stability post-conflict and discourage
combatants from returning to war. Second dimension, activities build state capacity to
provide basic goods and increase state legitimacy. Programs in the third dimension build a
post-conflict societys ability to manage conflicts peacefully and promote socioeconomic
development.

Peace building process could be seen as Policies, programs, and associated efforts to restore
stability and the effectiveness of social, political, and economic institutions and structures in
the wake of a war or some other debilitating or catastrophic event. Peace building generally
aims to create and ensure the conditions beyond negative peace, the mere absence of violent
conflict engagement, and for positive peace, a more comprehensive understanding related to
the institutionalisation of justice and freedom. Speaking in relation to post-conflict situations,
Boutros-Ghali (1995:15) identified a range of peace-building programmes, including co-
operative projects ... that not only contribute to economic and social development but also
enhance the confidence that is so fundamental to peace. More specifically, he mentions
activities focusing on agriculture, transportation, resource management, cultural exchanges,
educational projects, and simplification of visa regimes. That there exists a connexion
between security and development is an accepted tenet in peace building, and the
implications of this mutually reinforcing relationship are extensive. The following represents
a small selection of the functions of peace building:
assisting an end to military or violent exchanges through the decommissioning of arms, the
demobilisation of combatants, and rehabilitation and reintegration programmes
providing humanitarian relief to victims
protecting human rights
ensuring security and related services
generating an environment of trust in order for social relations to function properly
establishing non-violent modes of resolving present and future conflicts
fostering reconciliation among the various parties to a conflict
providing psycho-social or trauma healing services to victims of severe atrocities
repatriating refugees and resettling internally displaced persons
aiding in economic reconstruction
Building and maintaining the operation of institutions to provide such services, and
Co-ordinating the roles of numerous internal and external parties involved in such
interrelated efforts.
As an extremely broad conceptencompassing democracy, development, gender,
human rights, and justicepeace building can be thought of as a bridge from conflict
resolution to positive peace. Peace building aims to create and foster stability and adequate
functioning of a region or society. Attempts to refine and implement peace building have
encountered several difficulties, including the following:
failures to address the underlying or root causes of the conflict lack of legitimacy in the
eyes of recipients and target groups, particularly in relation to newly formed institutions
lack of agreement over the acceptance of roles and implementation of responsibilities by all
parties to the conflict limits on leadership in times of political transition or extreme crisis
over-reliance on external parties aspirations to build a society that functions generally better
than it did prior to the conflict
 In todays conflicts, 85% of victims are civilians of which the majority are women.
Women in unstable, disruptive conflict and post- conflict situations are at risk from multiple
forms of violence and share a set of common vulnerabilities. . . . In conflicts world-wide,
rape, sexual assault, military sexual slavery, enforced prostitution and forced pregnancy are
being used as deliberate military tactics. Studies of forced migration confirm that 80% of
refugees and IDPs are women and children and the indefinite and long term nature of forced
migration creates unique problems for women who are forced to beg for food, live in refugee
camps or to earn a living in unfamiliar environments.
Understanding Peace Building
It should be noted at the outset that there are two distinct ways to understand peace
building. According to the United Nations (UN) document An Agenda for Peace, peace
building consists of a wide range of activities associated with capacity building,
reconciliation, and societal transformation. Peace building is a long-term process that occurs
after violent conflict has slowed down or come to a halt. Thus, it is the phases of the peace
process that takes place after peacemaking and peacekeeping.
Many non-governmental organisations (NGOs), on the other hand, understand peace
building as an umbrella concept that encompasses not only long-term transformative efforts,
but also peacemaking and peacekeeping. In this view, peace building includes early warning
and response efforts, violence prevention, advocacy work, civilian and military peacekeeping,
military intervention, humanitarian assistance, ceasefire agreements, and the establishment of
peace zones.
In its narrower sense, peace building is a process that facilitates the establishment of
durable peace and tries to prevent the recurrence of violence by addressing root causes and
effects of conflict through reconciliation, institution building, and political as well as
economic transformation. This consists of a set of physical, social and structural initiatives
that are often an integral part of post-conflict reconstruction and rehabilitation.
It is generally agreed that the central task of peace building is to create positive peace,
a stable social equilibrium in which the surfacing of new disputes does not escalate into
violence and war. Sustainable peace is characterised by the absence of physical and
structural violence, the elimination of discrimination, and self-sustainability. Moving towards
this sort of environment goes beyond problem solving or conflict management. Peace
building initiatives try to fix the core problems that underlie the conflict and change the
patterns of interaction of the involved parties. They aim to move a given population from a
condition of extreme vulnerability and dependency to one of self-sufficiency and wellbeing.
Long-term peace building techniques are designed to fill some gaps; and to address
the underlying substantive issues that brought about conflict. Various transformation
techniques aim to move parties away from confrontation and violence, and towards political
and economic participation, peaceful relationships, and social harmony.
This longer-term perspective is crucial to future violence prevention and the
promotion of a more peaceful future. Thinking about the future involves articulating desirable
structural, systemic, and relationship goals. These might include sustainable economic
development, self- sufficiency, equitable social structures that meet human needs, and
building positive relationships.
The Structural Dimension of Peace Building
 The structural dimension of peace building focuses on the social conditions that foster
violent conflict. Many note that stable peace must be built on social, economic, and political
foundations that serve the needs of the populace. In many cases, crises arise out of systemic
roots. These root causes are typically complex, but include skewed land distribution,
environmental degradation, and unequal political representation. If these social problems are
not addressed, there can be no lasting peace.
Thus, in order to establish durable peace, parties must analyse the structural causes of
the conflict and initiates social structural change. The promotion of substantive and
procedural justice through structural means typically involves institution building and the
strengthening of civil society.
Avenues of political and economic transformation include social structural change to
remedy political or economic injustice, reconstruction programmes designed to help
communities ravaged by conflict revitalise their economies, and the institution of effective
and legitimate restorative justice systems. Peace building initiatives aim to promote
nonviolent mechanisms that eliminate violence, foster structures that meet basic human
needs, and maximise public participation.
It is important for governments to adhere to principles of transparency and
predictability, and for laws to be adopted through an open and public process. For the purpose
of post-conflict peace building, the democratisation process should be part of a
comprehensive project to rebuild societys institutions.
In addition, societies need a system of criminal justice that deters and punishes
banditry and acts of violence. Fair police mechanisms must be established and government
officials and members of the police force must be trained to observe basic rights in the
execution of their duties. In addition, legislation protecting minorities and laws securing
gender equality should be advanced. Courts and police forces must be free of corruption and
discrimination.
But structural change can also be economic. Many note that economic development is
integral to preventing future conflict and avoiding a relapse into violence. Economic factors
that put societies at risk include lack of employment opportunities, food scarcity, and lack of
access to natural resources or land. A variety of social structural changes aim to eliminate the
structural violence that arises out of a societys economic system. These economic and social
reforms include economic development programs, health care assistance, land reform, social
safety nets, and programs to promote agricultural productivity.
The Relational Dimension of Peace Building
A second integral part of building peace is reducing the effects of war- related
hostility through the repair and transformation of damaged relationships. The relational
dimension of peace building focuses on reconciliation, forgiveness, trust building, and future
imagining. It seeks to minimise poorly functioning communication and maximise mutual
understanding. Many believe that reconciliation is one of most effective and durable ways to
transform relationships and prevent destructive conflicts. The essence of reconciliation is the
voluntary initiative of the conflicting parties to acknowledge their responsibility and guilt.
Parties reflect upon their own role and behaviour in the conflict, and acknowledge and accept
responsibility for the part they have played. As parties share their experiences, they learn new
perspectives and change their perception of their enemies. There is recognition of the
difficulties faced by the opposing side and of their legitimate grievances, and a sense of
empathy begins to develop.
Each side expresses sincere regret and remorse, and is prepared to apologise for what
has transpired. The parties make a commitment to let go off anger, and to refrain from
repeating the injury. Finally, there is a sincere effort to redress past grievances and
compensate for the damage done. This process often relies on interactive negotiation and
allows the parties to enter into a new mutually enriching relationship.
One of the essential requirements for the transformation of conflicts is effective
communication and negotiation at both the elite and grassroots levels. If these sorts of bridge-
building communication systems are in place, relations between the parties can improve and
any peace agreements they reach will more likely be self-sustaining. A crucial component of
such dialogue is future imaging, whereby parties form a vision of the commonly shared
future they are trying to build. Conflicting parties often have more in common in terms of
their visions of the future than they do in terms of their shared and violent past. The thought
is that if they know where they are trying to go, it will be easier to get there.
Another way for the parties to build a future together is to pursue joint projects that
are unrelated to the conflicts core issues and centre on shared interests. This can benefit the
parties relationship. Leaders who project a clear and hopeful vision of the future and the
ways and means to get there can play a crucial role here.
Indeed, a crucial part of peace building is addressing past wrongdoing while at the
same time promoting healing and rule of law. Part of repairing damaged relationships is
responding to past human rights, violations and genocide through the establishment of truth
commissions, fact-finding missions, and war crimes tribunals.
The Personal Dimension of Peace Building
The personal dimension of peace building centres on desired changes at the individual
level. If individuals are not able to undergo a process of healing, there will be broader social
political and economic repercussions. The destructive effects of social conflict must be
minimised, and its potential for personal growth must be maximised. Reconstruction and
peace building efforts must prioritise treating mental health problems and integrate these
efforts into peace plans and rehabilitation efforts.
In traumatic situations, a person is rendered powerless and faces the threat of death
and injury. Traumatic events might include a serious threat or harm to ones family or friends,
sudden destruction of ones home or community, and a threat to ones own physical being.
Such events overwhelm an individuals coping resources, making it difficult for the
individual to function effectively in society. Typical emotional effects include depression and
post-traumatic stress disorder.
Peace building Principles
There are a number of different principles that underpin peace building in theory and practice.
The five foundational principles, from which a series of other principles can be derived:
Locally owned: Peace building, like development, is a people-oriented process; it is centred
on those most affected by conflict and is rooted in local contexts. Peace building emphasises
the need for strategies, approaches and interventions that are based on local needs, resources
and capacities and that empower local populations to implement these strategies.
 Inclusive: Peace building focuses on the most vulnerable and the marginalised, recognising
that violent conflict is most often rooted in discrimination, exclusion and marginalisation,
particularly of minorities and women. Inclusion refers not only to identifying vulnerable
groups, but also to enabling their participation in peace building and other political, social,
economic and development processes through capacity-building and empowerment
initiatives.
Long term: Peace building, like development, is a long-term process, even if interventions
themselves can be in the form of crisis-response measures. There is no quick fix or set
blueprint for peace building processes. Long-term commitment, however, provides the space
for peace building to empower individuals to build locally relevant sustainable institutions
and practices that address root causes of conflict.
Human rights and justice-centered: The roots of conflict can be found in the violation of
basic political, civic, economic, social and cultural rights. Without addressing human rights-
based violations, peace will note sustained, and development achievements will be precarious
at best.
Comprehensive: Peace building interventions are multidimensional in essence and strive
towards coherency with other sect oral and disciplinary approaches. Peace building
encompasses a broad range of activities throughout the entire span of a conflict from
preventative and early-warning actions to post-conflict rehabilitation and reconstruction.

