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Layne Clemen
Hyundai Center of Excellence in Vehicle
Dynamic Systems and Control,
of Electrodynamic Dampers
Department of Mechanical and
Aeronautical Engineering,
University of California,
Using Bond Graphs and Model
Davis, CA 95616
e-mail: laclemen@ucdavis.edu
Predictive Control
Olugbenga Moses Anubi There is a constant interest in the performance capabilities of active suspensions without
GE Global Research Center, the associated shortcomings of degraded fuel economy. To this effect, electrodynamic
Niskayuna, NY 12309 dampers are currently being researched as a means to approach the performance of a
e-mail: anubimoses@gmail.com fully active suspension with minimal or no energy consumption. This paper investigates
the regenerative capabilities of these dampers during fully active operation for a range
Donald Margolis of controller typesemphasizing road holding, ride, and energy regeneration. A model
Professor of an electrodynamic suspension is developed using bond graphs. Two model predictive
Hyundai Center of Excellence in Vehicle controllers (MPCs) are constructed: standard and frequency-weighted MPCs. The result-
Dynamic Systems and Control, ing controlled system is subjected to International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
Department of Mechanical and roads AD and the results are presented. For all of the standard MPC weightings, the sus-
Aeronautical Engineering, pension was able to recover more energy than is required to run the suspension actively.
University of California, All of the results for optimal energy regeneration occurred on the standard Pareto tradeoff
Davis, CA 95616 curve for ride comfort and road holding. Frequency weighting the controller increased sus-
e-mail: dlmargolis@ucdavis.edu pension performance while also regenerating 312% more energy than the standard MPC.
[DOI: 10.1115/1.4032505]
1 Introduction control [6], which differs from the algorithms in this paper that are re-
generative and always fully active during operation. Non-MPC algo-
Active suspension control has been studied for many years; how-
rithms have also been investigated, such as multiobjective algorithms
ever, it is seldom implemented on commuter vehicles due to the
like that designed by Iorio and Casavola [7], which allowed the de-
decrease in fuel economy and additional system cost. Electrodynamic
signer to emphasize either energy harvesting or ride comfort. In this
dampers have the potential to alleviate the fuel economy issue. This
paper, a model of an electrodynamic quarter-car suspension is devel-
paper explores the capacity of an electrodynamic damper to operate
oped using bond graph techniques and discretized for utilization in
as a fully active suspension while being able to dissipate energy into
MPC. Standard and frequency-weighted MPCs are developed with
a storage element such as a supercapacitor or battery. Previous stud-
additional constraints to guarantee stability when energy is included
ies have shown that active suspensions require power during 2030%
in the cost function. The model is then subjected to random road
of operation while dissipating power the rest of the time [1]. Because
inputs for class AD ISO roadways and the results are analyzed. It is
of this, a damper that can scavenge energy should be able to regener-
found that both MPCs have the capabilities of regenerating more
ate enough energy to run an active suspension without degrading fuel
energy than is required for an active suspension while increasing the
economy of a vehicle. In this paper, the capabilities of an electrody-
road holding and ride comfort of the vehicle. The frequency-
namic suspension to both perform active ride control, road holding,
weighted controller was able to increase the ride comfort and road
and energy regeneration are investigated. The focus of the controller
holding beyond the standard MPC controller while also regenerating
is on the tradeoff between road holding, ride comfort, and now
slightly more energy.
energy regeneration. Because of the addition of energy as a control
The motivation for this paper is to further the understanding of
consideration, MPC was chosen as the control design for this study.
how the control objectives of an electrodynamic suspension affect
Other control techniques, such as proportionalintegralderivative or
the ability of the actuator to harvest energy and vice versa.
linear quadratic regulation (LQR), do not feature simple ways to
Through the use of MPC, it is demonstrated that for an active
incorporate energy regeneration as a control objective, making MPC
linear quarter-car suspension, under all modes of operation, the
a good candidate for this study. MPC has been used in suspension
energy harvested and optimal suspension control occurred on the
control studies for many years. Earlier studies successfully coupled
Pareto front that characterizes the optimal tradeoff between road
MPC with road preview information to increase suspension perform-
holding and ride comfort. This suggests that additional considera-
ance in ride comfort and road holding [2]. Other applications of MPC
tions for energy regeneration are not necessarily required and that
in active suspensions include calculating semi-active control laws
optimal energy regeneration occurs in a standard active suspen-
[3]. As usual, MPC faces implementation issues in real suspension
sion tradeoff between ride comfort and road holding. The rest of
control due to computation time. This was addressed by the imple-
the paper is organized as follows: a standard quarter-car model
mentation of a fast algorithm by Canale et al. [4], which showed
with an electrodynamic actuator in place of the passive damper is
these algorithms to be both implementable and improve vehicle per-
developed using bond graph techniques. Next, standard and
formance. MPC was successfully used to study the ride comfort and
frequency-weighted MPCs are constructed for simulation. Results
energy regeneration tradeoffs in a regenerative vehicle suspension
of the simulations are presented and finally conclusions and sug-
[5] and has also been used by Huang et al. to accomplish what they
gestions for future work are discussed.
