NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Experiment No: 1

OPEN/CLOSED LOOP TIME/ FREQUENCY RESPONSES OF FIRST/SECOND ORDER

SYSTEM

1.1 Objective 1.2 Apparatus required 1.3 Theory 1.4 Program 1.5 Graph 1.6 Result

1.1 OBJECTIVE: To study open/closed loop time/ frequency responses of first/second order LTI system.

1.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED: PC with Matlab Software

1.3 THEORY:
Open Loop System
Open-loop system, also referred to as non-feedback system, is a type of continuous control system in which
the output has no influence or effect on the control action of the input signal. In other words, in an open-
loop control system the output is neither measured nor fed back for comparison with the input.
Therefore, an open-loop system is expected to faithfully follow its input command or set point regardless
of the final result.

Close-loop System.
Closed-loop Control System, also known as a feedback control system is a control system which uses the
concept of an open loop system as its forward path but has one or more feedback loops (hence its name) or
paths between its output and its input. The reference to feedback, simply means that some portion of the
output is returned back to the input to form part of the systems excitation.
NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Step Response
The step response of a system is the output of the system when a unit step function is used as the
input.
Frequency Response
The frequency response of a system is the relationship of the system's output to its input, represented in
the Fourier Domain.

1.4 PROGRAM:

%Open Loop

%For 1st order system:

G = tf(10,[1 10]);
H = tf(1);
Y = G*H % open loop transfer function of 1st order
ltiview({'step';'bode'},Y)

%For 2nd order system:

G = tf(10,[1 10 0]);
H = tf(1);
X = G*H % open loop transfer function of 2nd order
ltiview({'step';'bode'},X)

%Closed Loop

%For 1st order system:

G = tf(10,[1 10]);
H = tf(1);
Z = feedback(G,H) % Closed loop transfer function of 1st order
ltiview({'step';'bode'},Z)

%For 2nd order system:

G = tf(10,[1 10 0]);
H = tf(1);
W = feedback(G,H) % Closed loop transfer function of 2nd order
ltiview({'step';'bode'},W)
NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

1.5 GRAPH:
NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

1.6 RESULT:

Studied open/closed loop time/ frequency responses of first/second order LTI system.
NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Experiment No: 2

CONVERSION OF TRANSFER FUNCTIONS TO STATE MODEL OF LTI

SYSTEM AND VICE-VERSA
2.1 Objective 2.2 Apparatus required 2.3Theory 2.4 Program 2.5 Observation 2.6 Result

2.1 OBJECTIVE: Conversion of transfer functions to state model of LTI system and vice-versa

2.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED: PC with Matlab Software

2.3 THEORY:

Transfer Function

A transfer Function is the ratio of the output of a system to the input of a system, in the Laplace domain
considering its initial conditions and equilibrium point to be zero. This assumption is relaxed for systems
observing transience. If we have an input function of X(s), and an output function Y(s), we define the
transfer function H(s) to be:

[Transfer Function]

State Space Model

The differential equations of a lumped linear network can be written in the form

x (t ) Ax (t ) B u (t )
y (t ) Cx (t ) D u (t )
This system of first-order differential equations is known as the state equation of the system and x (t ) is
the state vector and u (t ) is the input vector. The second equation is referred to as the output equation. A
is called the state matrix, B the input matrix, C the output matrix, and D the direct transition matrix.
One advantage of the state-space method is that the form lends itself easily to the digital and/or analog
computer methods of solution. Further, the state-space method can be easily extended to analysis of
nonlinear systems. State equations may be obtained from an nth-order differential equation or directly from
the system model by identifying appropriate state variables.
NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

2.4 PROGRAM:

%Transfer function to state space model

N=[1];
D=[1 3 2];
TR=tf(N,D)
ss(TR)

%State space model to Transfer function

A=[0 1;-2 -3];

B=[0;1];
C=[1 0];
D=[0];
[n,d]=ss2tf(A,B,C,D)
printsys(n,d,'s')

2.5 OBSERVATION :
NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

2.6 RESULT:

Converted of transfer functions to state model of LTI system and vice-versa

NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Experiment No: 3

STATE SPACE MODEL,CONTROLLABILITY AND OBSERVABILITY.

3.1 Objective 3.2 Apparatus required 3.3 Theory 3.4 Program 3.5 Observation 3.6 Result

3.1 OBJECTIVE: To determine State Space Model of a given system and determine its
controllability and observability.

3.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED: PC with Matlab Software

3.3 THEORY:
Controllability
A system with internal state vector x is called controllable if and only if the system states can be
changed by changing the system input.
A state x0 is controllable at time t0 if for some finite time t1 there exists an input u(t) that transfers the
state x(t) from x0 to the origin at time t1.

A system is called controllable at time t0 if every state x0 in the state-space is controllable.

Controllability Matrix
For LTI (linear time-invariant) systems, a system is reachable if and only if its controllability matrix, ,
has a full row rank of p, where p is the dimension of the matrix A, and p q is the dimension of matrix B.

A system is controllable or "Controllable to the origin" when any state x1 can be driven to the zero state x
= 0 in a finite number of steps.

A system is controllable when the rank of the system matrix A is p, and the rank of the controllability
matrix is equal to:

Observability
A system with an initial state, x ( t 0 ) {\displaystyle x(t_{0})} x(t_{0}) is observable if and only if the
value of the initial state can be determined from the system output y(t) that has been observed through the
time interval t 0 < t < t f {\displaystyle t_{0}<t<t_{f}} t_{0}<t<t_{f}. If the initial state cannot be so
determined, the system is unobservable.