Conclusion

A mixture of locally and internationally focused components is key to building a long term
sustainable peace. Indigenous peace building practices arise from local communities; they are
tailored to local context and culture in a way that generalized international peace building
approaches are not. The tasks included in peace building vary depending on the situation and
the agent of peace building. Successful peace building activities create an environment
supportive of self-sustaining, durable peace; reconcile opponents; prevent conflict from
restarting; integrate civil society; create rule of law mechanisms; and address underlying
structural and societal issues.

HUMAN RIGHTS ISSUES AND CONFLICT

Human rights can be described as the rights of man or fundamental freedoms. The
recognition of these rights of citizenry is one of the hallmarks of democracy and indeed any
good government.
These rights are legally recognized, protected and to secure for each individual the fullest and
freest development of personality and spiritual, moral and other independence. These rights
are seen as rights inherent in individual as rational free willing creatures not conferred by any
law or capable of being abridged or abrogated by any positive law.
From the foregoing, it can be inferred that human rights are inalienable rights that belongs to
man by virtue of his humanity and therefore should be granted and guaranteed to everyone.
While some of these rights have recognized by law, others are still ideals that are yet to be
legalized.
According to one of the foremost social contact philosopher, John Locke, argued that
obedience to the government is based on the fact men join together in civil societies to form
governments only for one reason: the mutual preservation of their lives, liberties and estates
which naturally belongs to all men simply because they are human beings.
He insists that whenever a government fails to preserve these rights and thereby ceases to
serve the end for which it was created, the people have the right and even a duty to rebel and
replace it.
The most widely known succinct and eloquent statement of liberal philosophy of the right of
man began with the following declaration.
We hold these truths to be self evident, that all men are created equal, that they are
endowed by their creator with certain inalienable rights That among these are life, Liberty
and the pursuit of happiness that to secure these rights, governments are instituted among
men, delivering their just powers from consent of the governed.
That whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of
the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation
on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely
to affect their safety and happiness
Above is the American Declaration of independent drafted mainly by Thomas Jefferson and
this is severally seen to have been inspired by the writings of John Locke.
Apart from the above declaration, these rights to which individuals are entitled to has been
enshrined into other main human rights declaration such as the French Declaration of the
Rights of man and citizens (1789) and the universal declaration of human rights adopted by
the United Nations in 1948. Also in constitution of many countries, there are provisions for
recognition, promotion and respect for human rights.
Categorization Of Human Rights
There are five (5) main categories of human rights, these are:
A Civil and political rights: These includes the rights to self-determination, the right
to life, freedom from torture and inhuman treatment, freedom from slavery and forced
labour, freedom of movement and choice of residence, the right to a fair trial, the right
to privacy, freedom of thought and consciences and religion, freedom of opinion ands
expression, right to assembly, freedom of association, the right to marry and found a
family, the right to participate in ones government either directly or through freely
elected representatives, and the right to nationality and equality before the law.
B Economic social and cultural rights: There incorporated the right to work, the right to
just conditions of work, the right to fair remuneration, the right to and adequate
standard of living, the right to organize, form and join trade unions, the right to
collective bargaining, the right to equal pay for equal work, the right to social security,
the right to property, the right to education, the right to participate in cultural life and
enjoy benefit of scientific progress.
Instruments For Protection Of Human Rights
Human rights are protected by both domestic and international laws. However, the domestic
or national protection is obviously the most important because it is the first line of defense.
If ones right is protected at the national or domestic level, there is no need for it to be done
on the international level. International laws come into play when the domestic system has
failed to provide the protection. The international systems are typically weaker than the
national system. National systems (when they work well) rely on the binding decisions of
courts, backed up by the use of force, e.g. by the police.
This is not to say that international system does not have any capacity to protect human
rights, the fact is that international courts taking binding decision on human right issues are
just being gradually established now and again complain with such decision largely depends
on the political will of the member states. This is a pointer to the earlier fact the international
law has a problem of enforcement.
Despite the problem of enforcement, international mechanisms can still play an important
role in respect of states offering inadequate human rights protection and in development of
human principles and precedent.
The Domestic Protection Of Human Rights
All the constitutions of African countries now recognized human rights in one way or
another. This recognition ranges from the inclusion of extensive bill of rights that are fully
justifiable by independent courts to the mere recognition of human rights in the preamble of
the constitution. This is in addition to the important roles played by the parliaments, the
courts and other human rights organizations and activists.
At the national level, government establishes Human rights commissions. This commission
enjoys a certain level of independence, but whether this independence is real or not is
important in determining whether a human rights commission is a protector or a
pretender
Therefore, where such commission works well, it could fill an important gap in the protection
of human rights. The human rights commission of Ghana, South Africa and Uganda are
examples of effective institutions.
The International Protection Of Human Right
The international protection of human rights on the African countries has a number of
dimensions.
At the international level, the United Nations is involved in human rights work. This they do
through provision of relief work technical assistance and a number of other functions. For
instance, the United Nation High Commissioner for Human Right has established Offices in a
number of African countries.
At the international level, continental and world bodies or organizations have in an number of
ways demonstrated their commitment to promotion and protection of human rights.
These Include:
1 Establishment of international criminal court or tribunal by UNO to try some political
leaders who committed war crime and large scale human rights abuses. This is in
addition to signing of charters on human rights with member states. For example, the
international criminal tribunal for trial of those suspected to have been instrumental to
the genocides in Rwanda. With the cooperation of Sierra Leonian authority, a special
court was also constituted to try alleged war crimes and human rights abuses.
2 At the continental level, the constitutive Act of the AU of 2000 has the protection of
human rights as central objective. Earlier in 1981, the defunct OAU adopted the
 Africa charter on Human and peoples Rights. (Also called the Banjul charter) which
created the African commission on Human and people rights? Interestingly, all
member states of AU have ratified the charter.
Similarly, the African charter on the Rights and welfare of the child was adopted in 1990 and
entered into force in 1999.
Finally, the new partnership for Africans Development (NEPAD), has created the Africa Peer
Review Mechanism which has the mandate to review not only economic and political
governance but also human rights issues.
Limitation Of Human Rights
Exercise of right of any person cannot and should not constitute a breach on the right of
another. It goes with the saying that where ones right stops or ends is the beginning of
anothers.
Again, the rights of individuals, such as freedom of movement can be trampled upon during
emergency situations like during crisis or violent conflicts.
There are also other constitutional provisions that limits or guides the exercise of ones rights,
for example, ones right of freedom of expression does not empower anybody to make
spurious allegations or accusation with a view to causing damage to anothers reputation
falsely. Such person can be sued for slender. Also courts of competent jurisdiction can revoke
or deny an accused person some of his rights in line with provisions of the law. For example,
a court can condemn one to death or order the persons detention thereby denying such
persons right to life and freedom of movement respectively.
Human Right Civil Society Organizations
Civil society can be defined as the set of institutions, organization and behaviours situated
between the state, the business world and the family. Specifically, it includes the voluntary
and non-profit organizations of many different kinds, philanthropist institution social and
political movements, other forms of social participation and engagement.
Examples of civil society organizations includes non-governmental organization (NGOs),
private voluntary organization (PVOs) peoples organizations, community based
organizations, civic clubs, trade unions, gender organizations, cultural and religious groups,
charities, social and sports clubs cooperatives, environmental groups, professional
association, the academia, the media etc.
Civil society organizations are often misconstrued by critics and activists.
Civil Society Organizations act as effective check on the state power. This has been
recognized by the successive governments since independence. However, these organizations
have been considerably weakened and politicized over the years by the government, mainly
through patronage and repression and these make it easier to suffocate democracy. For
instance when some leaders of the CSO or Trade Union have been offered lucrative jobs in
government, this tends to silence the dissenting voice of CSOs in protesting against
government actions and abuses even some known professional bodies like the Nigerian Bar
Association, medical and dental Association are not free from these influences too as they
maintained silence sometimes in the face of glaring corrupt practice of government and its
agencies engage in large scale economic mismanagement.
Functions/Role Of Civil Society Organizations
1 promotion of good governance and accountability
2 poverty alleviation
3 promotion and defence of human rights
4 peace-building and conflict prevention
5 Enlightenment of the populace on the policy of government.
Some notable Civil Society Organization in West-Africa with interest in peace and
conflict resolutions.
1 Manu River Union Peace Network- (MARWOPNET)
2 The women in Peace building network (WIPNET), the
3 West African Network for Peace Building (WANET)
4 International Alert, West Africa Network on Small Arms (WANSA)
GENDER, PEACE AND CONFLICT IN NIGERIA
Introduction
A strong case is made for gender equity on the continent especially in the peace and conflict
resolution sector. This is because the vast majority of those affected by any armed conflict,
including refugees and internally displaced person (IDPs), are women and children. Besides,
women represent more than half of the world population. Factoring in women talent and
insights would lead to response to peace and conflict resolution issues that are more people-
centered and therefore more sustainable.
Conflict resolution, peace keeping and peace building do not only concern those
participating directly in war or armed conflicts who are mostly men. Yet, the presence of
women at peace negotiation tables has always been, and continues to be marginal. Women
contribute important skills, perspectives and insights into conflicts resolution and peace
building activities. Therefore, their direct participation in decision making is necessary.
Any peace process that ignores the need and rules of women is unnatural, and
therefore inherently unstable. During post-conflict transition, the empowerment of women
is crucial to re-launching social and economic development. Women, like men, are victims
and actors in wars and armed conflicts but usually in different ways and different fields.
During wars, women participate in new activities and assume new roles, often taking on
more responsibilities. Despite those changes, women are often marginalized in post-
conflict peace-building, both in the societies emerging from conflict, and in the
formulation and implementation of peace-building strategies by international peace
operatives (Norwegian Institute of International Affairs, 2001).
Sustainable peace is achievable only when men and women working together, are
involved at every stage of conflict resolution and peace building.
The term gender denotes the qualities associated with men and women that are
socially and culturally, than biologically determined. Gender includes the way in which
society differentiates appropriate behaviors and access to power for men and women.
Although the details vary from society to society and change over time, gender relations