dubbed consumptive fully active and regenerative semi-active
Contributed by the Dynamic Systems Division of ASME for publication in the 2 System Model
JOURNAL OF DYNAMIC SYSTEMS, MEASUREMENT, AND CONTROL. Manuscript received
June 16, 2015; final manuscript received December 14, 2015; published online Suspension control is generally done by utilizing passive, semi-
March 10, 2016. Assoc. Editor: Fu-Cheng Wang. active, or active elements at the corners of a vehicle. The system
Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control MAY 2016, Vol. 138 / 051006-1
C 2016 by ASME
Copyright V
pus ps
q_ s (3)
mus ms
Fig. 2 Electrodynamic actuator bond graph Fig. 4 Total system bond graph
1 2
Early in the study, it was found that the ratio of T=rm =Rw significantly affects By minimizing the integral of the power supplied by the electrodynamic damper
the regenerative capabilities of the electrodynamic damper. over the prediction horizon, the harvested energy is maximized.
Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control MAY 2016, Vol. 138 / 051006-3
T Due to the two facts above, a horizon of 1 was chosen as the basis
T
D 0 0 (28) for comparison of all the controllers that result from the various
ams rm combinations of k1, k2, and q for the cost function, J3.
Combining all of the constraints and cost functions results in
where xTN PxN is the terminal state cost and P is chosen by the the following MPC algorithm:
designer.
The cost function J2 seeks to maximize the energy harvested min Jx0 ; x1 ; ic;0 (34a)
from the system, and J3 implements a weighted sum of J1 and J2 u0
with weight q. It is important to note that implementation of J1 is
straightforward in MPC because it is a convex function but J2 and subject to x1 Ad x0 Bd u0 (34b)
J3 are more complicated because they are both nonconvex func-
tions. However, choosing a prediction horizon of 1 convexifies J2 x0 xt (34c)
and J3. This is the chosen prediction horizon for comparison as
outlined later. When the horizon of 1 is applied to Eq. (16), it qs;1 qs (34d)
becomes
qh i Tic;0 ic ic;k ic (34e)
J3 xT1 Px1 a2s;0 k1 q2t;0 k2 q2s;0 Rw i2c;0 vs;0 vus;0
2 rm
kx1 k2P kx0 k2P 0 (34f )
(29)
where Jx0 ; x1 ; u0 is J1, J2, or J3.
The cost function above is implemented with the rattle space and
input constraints
3.2 Frequency-Shaped MPC With Contractive
qs qs qs (30) Constraint. Frequency shaping [16] has potential to improve
both energy harvesting and ride comfort simultaneously. This is
ic ic;k ic (31) due to the ability of frequency-shaped LQR to penalize the sprung
mass acceleration more across the bandwidth of human sensitiv-
These constraints are implemented for the following reasons: ity. This is easily done using a filter that approximates ISO 2631-
The suspension deflection is the only state that must be regu- 1evaluation of human exposure to whole-body vibration. Zuo
lated to prevent banging against the suspension end-stops. In and Nayfeh showed that this could be accomplished with the fol-
this case, qs represents the maximum value in tension and qs is lowing second-order frequency domain filter [17]:
the maximum deflection in compression. This is due to the defi-
nition of the springs being positive in compression in Sec. 2. 86:51s 546:1
The minimum and maximum input constraints are designed to Wc (35)
s2 82:17s 1892
keep the optimization bounded when energy is included in the
cost function. When this filter is applied to the sprung mass acceleration, it
Obviously, under standard LQR formulation requirements, results in a higher penalization from 1 rad/s to 55 rad/s, which is
implementing J1 in MPC results in guaranteed stability if MPC the range that humans feel vibrations.
matches LQR performance [13,14]. An issue that arises is that To implement this frequency weighting, the following state-
implementing J2 and J3 in MPC does not guarantee system space is derived from Eq. (35):
stability. This is addressed by implementing a contractive constraint
on the Lyapunov function of the system. This is of the form x_ f Af xf Bf as (36)
Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control MAY 2016, Vol. 138 / 051006-5
Road class A B C D
Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control MAY 2016, Vol. 138 / 051006-7