tend to include a strong element of inequality between women and men and are strongly
influenced by ideology. (United Nations Development report, 1986: 258)
Gender is often seen as loosely synonymous with sex and lazily synonymous with women.
However, following the arguments of Joan Scott (1986) we see gender not only as a
constitutive element of social relationships base on perceived differences between the sexes
but also a a primary way of signifying relationships of power
There are two major perspectives that cannot be ignored, feminist theory and gender studies.
Feminist theory could be defined as theorizations of womens oppression and gender studies
could be defined as investigations into the ways that sex and sexuality become power
relations in society. Here, sex means male and female and sexuality as in sexual behavior. No
doubt these are somewhat idiosyncratic and less than completely informative definitions.
They are nonetheless useful.
Social differentiation by gender is, in many respects, similar to other types of cultural
forms of categorization. In other words, being male or female is merely a cultural division
that is universally accepted. However, the divisions are so distinct that through the growing
years an individual is given the socialization that suits the role that is expected by culture and
society. In this regard, the division in gender is distinct from biological division between male
and female which is based on ones physiological make up. Gender is socially constructed
based on the assumed power and position that a group of humans should possess, whereas sex
is a biological division (Eagle and Steffen, 1984). Power, in this sense, is a broad concept
describing the ability or freedom of individuals to make decisions and behave as they choose;
but their choice patterns are underlined by societys dictates. Societies, through the decision-
makers or the tagged power group backed by cultural beliefs, define what an individual can
and cannot do. This brings to the fore the features that distinguish gender from sex. Gender
can change if there is a major social change in the value system; it varies from society to
society. But unfortunately, it has persisted through history.
In common parlance of recent times, gender has also become a euphemism for sex, i.e. male
or female, man or woman, as biologically, socially and legally defined. These definitions are
hardly ambiguous. In doctrines of femininity, parenthood and personal dignity, considerations
of individual preference and social functionality begin to cross-cut the common place
stereotyping on which our elaboration of the two supposedly opposite, yet co-requisite sexes
are based. Perceiving gender as being synonymous with sex seems a step backward, or at
least it portends a kind of inertia.
Gender differentiation is well pronounced in patriarchal societies where a group of
individuals have been tagged and groomed to be the decision makers for another group
considered inferior, weak and subordinate (Gauley, 1987). The invocation of cultural beliefs,
values and the maintenance of the status quo keep the decision-making group at the top.
Unfortunately, in many societies, women are considered weak, while the men are the
decision-makers.
African Approaches to Gender Issues
In many African societies, women believe that if society has to make decisions that would
have serious bearing on their lives, they have the rights to be consulted.
From the earliest times in Africa society, the roles of the male and female have been
complimentary. This is what determined their perspectives as regard the relationship between
the sexes. Abundant evidence exists both in history and the oral tradition of the Yoruba
people that though women were never seen as equals to men, they were never treated as a
rib or appendage, or an after thought to man (Sertima, 1989).
Ancient Yoruba sages were convinced that neither the male nor the female was a perfect
being. What many of these proverbs stress that male and female are complimentary partners
in progress? A riddle among the Podo people, a Yoruba enclave in Togo, goes thus:
Question: How many people are in the village?
Answer: Two male and female.
The implication of this is that in Africa society, there is no ambiguity about the
number of genders there are only two - male and female.
In many traditional African societies, women were initiators of the verbal arts, business
tycoons, traditional healers and leader of political arms of palace councils. For example,
every council of obas (Kings) has a member of iyalode (female political leader). Her
counterpart in the judicial arm of government (known in some societies as Ogboni or
Osugbo), is the Erelu. In each of these cases, the council cannot operate if the female
representative is not present. The leader of all businesses carried out in the market place is, as
a rule, a woman the iyaloja (mother of the market). In all these significant positions held by
women, they settle dispute amicably in collaboration with men.
While discussing gender, it was inevitable for us to touch on the concept of feminism. If
feminist theory explores the dialectics of womens oppression, then feminism, a related
concept, is more encompassing. Following the line of reasoning, we can say that there is
African feminism. What exactly do we mean by this?
African Feminism and conflict
The new African-feminist approach differs radically from the western forms of
feminism with which we have become familiar since the 1960s. African feminism owes its
origin to dynamics, which are different from those that generated western feminism. Africans
women resistance to western hegemony and its legacy within African culture have largely
shaped this brand of feminism. Clearly, it does not grow out of bourgeois individualism, as is
the case in Western capitalist societies. As a result of the social structure in countries like the
United States and Britain, there emerged concern about female control over reproduction and
choice within human sexuality.
What then does it mean to be an African woman? An African woman differs radically from
the increasingly anti-naturist conception of women in industrialized western countries. We
have mentioned earlier that gender studies are usually inaccurately equated to womens
studies. In almost all societies, least of all African countries, the female gender is usually
referred to as the other gender or weaker gender. On the basis of this classification, women
have been given the crumbs from the masters tables.
Women and gender relations would be examined under three broad categories-social,
psychological, economics and political. Physical security in post-conflict societies is a critical
issue for women. Formal peace agreements end overt hostilities between combatants but to
do little to contain the overflow of violence into communities. Women are especially
vulnerable to low-level violence during their early stage of post conflict transition. Fear of
violence and sexual abuse trap women in their homes and prevent them from engaging in
important economic activities. This stress exacerbates the trauma experienced by women
during the conflicts.
Recent conflicts have highlighted the use of rape as a tool of welfare. In Rwanda, women
were raped as a means of ethnic cleansing, serving not only to terrorize individual victims but
also to inflict collective terror on an ethnic group. In some countries, such as Angola and
Mozambique, combatants kidnapped women to use as sex slaves - a tactic for terrorism and
dehumanizing young women from particular ethnic groups. The social and psychological
impacts of conflict have transformed gender relations both during and after conflicts. In the
face of extreme hardship, traditional roles are adapted to meet the new realities imposed by
conflicts. Women assume greater economic responsibilities as heads of households.
Women take on the responsibility of caring for the many children left orphaned or abandoned
during conflicts. Domestic violence against women increases as a result of stress, trauma, and
social disorder that emerge during and after conflicts. Ethnically mixed families experience
especially difficult problems as ethnic cleansing force people to make untenable choices for
survival. The economic impact of intrastate conflicts on women is severe. Compounding the
general poverty and hardship caused by war is womens lack of access to the means of
production, particularly land. In Rwanda, for example, women have no rights to the land
owned by their dead husbands or parents. In countries where women do have access to land,
they often lack the resources needed to farm them.
In many countries, womens participation in the labour force increased during the course of
conflicts. However, when ex-combatants return home to their communities, women are often
the first to lose their jobs during the post-conflicts transition. The consequence of the post-
conflicts economic collapse is predictably worse for women; given the cultural, social, and
economic context of gender relations, especially in Africa. Womens nutritional status
declines disproportionately, as to girls health and education levels. Women-headed
households, women refuge returnees, and socially vulnerable women all experience marked
economic decline during the post conflict transition.
The political impact of conflicts many times actually creates opportunities for women to
increase their public roles and responsibilities, in the absence of men, women takes no
leadership roles in both civic and political institutions. Women take on exceptionally active
and visible roles in peace processes and reconciliation efforts. Following brief periods of
disenfranchisement after the signing of the peace accords, women dramatically increase their
participation in the post conflicts political arena. In many African countries, the number of
women parliamentarians increased, along with the number of women holding positions in
national ministries.
In spite of the fact that conflicts has a high level of impact on the lives of women, it is
disheartening to note that they are not fully involved in the peace-building process because
the plain field is not level for both genders. Something then needs to be done to rectify this
anomaly in favor of the female gender.
There are four key point put forth in support of the increased participation of women in the
amelioration of conflict. First, across the world, womens experiences of conflict are very
difficult from those of men. In their needs and concerns, pains and suffering, they often have
more in common with women from opposing side, than with the men in their own society.
Increasingly, women feel that their perspectives should have equal weight in the conflict
resolution process, which is an important part of the peace building process. There is a shared
notion that women as over 50% of the electorate have an overwhelming claim to the
participation in the decision making, not in terms of their racial, ethnic, political or communal
identities, but in terms of their gender.
Second, despite of their low visibilities in the political and public arena, women are
nevertheless extremely influential in the society. The Strategic Conflict Assessment of
Nigeria, SCA notes that women have been very active in traditional method of conflict
resolution from the earliest times. As educators, Nurses, and community workers, farmers and
parliamentarians, mothers, wives and sisters- as individuals- they play a crucial role in
shaping society. Moreover, in most war-torn regions, women are not only involved in
protecting families and communities; they are also active in grassroots peace-making
processes and inter-community exchanges.
Third, they are extremely effective in mobilizing other women and building consensus for
cooperation and partnership in peace-building. Ignoring their voices and overlooking their
experiences could mean that practical and successful peace-making strategies and key
ingredients necessary for long term peace building are omitted from the process.
Lastly, time and again, on the African continent, women, who themselves have been victims
of sexual abuse and violence, who have suffered the loss of sons and relatives, have
nevertheless taken up the struggle to bring peace. They risk their lives, their homes and
families. They face the threats and abuses from their own communities in order to reach out
and create space for dialogue and cooperation. This determination and perseverance should
not be underestimated. It follows therefore, that for peace to be durable and sustainable, it is
essential for women to reach out beyond their usual humanitarian activities, to draw attention
to the structural and root causes of conflict and to engage in formal political processes. How
can women effectively do this? African women need to be more involved in the political
process. Specifically, more women need to become politicians because it is by being involved
that they can contribute directly to decisions in the areas of conflict prevention, management
and resolutions.
 STRATEGIES FOR GENDER MAINSTREAMING
The strategy in the peace sector should ideally include gender mainstreaming to increase
female involvement in peace negotiation and promote equity. Gender discrimination is one of
the major causes of conflict in work organizations. Here we are dealing with conflict and the
peace process, which permeates all sectors. If the lack of involvement of women in the
various social and economic sectors causes conflict, then how do you deal with the non-
involvement of women in the area of conflict management itself? It is logical to say that such
a lack of gender sensitivity could generate conflict of untold proportion. In order to develop
gender equity plan that would be appropriate to the peace sector, the following major
activities are necessary:
a) Gender situation analysis
b) Consultative meetings
c) Expert working group review

CONCLUSION
It should be noted that since men and women are involved in peace and conflict issues, they
should be equally represented in its making and implementation. A situation where there is a
preponderance of men in the policy making hierarchy leaves much to be desired. It is
therefore advocated that affirmative action in favor of women in the peace and conflict
resolution sector of all African countries. The strategies for achieving the goal of gender
equity have been fairly enumerated. It is, however, important that the political will to
actualize the goal of the gender equity is present in each African country. This would be
possible if more women are involved in politics.
The anticipated benefits of the gender equity plan and not just an increase in the number of
women involved in the peace process especially those participating in decision making. The
proposed gender mainstreaming should encourage participatory management of the peace
process, gender- conscious budgeting, accountability and transparency and better
understanding of gender issues as they relate to peace and conflict. Bridges should also be
built between men and women. Other forms of equity would also be addressed in the process.
Gender part is part of a board social justice agenda. Its analysis should draw attention to
inequalities due to the age, ethnicity, class and race. The entire process of gender equity is the
peace sector should open up other areas of the society for change to achieve greater efficiency
and effectiveness.
Also the new input into the peace process as a result of the envisaged gender sensitive should
encourage gender equity, utilizations of womens full potentials and the removal of all
stereotyped image of men and women. Gender discrimination could then be attacked at its
root. Government and other decision makers should promote the gender for the peace process
in Africa.

WOMENS ENTREPRENEURSHIP: ISSUES AND POLICIES

Women, Entrepreneurship and the Opportunity to Promote development and Business
Female entrepreneurship represents a vast untapped source of innovation, job creation and
economic growth in the developing world.
The barriers to womens entrepreneurship are various: Women face greater obstacles in
accessing credit, training, networks and information, as well as legal and policy constraints.
The World Economic Forum shows little progress in narrowing the economic gap between
women and men. Yet not all is lost! Innovative initiatives to promote womens
entrepreneurshipdriven by both the private and public sectorsare on the rise.
This brief provides an overview of the global landscape of womens entrepreneurship. It aims
to demystify the challenges that women face in accessing finance, and it highlights some of
the typical challenges regarding capacity-building programs targeted at women entrepreneurs.
Above all, this brief focuses on potential solutions and enablers by drawing on practical
experiences from the public and private sectors in both emerging and developed markets. It
concludes that innovative partnerships, particularly when private and public sector entities are
involved, are beginning to make a dent, with the potential for large-scale impact. Those who
embrace womens entrepreneurship as an opportunity are likely to reap the rewards in new
market opportunities and higher development impact.

THE LANDSCAPE OF WOMENS ENTREPRENEURSHIP AROUND THE WORLD

Womens entrepreneurship matters for business and development. Women-owned
businesses already contribute significantly to the world economy, and their number has
grown over time. These firms represent a significant share of employment generation and
economic growth potential. This contributes significantly to development beyond enterprise
growth and turnover numbers. Women are better at managing the budget and better at
making key financial decisions that impact the family such as a childs education, noted
Mastercards group head for Asia, Pacific and the Middle East and North Africa. A recent
survey in Asia found that when it comes to home finances, women generally play a leading
role. Womens leadership in South Korea, Indonesia and Vietnam was especially apparent
when making decisions about their childrens education, and women also were the main
decisionmaker when it came to key household purchases. It is estimated that women-owned
small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) represent 31 to 38 percent (8 to 10 million) of
formal SMEs in emerging markets.
The number of female-owned enterprises is growing at a faster pace than that of male
counterpartswith no evidence that women-owned enterprises fail at a faster rate. New,
internationally comparable data on female entrepreneurship from countries belonging to the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development show that the birth rates of
female-owned enterprises are higher than those of male-owned ones (see figure 1).
The ratio of opportunity to necessity entrepreneurship is typically higher in high-income
countries than in low-/middle-income country groups, the effect being significantly greater
for women entrepreneurs, according to the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. In other words,
the poorer the country, the more likely that womens entrepreneurship is driven by necessity.
Regardless of gender, entrepreneurial activity is typically higher in low- and middle-income
countries than in high-income countries.
Women increasingly outnumber men in universities and graduate schools in emerging
markets (including the BRIC countriesBrazil, Russia, India and China), representing a
growing talent pool and a huge opportunity for both business and development. In countries
where the public sectors role for female employment is diminishing and where private sector
careers are not easily being pursued, women look to establish and grow businesses
themselves. From a public sector perspective, an unutilized educated workforce is costly and
not effective. In Brazil, Russia and the United Arab Emirates, for example, women remain a
disproportionately untapped source of talent.
The promotion of womens entrepreneurship can play a particularly important role in
conflict-affected countries.
Although destruction affects all, conflict often leaves women to carry the double burden of
economic and family responsibilities. Women who can no longer rely on steady earnings
from male household members during times of hardship must often make ends meet by
engaging in informal micro-income-generating activities. Giving women a stake in the
national reconstruction process by investing in their economic participation, including
through entrepreneurship, is crucial for effective and sustainable development of the already-
fragile economies of conflict-affected societies.
 Women-owned enterprises are well-positioned to enhance national prosperity and to
contribute to economic growth and development. Many are growth-oriented and are
increasingly operating firms across all industry sectors and engaging in global trade. It is
against this backdrop that both the private and public sectors are innovatingto identify
opportunities to promote womens entrepreneurship in order to harness this untapped
potential.

UNRAVELING THE MYSTERY OF WOMENS LIMITED ACCESS TO FINANCE

The business rationale for investing in women-run enterprises is gaining support on
compelling economic grounds. Gender equality is a core development objective in its own
rightand, also smart economics, highlights the World Development Report 2012: Gender
Equality and Development. Despite this growing awareness, and the fact that women-owned
businesses represent a strong potential source of future economic growth and job creation,
there are notable differences between women- and men-owned businesses: Women-owned
businesses are concentrated in industry sectors where firms are typically smaller (e.g., retail
and services, compared with manufacturing).
Women entrepreneurs are more likely to cite access to finance as the first or second barrier
to developing their businesses. There are significant gender differences in the access to and
use of creditparticularly formal credit. Businesses managed by women are less likely to
receive a loan than firms managed by men, although the differences narrow with firm size
and are smaller among formal businesses. It is estimated that women-owned businesses have
an annual financing gap of $290 billion to $360 billion in unmet financing needs, according
to a report commissioned by the Group of Twenty.
Women have a lower formal bank account penetration than men in every region,
particularly in developing countries, confirms the new Global Financial Inclusion Index
(Global FINDEX), which measures how people in 148 countries save, borrow, make
payments and manage risk. In South Asia, where the gender gap is the largest, only 25
percent of women report having an account, compared with 41 percent of men. Moreover,
unbanked women in developing countries are far more likely than men to report not having
an account because someone else in the family already has one. Globally, 26 percent of
women report this as the reason they do not own an account, compared with only 20 percent
of men. While men give this as the fourth most-cited reason reason why they do not have an
account (after too expensive and too far away), for women this is the second most-cited
reason.
Women start with less capital than men and are less likely to take on (additional) debt to
expand their business. Since financing choices and capital availability are key enabling
factors for firm size and growth, it is critical to ensure that women are aware of the
availability of financing and have full access to it.
Commercial banks have started to recognize the business case for banking on women and
tapping the womens market. Over the past 10 years, there has been increasing recognition
among commercial banks in both developed and developing markets that targeting the
womens market is profitable. For example, Banque Libanaise Pour Le Commerce (BLC)
launched its Womens Empowerment Initiative in 2012 and offers a range of services tailored
to women-owned businesses. For BLC, extending outreach to female entrepreneurs is not
only good business ethics; it is also good banking. The initiative which, in addition to
credit, also includes nonfinancial services such as a dedicated Web site that enables
businesswomen to tackle professional challenges and also provides legal advicemakes it
easier for these businesses to access the needed capital to expand. The initiative is already
demonstrating promising results: Within a year, BLC increased the number of loans to
women-owned SMEs by 55 percent and the number of women-owned deposit accounts by 17
percent.
BLC also is a member of the Global Banking Alliance (GBA) for Women, a worldwide
consortium of financial institutions promoting womens wealth creation. The GBA was
originally founded by four commercial banks from developed countriesWestpac in
Australia, the Royal Bank of Canada, the Bank of Ireland and Fleet Bank in the United States
which, having recognized the business case for banking on women, subsequently aimed to
become the banks of choice for women entrepreneurs. Since 2000, the GBA has grown to
become a 31-member institution that works in more than 135 countries to build innovative,
comprehensive programs that provide women entrepreneurs with vital access to capital,
markets, education and training. The two newest members of the GBABanco Nacional de
Costa Rica, and the National Bank of Abu Dhabiview the womens market as a key driver
of financial sustainability, not just as a community relations or corporate social responsibility
initiative. By providing technical assistance and peer learning, the GBA serves as a global
clearinghouse for best practices. Using its collective voice, the GBA also advocates for
greater awareness of womens vital economic role as consumers, investors and job-creating
entrepreneurs.
But all finance is not the same: There are notable differences between short- and long-term
financing needs. For example, surveyed women business owners in the Middle East and
North Africa (MENA) are more interested in long-term capital than short-term capital, with
interest in supply chain and equity financing as well. An IFC-supported report, published in
partnership with Vital Voices and the MENA Businesswomens Network, examined women
business owners demand for capital, information and training to grow their businesses across
eight economies in the region. While 80 percent of respondents use personal checking
accounts, just 18 percent report having a commercial bank loan, and even fewer respondents
(10 percent) have a line of credit for their business.
While access to debt financing has improved for women-run companies, emerging
research shows that these firms only receive a very small share of private equity capital
relative to those managed by men. For example, in the United States, which has very well-
intermediated markets, women-owned businesses receive less than 5 percent of venture
capital funds invested in companies. In emerging markets, this discrepancy is even greater.
And in developing countries, where microfinance projects are common, private equity is
largely unknown. This poses a particular issue for women-owned businesses that are too big
for microfinance and too small for loans from commercial banks.
Investing in women-led firms may be a better investment because firms that invest in women-
led firms have higher returns on their investments, suggests
new research by the U.S. Small Business Administration. Moreover, the share of angel
investors who are women has increased significantly, from 12 percent in 2011 to 22 percent
in 2012. The CEO of Womenable suggests that angel investing and crowd funding (which are
in growth mode compared with venture capital) are more attractive to women because they
are more egalitarian and open. This situation is attracting both female investors and female
entrepreneurs to the marketplace.
Given the variations and nuances of issues regarding womens access to finance, a concerted
effort at raising the profile of women-targeted investments, particularly equity, is important.
Some suggest targeting businesswomen through existing investment funds. Others call for a
dedicated investment fund for women in order to institute a women-focused approach,
potentially with higher demonstration effects and impact. There has been much talk but little
action in this area, acknowledging the difficulty of persuading key players (fund managers,
investors, partners) to come together in pilot markets. While some good research on the
potential size of a profitable womens market has been conducted, more can be done to better
communicate the potential value proposition.

IN SEARCH OF BANKABLE WOMEN

Experience shows that the impact of increasing womens access to finance is greater if
capacity-building programs targeted at women entrepreneurs are offered to complete the
package. Research suggests that women have weaker business backgrounds than men,
including a lack of relevant (technical) education and a lack of business experience. On
average, across 15 European countries, only 11 percent of women who started a new
enterprise in 2002 had run another business before the startup, compared with 18 percent of
men. In the United States in 2007, 42 percent of male business owners and only 28 percent of
female entrepreneurs had previous self-employment experience. A study that looked at 34
countries in developed and developing economies in Europe and Asia found that female-
owned firms, overall, were about 1.5 years younger and mainly operated in the services
sector.
Not surprisingly, limited access to skills training and networks thus continues to be among
the main-cited obstacles mentioned when it comes the growth of women-owned businesses.
In response, numerous government-supported capacity-building programs have been
established to target women specifically.
Corporations and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have provided women
entrepreneurs with skills training and mentoring, often as part of corporate social
responsibility initiatives. While some of these initiatives have begun to show promising
results, the overall impact has been less clear. For example, a recent assessment of a business
training program in Sri Lanka showed that it had not had a significant impact on the survival
or growth of existing subsistence enterprises run by women, in either the short or medium
run. On the other hand, Goldman Sachs 10,000 Women Program, which has only been
operational for a relatively short period and with whom IFC has collaborated in the past, is
already showing promising results, according to a 2012 assessment by the International
Center for Research on Women. Eighteen months after completing the program, 66 percent of
graduates had created new jobs, 80 percent had experienced revenue growth and 70 percent
had increased profitability.
There is a need to improve results measurement frameworks and to systematically document
what works and what does not. Taking stock of the available evidence on the impact of
business training (focusing on 14 impact assessment studies), it turns out that we know very
little about the effectiveness of business training that can guide policymakers. Connecting
(trained) women with access to finance and scaling-up successful initiatives that are
financially sustainable are of core importance.
What we do know is that the womens market is far from homogenous, and that training
providers and partners both need to understand the specific training needs of various
segments in the market. In addition to providing appropriate, affordable training, partners
need to take into consideration womens time and mobility constraints, as well as the specific
support women need at different stages of their business life cycles. In some cases, for
instance, classes may want to offer child care services. In Yemens gender-segregated context,
some women trainees, particularly at the startup phase, preferred to have women-only classes
with women instructors. Women with more established businesses, on the other hand, valued
mixed learning environments. They indicated a greater willingness to pay for classes where
their peers were both men and women because they viewed men as having greater business
experience and success.
A common challenge for most training programs is the link to womens access to finance,
even when funding requirements are small. Recognizing that 6 of the 10 fastest-growing
economies in the world are in Africa, the Coca-Cola Company developed a program that
empowers women as part of its core business strategy. The innovative initiative 5by20 aims
to reach 5 million women entrepreneurs in Coca-Colas value chain (as fruit growers,
distributors, retailers and consumers) around the world by 2020. Partnering with NGOs,
Coca-Cola provides these women with business skills training and access to mentors. To
tackle the obstacle of (trained) womens access to finance, Coca-Cola and IFC announced a
$100-million, three-year joint initiative to provide much-needed access to finance for
thousands of women entrepreneurs in Africa and other emerging markets. By working
through a network of local and regional banking institutions, the goal is to provide financing
and business skills training to women entrepreneurs across the Coca-Cola value chain,
starting with Access Bank in Nigeria, which has had a successful women-targeted program
since 2006.
Technology, such as mobile telephones, can play an important enabling role in providing
women entrepreneurs with access to finance and development. In addition to providing
access to credit, innovative initiatives like the Village Phone program in Africa also provide
entrepreneurs with the necessary training to set up phone service businesses, thereby
increasing womens economic participation and development, particularly in rural
communities. Linking large telecommunications operators with women entrepreneurs who
sell airtime to women and men in their local communities can be a triple win situation: It
provides local entrepreneurs with an opportunity to build a new business; it helps telecom
companies expand their market reach; and, perhaps most important, it closes the gender
mobile phone gap by providing women with access to vital information and networks. Here,
too, the business case is clear: Research shows that bringing mobile phone penetration among
women on par with that among men could enable mobile operators globally to collectively
earn $13 billion in additional revenue each year.
Typically, a challenge for successful management training programs is to reach scale and
maintain the cost-effectiveness of training programs while simultaneously increasing women
entrepreneurs access to finance opportunities. Moreover, graduates of the most successful
training programs can face nonfinancial bottlenecks, such as laws and regulations and
womens access to markets and networks, which often hamper womens access to finance.

CONNECTING WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS TO NEW MARKETS: THE ROLE OF

SUPPLIER DIVERSITY PROJECTS
Managing gender issues in the supply chain and connecting women to new markets can
have a direct effect on a companys bottom line. In 2007, the U.S. Womens Business
Enterprise National Council conducted a survey of 1,227 female consumers between the ages
of 35 and 55 years. Of the survey participants, 79 percent said that knowing that a company
purchases from women-owned businesses was likely to compel them to try the product or
services provided by that company. The survey findings also confirmed that awareness of a
companys commitment to buy from women-owned businesses can enhance consumers
loyalty to that brand. In the U.S., over 80 percent of multinational corporations are now
requiring supplier diversity efforts from their tier one and tier two suppliers.
Almost no government expenditures are procured through women-owned businesses, and
the potential business case for governments to promote supplier diversity efforts (including
from women-owned enterprises) is significant. Based on an average of the largest 176
economies in the world, government expenditures amount to about 33 percent of gross
domestic product (GDP), of which almost none is procured through women-owned
enterprises, according to WE Connect International. They point to the business case for
governments to promote supplier diversity in three areas: It allows governments to address
inequities in the marketplace; it enables governments to tap the economic potential of
women-owned businesses; and it introduces qualified women-owned vendors into the supply
chain, which adds value and innovation, increasing the innovation of high-potential
enterprises and, hence, purchasing options for all. Some also argue that supplier diversity
(including women-owned enterprises) adds to purchasing options and increased competition
in the supply chain, leading to superior cost economies.
Globally, only two governments have supplier diversity legislation with an explicit focus
on women-owned businessesthe United States and South Africa. In the United States, the
government aims to reach its 5 percent goal for contracting from women-owned businesses,
from a baseline of 3.4 percent in 2010. Research suggests that in 2012 women-owned
businesses contributed to 13 percent of the American workforce and accounted for 8 percent
of all business revenues. In developing markets, policymakers in India and Mexico are
directing government procurement policies to promote SMEs. Mexico established a public
procurement set-aside of 25 percent, albeit without a gender focus to date. In India, the
Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise Agency found that, when comparing similar companies
owned by women and men, companies owned by women employ more people. India is one
of the few governments that asks all registered companies to disclose whether they are
women-owned.
In post conflict countries, governments can play a proactive role in promoting womens
participation in nontraditional sectors as part of reconstruction efforts. In 2005, the Iraqi
coalition government focused on integrating women-owned businesses in its reconstruction
bids. Due to targeted efforts in the first year, over 250 Iraqi women-owned businesses vetted
contracts with the Gulf Region Division for Reconstruction Work, representing
approximately $200 million of construction and no construction contracts. In addition to
providing opportunities for women-owned SMEs to participate in large-scale bids, the
reconstruction effort gave women the chance to enter previously male-dominated fields.
Ranging from contracts for engineering design and the construction of buildings to contracts
for the supply of office materials, women-owned businesses competed for and won
approximately 15 new contracts each month.
THE PRIVATE SECTORS ROLE IN HELPING SHAPE POLICIES AND
REGULATIONS
Today, barriers to gender equality remain enshrined in legal regimes across the world. A
lack of legal parity between women and men is also associated with lower labor force
participation by women and lower levels of womens entrepreneurship. Only 38 out of 141
economies set out equal legal rights for women and men in key areas such as opening a bank
account, getting a job without permission from their spouse and owning and managing
property. Many advocate for fixing the law, which is certainly a step in the right direction.
Yet differences between the de jure and de facto situations are likely to prevail. Where
legislation is gender-neutral, governments need to ensure that nondiscrimination is actually
practiced, especially in times of recession, when backsliding or a lack of enforcement may
occur.
The private sector can play a proactive role in promoting regulatory reforms that can benefit
women entrepreneurs (including credit bureau and registry rules that improve womens
capacity to build reputation collateral). For example, in Uganda the DFCU Bank took the lead
in shaping the governments banking policies. DFCU had built a successful portfolio of
business loans, leases, mortgages and other products targeting women entrepreneurs. The
effort began in 2007, when research showed that Ugandan women owned nearly 40 percent
of registered businesses but were receiving less than 10 percent of commercial credit. To
better reach this profitable womens market segment, DFCU worked with the regulators to
modify the legal opening hours of financial institutions to include weekends, when time-
constrained businesswomen were more likely to visit their branches. Recognizing that women
had difficulty providing collateral in the form of land property, which is typically required to
obtain commercial credit, DFCU went ahead and introduced group borrowing as well as a
land loan to enable women to acquire collateral. DFCU also started emphasizing equipment
leases over traditional loans to enable women to build a credit history.
Building successful credit histories is not just an issue in Uganda, but also in many
developing countries, where women are more likely than men to lack traditional banking
relationships, which can keep them outside the reach of credit reporting systems. An
innovative solution to assess individuals creditworthiness outside the banking system was
put in place in Rwanda, where two mobile phone companies and an electricity and gas
company have shared information with the countrys credit bureau since April 2011.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Womens entrepreneurship will increasingly matter for both business and development. While
women still face obstacles to establishing and growing their businesses, the good news is that
there now are a variety of documented successful approaches to promote womens access to
finance, training and markets. Building on these available case studies and emerging business
networks, both public and private sector players have an opportunity to collaborate in order to
bring these initiatives to scale. Each market is unique, and women entrepreneurs demands
are not universal; instead, they need customized solutions. The following recommendations
are offered for discussion:
Recommendations for policymakers and governments:
Ensure that legislation provides equal opportunities for women and men.
Where legislation is gender-neutral, ensure that nondiscrimination is actually practiced.
Partner with private sector companies (including financial institutions) to enhance
regulatory frameworks for the benefit of women entrepreneurs (e.g., credit reporting, opening
hours of financial institutions).
Explore opportunities for supplier diversity policies that promote sourcing from SMEs
(including from women-owned enterprises).
Further knowledge about opportunities and obstacles faced by women-owned enterprises.
Recommendations for the private sector:
Conduct market research to identify the potential business case for women-targeted
interventions.
Look for opportunities to finance women-owned SMEs, including sources of finance and
equity capital.
Join programs that provide knowledge on how to profitably reach the womens market (e.g.,
the Global Banking Alliance for Women for financial institutions).
Explore partnerships that better link access to finance with capacity-building programs
(including targeting entire value chains).
Identify support-program mechanisms for women entrepreneurs that can have an impact on
the entire value chains where women entrepreneurs are concentrated.
In partnership with research institutes, improve results measurement frameworks so as to
better capture the success factors of capacity-building programs for women entrepreneurs.

WRITING A BUSINESS PLAN

Why Write a Business Plan?
A Business Plan helps you evaluate the feasibility of a new business idea in an objective,
critical, and unemotional way.
Marketing Is there a market? How much can you sell? Management Does the
management team have the skill? Financial Can the business make a profit?
It provides an operating plan to assist you in running the business and improves your
probability of success.
Identify opportunities and avoid mistakes Develop production, administrative, and
marketing plans Create budgets and projections to show financial outcomes
It communicates your idea to others, serves as a selling tool, and provides the basis for your
financing proposal.
Determine the amount and type of financing needed Forecast profitability and investor
return on investment Forecast cash flow, show liquidity and ability to repay debt
Who will use the plan? If you won't use the plan to raise money, your plan will be internal
and may be less formal. If you are presenting it to outsiders as a financing proposal,
presentation quality and thorough financial analysis are very important.

Basic Business Plan Guidelines

Writing a Business Plan will probably take a lot of time. Up to 100 hours or more is not
uncommon for a new business that requires a lot of research.
A typical plan will have three sections. Section one is a written section describing
Management and Marketing aspects of the business. Section Two includes financial
projections. Section Three is supplemental information. A short (3-5 pages) Executive
Summary is often added at the beginning of more complex business plans.
Section One should be thorough, but concise and to-the-point. Use headlines, graphs and
"bullets" to improve readability. Length of this section is usually 10 - 20 pages.
Section Two describes in numbers the outcome of your business strategies and plans. Your
financial projections should be based on facts and research, not wild guesses. Be prepared
to justify your numbers.
Section Three contains supporting information to reinforce the first two sections. This
sections contents will vary with your type of business.
Owners should be very involved in the planning process. Hiring someone to do it or
delegating it to someone who is not a key member of the company will result in an inferior
plan.
No plan (or a poor plan) is a leading cause of business failure. You can improve your chances
of success with a good Business Plan.

Ten Ways to Ruin Your Business Plan

These errors in business plan preparation and presentation will undermine the credibility of
the plan and hurt your chances to receive funding:
Submitting a rough copy, (with coffee stains and typos) tells the reader that management
doesnt take the planning process seriously.
Outdated historical financial information or unrealistic industry comparisons will leave
doubts about the entrepreneurs planning abilities.
Unsubstantiated assumptions can hurt a business plan; the business owner must be prepared
to explain the why of every point in the plan.
Too much blue sky - a failure to consider prospective pitfalls - will lead the reader to
conclude that the idea is not realistic.
A lack of understanding of financial information. Even if someone else prepares the
projections, the owner must be able to explain them.
Lack of specific, detailed strategies. A plan that includes only general statements of strategy
(We will provide world class service and the lowest possible price.) without important
details will be dismissed as fluff.
Especially important if the business plan is prepared for a lender:
 No indication that the owner has anything at stake. The lender expects the entrepreneur to
have some equity capital invested in the business.
Unwillingness to personally guarantee any loans. If the business owner isnt willing to
stand behind his or her company, then why should the bank?
Starting the plan with unrealistic loan amounts or terms. Do your homework and propose a
realistic structure.
Too much focus on collateral. Even for a cash-secured loan, the banker is looking toward
projected profits for repayment of the loan. Cash flow should be emphasized as the source of
repayment.

Business Plan Outline

Cover Sheet: Business Name, Address, Phone Number, Principals
Executive Summary or Statement of Purpose
Table of Contents
Section One: The Business A. Description of Business B. Products/Services C. Market
Analysis D. Marketing Plan E. Location F. Competition G. Management and Operations
H. Personnel I. Application and Effect of Loan or Investment
Section Two: Financial Data A. Projected Financial Statements Income Statements Cash
Flow Statements Balance Sheets Assumptions to Projected Financial Statements B.
Break Even Analysis C. Sources and Uses of Funds
Section Three: Supporting Documents Historical financial statements, tax returns, resumes,
reference letters, personal financial statements, facilities diagrams, letters of intent, purchase
orders, contracts, etc.

SECTION ONE: THE BUSINESS

The following pages describe in detail each part (A through I) of the previous Business Plan
Outline. Disregard any questions that do not apply to your business. A. Description of the
Business
Part A provides an overview of key information which is developed in greater detail in the
following pages. Aim for clarity and simplicity in this part. Too much detail here gets in the
way of the main ideas. The Elevator Test - Can you explain your basic business idea in the
time it takes to get from the lobby to the 5th floor?
Basic Questions:
1) What general type of business is this? 2) What is the status of the business? Start-up,
expansion or take-over? 3) What is the business form? Sole Proprietorship, Partnership,
Corporation or Limited Liability Company? 4) What are your products? 5) Who are (will
be) your customers? Additional Questions for Start-Ups:
1) Why will you be successful in this business? 2) What is your experience with this type of
business? 3) What will be special or unique about this business? 4) Why will your business
be successful?
Additional Questions for Purchase of Existing Business:
1) When and by whom was the business founded? 2) Why is the owner selling? 3) How
was the purchase price determined? 4) What are the current financial conditions and trends?
5) How will your management make the business more profitable?

B. Products/Services
In this section, describe your product offering. This will include details of product features
and an overview of unique technology or processes. But dont stop there and dont focus too
much on technology. You must also describe the product benefits and why customers will
want to buy.
For most businesses, the products/services are not totally unique. If yours are, take advantage
of this while you can and plan for the competitive battles that will come.
If your products/services are not unique, you must find a way to position your
products/services in the mind of your customer and to differentiate them from the
competition. Positioning is the process of establishing your image with prospects or
customers. (Examples include: highest quality, lowest price, wider selection, Best customer
service, faster delivery, etc.)
Basic Questions:
1) What products/services are you (will you be) selling? 2) What are the features and
benefits of what you sell? 3) What Position do you have (or want to have) in the market? 4)
How do your products/services differ from the competition? 5) What makes your products
unique and desirable? 6) Why do (will) customers buy from you?

C. Market Analysis
For start-ups or existing businesses, market analysis is important as the basis for the
marketing plan and to help justify the sales forecast. Existing businesses will rely heavily on
past performance as an indicator of the future. Start-ups have a greater challenge - they will
rely more on market research using libraries, trade associations, government statistics,
surveys, competitor observation, etc. In all cases, make sure your market analysis is relevant
to establishing the viability of the business and the reasonableness of the sales forecast.
Questions for Existing Businesses:
1) Who are your current customers? (List largest customers or categories.) 2) What do they
buy from you? 3) Why do they buy from you? (Quality, Price, Reputation, etc.?)
Basic Questions:
1) Who are the purchasers of your products or type of products? (Geographic, Demographic
and Psychographic characteristics) 2) What is the size of the market? Is it growing? 3)
What is (will be) your share? How will your share change over time? 4) What is the industry
outlook? 5) Are there segments of users who are under-served by competition? 6) Do any of
these under-served segments present opportunities?

D. Marketing Plan
In this section, you include the highlights or your detailed marketing plan. The basic
components of a Marketing Plan are:
What are you selling? (What benefits do you provide and what position or image do you
have?) Who wants the things you sell? (Identify Target Markets) How will you reach
your Target Markets and motivate them to buy? (Develop Product, Price, and Promotional
Strategies) Product Strategies
1) How will products be packaged? 2) How broad will your product line be? 3) What new
products will you introduce? 4) What Position or Image will you try to develop or reinforce?
Pricing Strategies
1) What will be your pricing strategies? (For example: Premium, Every Day Low Price,
Frequent Sale Prices, Meet Competitor Price, etc.) 2) How will you compare with
competition and how will they respond? 3) Why will customers pay your price? 4) What
will be your credit policies? 5) Is there anything about your business which insulates you
from price competition? 6) Can you add value and compete on issues other than price?
Promotional Strategies
1) Who are your Target Markets? 2) How will you reach your Target Markets? (What
Media will you use?) 3) How will you motivate them to buy? (What Message will you
stress?) 4) What is the cost and timetable for implementation of the marketing plan?
E. Location
Locations with greater customer traffic usually cost more to buy or rent, but they require less
spending for advertising to attract customers. This is especially true of retail businesses
where traffic count and accessibility are critical.
Basic Questions:
1) What is the business address? 2) Is it owned or leased? If leased, what are the terms? 3)
Are renovations or modifications needed, and what are the costs? 4) Describe the property
and the surrounding area. 5) Why is this a good location for your business?
For Mail Order, Telemarketing, Manufacturing, Consulting, or other companies where the
customer does not purchase while physically at the business address, less location detail is
needed. Modify the location section to fit your situation. In some cases, a good location may
be one close to suppliers, transportation hubs or a complementary business that will also
attract your Target Market.
F. Competition
"Who is your competition?" is one of the first questions a banker or investor will ask.
Business by nature is competitive, and few businesses are completely new. If there are no
competitors, be careful; there may be no market for your products.
Expand your concept of competition. If you plan to open the first roller skating rink in town,
your competition includes movie theaters, malls, bowling alleys, etc.
Basic Questions:
1) Who are (will be) your largest competitors? List them. 2) How will your operation be
better (and worse) than your competitors? 3) How are competitors doing? What are their
sales and profits? 4) (If Start-Up) How will competition respond to your market entry?

G. Management and Operations

Because management problems are the leading cause of business failures, it is important to
discuss management qualifications and structure. Resumes of Principals should be included
in supporting data. If your business will have few employees and rely heavily on outside
professionals, list these key people and their qualifications. If you are seeking financing,
include personal financial statements for all principals in supporting data section.
Basic Questions:
1) What is the business management experience of the management team? 2) What are the
functional areas of the business? 3) Who will be responsible for each functional area? 4)
Who reports to whom? 5) What will salaries be? 6) What management resources outside the
company are available? 7) How will your products/services be produced? (Describe
manufacturing processes, proprietary technology and key supplier relationships.)
H. Personnel
The success of many companies depends on their ability to recruit, train and retain quality
employees. The amount of emphasis in your plan will depend on the number and type of
employees required.
Basic Questions:
1) What are the personnel needs now? In the future?
2) What skills must they have? What training will you provide?
3) Are the people you need available?
4) What is their compensation? What fringe benefits will be provided?
I. Application and Effect of Loan or Investment
This section is important whether you are seeking a loan, outside investment (equity) or
investing your own money. It may be necessary to complete Section Two, Financial Data,
before completing this part.
Basic Questions:
1) What is the total investment required?
2) How will the loan or investment be used?
3) How will the loan or investment make the business more profitable?
4) When will the loan be repaid?
5) If you are seeking equity (selling part of the business to an investor): - What percent of
the company are you willing to give up? - What rate of return is possible for the investor?
(Note: If your business plan will be presented to private investors, seek legal counsel to be
sure you are in compliance with securities laws.)

SECTION TWO: FINANCIAL DATA

A. PROJECTED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
The basic purposes of financial projections are: Establish the profit potential of the
business, given reasonable assumptions Determine how much capital the company needs
and how it will be used Demonstrate the business can generate the cash to operate and re-
pay loans
It is usually helpful, but not necessary, to complete at least a rough draft of Section One (the
written section) before attempting the financial section. In the written section, you will
develop and describe your strategies for the business. In the financial section, you will
estimate the financial impact of those strategies by developing projected Income Statements,
Balance Sheets, and Cash Flow Statements. It is usually recommended that these projected
statements be on a monthly basis for at least the first twelve months or until the business is
profitable and stable. Activity displayed beyond the monthly detail may be in summary
form (such as quarterly or annually.) The forecast period for most business plans is two to
four years.
Before you start developing projected financial statements, gather the suggested information
on the following pages. The personal computer is an excellent tool for financial projections;
and those with a good background in accounting and personal computer spreadsheets may
want to create their own financial forecast model. (There are also some specialized software
programs which have basic templates to help with your financial forecast.)
The quality of your projection depends on the accuracy of the assumptions. (Garbage in -
Garbage out.) Existing businesses will rely heavily on past financial results as the basis for
their forecasts. Start-ups have greater challenges. They must do extensive research to prove
the reasonableness of their numbers. Examples of sources include: Industry data from
public sources and trade associations, personal interviews with potential customers and
people in the business, competitive observation and analysis, etc.
If you would like assistance, gather the suggested information on the following pages and
contact the Small Business Development Center. The SBDC will review the information
from your research and help you develop your projection.

Steps in Financial Projections

For items 1 and 2, use the following Fixed Asset/Start-up Expense List.
1) Estimate fixed asset requirements for the first year. Include Land, Buildings, Leasehold
Improvements, Equipment, and Vehicles.
2) Estimate any start-up or one-time expenses. Include any expenses needed to begin
operation such as legal fees, licenses, and initial marketing costs. For item 3, use the
following Unit Selling Price and Cost Analysis sheet.
3) Define each unit of your product or service and estimate the selling price and direct
cost per unit. In the appropriate places on the form, estimate Cost of Sales and calculate
Gross Profit as a percentage of the selling price. For items 4 through 6, use the following
Projected Income Statement.
4) Estimate sales by month for at least one year. (Unit sales price times the number of
units.) Consider how start-up, marketing, and seasonal factors affect sales.
5) Estimate monthly Cost of Sales and Gross Profit based on the percentages of sales
calculated in #3 above. Use a weighted average if multiple product lines.
6) Estimate and itemize fixed expenses by month for at least one year. Include things like
rent, insurance, utilities, salaries, marketing, legal/accounting, etc. Determine all categories
which apply to your business, but dont include expenses here that are in cost of goods
(services) sold. Research items 7 through 10, and provide a short narrative.
7) Describe the amount of inventory (if any) required to support the sales forecast. Express
in number of days sales or turnover if possible.
8) Describe your credit, sales, and collections policies. If you will make sales on credit,
estimate the number of days after the sale before the average customer pays.
9) Describe how fast you must pay your vendors for any items you will purchase.
10) Also: - Estimate obligations for Income Taxes. - Businesses already in operation
will need the latest Balance Sheet.

Fixed Asset/Start-up Expense List

Fixed Asset Description: Cost:
Land/Building ____________________________________
Equipment and/or Vehicles ____________________________________
Leasehold Improvements ____________________________________
(Other)_____________________________ ____________________________________
___________________________________ ____________________________________
___________________________________ ____________________________________
Start-up Expense Description:
Legal/Organization Costs ____________________________________
Initial Marketing & Promotion ____________________________________
Licenses and Permits ____________________________________
Beginning Inventory ____________________________________
(Other)_____________________________ ____________________________________
___________________________________ ____________________________________
___________________________________ ____________________________________
___________________________________ ____________________________________
Total Fixed Asset and Start-up Expenses: _______________________________
Note: List major items individually. You may group other, smaller items (like office
equipment) into a single line item.

Unit Selling Price and Cost Analysis (Make additional copies of this sheet if necessary.)
Product or Service #1: _______________________________________________
A. Selling Price: __________________ less Direct Costs: Materials ___________
Labor ___________ Sub-contractors ___________ (Other)_______________
___________ _____________________ ___________ _____________________
___________ _____________________ ___________
B. Total Cost per Unit __________________
C. Unit Gross Profit (A minus B) __________________
D. Gross Profit % (C divided by A) ____________
Product or Service: #2: ______________________________________________
A. Selling Price: __________________ less Direct Costs: Materials ___________
Labor ___________ Sub-contractors ___________ (Other)_______________
___________ _____________________ ___________ _____________________
___________ _____________________ ___________
B. Total Cost per Unit __________________
C. Unit Gross Profit (A minus B) __________________
D. Gross Profit % (C divided by A) ____________

Projected Income Statement For the 12 Months Beginning

A. (Cont.) Optional Method to Calculate Needed Capital

Many businesses can get a reasonable picture of their financial future by using the following
formula. If the business will start making sales very soon after opening, you may decide to
multiply monthly fixed expenses by a number smaller than six.

Total Required Capital =

Six Months of Fixed Expenses + Asset Purchases + Start-up Expenses
Column 1 Column 2 Monthly Fixed Expenses Salaries (include owner)
__________ Payroll Taxes at 12% __________ Rent __________ Marketing and
Advertising __________ Supplies __________ Telephone & Utilities __________
Insurance __________ Maintenance __________ Legal and Accounting
__________ Miscellaneous __________ (Other)_________________ __________
Monthly Fixed Expense Sub-total _________ x 6 = _________ Asset Purchases
Purchase of Land and Building ___________ Decorating and Remodeling ___________
Fixtures and Equipment (plus installation) ___________ Deposits on Rental Property and
Utilities ___________ Beginning Inventory ___________
Asset Purchase Sub-Total __________
Start-up Expense You Pay Once Legal and Accounting Organization Costs ___________
Licenses and Permits ___________ Initial Advertising and Promotion ___________
(Other)______________________________ ___________
Start-up Expense Sub-total __________ Total Estimated Cash Needed to Start (Add
Column 2) __________

B. Break Even Analysis

Break even (B/E) analysis is a simple, but very effective financial feasibility test. B/E is
used to find the amount of sales necessary to pay all fixed costs (and have zero income.) In
your business plan, it represents a minimum acceptable performance. Follow these steps to
calculate:
1) Determine Contribution Margin Percent. Contribution Margin (CM) equals Sales minus
Variable Expenses. CM% equals CM dollars divided by Sales. Note: The biggest variable
expense is usually Cost of Goods Sold (CGS), which is the direct material and labor
necessary to make a product or service ready for sale.
2) List and total all Fixed Expenses for a specific time period (usually one month.) Fixed
expenses do not rise or fall with sales volume. Examples: rent, insurance, utilities, etc.
3) Break Even Sales is Fixed Expenses divided by Contribution Margin %. (See Example)
Example:
Unit sales price: $10 Monthly Fixed Expenses: Rent 2,000 less Cost of Goods Sold:
Utilities 1,000 Material & Labor 3 Salary 3,000 less Other Variable Exp: Other 4,000
Commissions 1 Total Fixed Exp. $10,000 Unit Contribution Margin = $6 ($10 -
$3 - $1)
CM % ($6 $10) = 60%
B/E = Fixed Expense CM %
B/E = $10,000 .6
Monthly B/E Sales = $16,667

C. Sources and Uses of Funds The Sources and Uses of Funds is a statement of how much
money you need (and where it will come from) and how that money will be used. This
statement should be included if your business plan is being presented to a lender or investor.
By definition, sources must equal uses. The following is an example of a typical format.
Sources:
Term Loan __________
Line of Credit __________
Personal Equity __________
Outside Equity __________
Other __________
Total Sources __________
Uses:
Purchase Building __________
Purchase Equipment __________
Renovations __________
Inventory __________
Working Capital __________
Cash Reserve __________
Other __________
Total Uses: __________