Complete Observability
A system is said to be completely observable if all the possible initial states of the system can be
observed. Systems that fail this criteria are said to be unobservable.
The observability of the system is dependant only on the system states and the system output, so we can
simplify our state equations to remove the input terms:
NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Therefore, observability of the system is dependant only on the coefficient matrices A and C.

Observability Matrix
The system is observable if and only if the Q matrix has a rank of p. Q matrix has the dimensions p p.

3.4 PROGRAM:

State Space Model:

N=[1 5 6];
D=[1 6 11 6];
TR=tf(N,D)
ss(TR)

Controllability and Observability:

clc
close all
A=[-1 0 0; 0 -2 0; 0 0 -3];
B=[1;1;0];
C=[1 0 2];
D=[0];
[n,d]=ss2tf(A,B,C,D)
printsys(n,d,'s')
M=ctrb(A,B) % controlability matrix
rank_of_M=rank(M)
system_order= length(A)
N=(obsv(A,C))' % observability matrix
Rank_of_N= rank(N)
if(rank(M)==length(A))
fprintf('Controllable &')
else
fprintf('Uncontrollable &')
end
if(rank(N)==length(A))
fprintf(' Observable')
else
fprintf(' Unobservable')
end
NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

3.5 OBSERVATION:
NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

3.6 RESULT
Studied State Space Model of a given system and determine its controllability and
observability
NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Experiment No: 4

ZERO ORDER HOLD AND FIRST ORDER HOLD CIRCUIT

4.1 Objective 4.2 Apparatus required 4.3 Theory 4.4 Circuit Diagram 4.5 Graph 4.6 Result

4.1 OBJECTIVE: Analysis of Zero order hold and first order hold circuit.

4.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED: PC with Matlab Software (Simulink)

4.3 THEORY:

Zero-Order Hold

The following block diagram illustrates the zero-order-hold discretization Hd(z) of a continuous-time linear
model H(s)

The ZOH block generates the continuous-time input signal u(t) by holding each sample value u(k) constant
over one sample period:

The signal u(t) is the input to the continuous system H(s). The output y[k] results from sampling y(t) every
Ts seconds.
Conversely, given a discrete system Hd(z), d2c produces a continuous system H(s). The ZOH
discretization of H(s) coincides with Hd(z).
The ZOH discrete-to-continuous conversion has the following limitations:

d2c cannot convert LTI models with poles at z = 0.

For discrete-time LTI models having negative real poles, ZOH d2c conversion produces a
continuous system with higher order. The model order increases because negative real poles in the z
domain map to pairs of complex poles in the s domain.
NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

First-Order Hold

First-order hold (FOH) differs from ZOH by the underlying hold mechanism. To turn the
input samples u[k] into a continuous input u(t), FOH uses linear interpolation between
samples:

This method is generally more accurate than ZOH for systems driven by smooth inputs.
Because of causality constraints, you can use this option only for c2d conversions and not
d2c conversions.
This FOH method differs from standard causal FOH and is more appropriately called
triangle approximation. It is also known as ramp-invariant approximation because it is
distortion-free for ramp inputs.

4.4 CIRCUIT DAIGRAM:

NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

4.5 GRAPH:

4.6 RESULT: Analysis of Zero order hold and first order hold circuits has been done.
NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Experiment No: 5

STATE TRANSITION MATRIX

5.1 Objective 5.2 Apparatus required 5.3Theory 5.4 Program 5.5 Observation 5.6 Result

5.1 OBJECTIVE: To determine state transition matrix of a given system.

5.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED: PC with Matlab Software

5.3 THEORY:
State Transition Matrix ( (t ) e )
At

No input, x(t) is a transition of x0 at t0 to t>t0:

x(t ) e A(t t 0 ) x0 (t t0 ) x0
1 1
(t ) e At I At A2t 2 A3t 3
2! 3!
1 k
(Note: A must go to 0nn as k ; otherwise, eAt does not exist)
k!
Properties of State Transition Matrix

(1) (0) = I, which simply states that the state response at time t = 0 is identical to the initial conditions.
(2) (t) = 1(t). The response of an unforced system before time t = 0 may be calculated from the initial
conditions x(0),
x(t) = (t)x(0) = 1 (t)x(0)
and the inverse always exists.
(3) (t1)(t2) = (t1 + t2). With this property the state response at time t may be defined from the system
state specified at some time other than t = 0, for example at t = t0. Using Property (2), the response at time t
= 0 is
x(0) = (t0)x(t0)
x(t) = (t)x(0) = (t)(t0)x(t0)
or xh(t) = (t t0)x(t0).
(4) If A is a diagonal matrix then eAt is also diagonal, and each element on the diagonal is an exponential
in the corresponding diagonal element of the A matrix, that is eaiit. This property is easily shown by
considering the terms An in the series definition and noting that any diagonal matrix raised to an integer
power is itself diagonal.

5.4 PROGRAM:
NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

%Find State transition matrix of given state space system

% Given -------------------------------------------------------------------
clc
MatrixA = [0 1;-2 -3];
MatrixB = [0;1];
MatrixC = [1 -1];
MatrixD = 0;
InitialX = [1;2];
MatrixI = [1 0;0 1];
sys = ss(MatrixA,MatrixB,MatrixC,MatrixD);
% Create Symbolic Object s ------------------------------------------------
syms s;
% Assume ------------------------------------------------------------------
% MatrixSTM as state transition matrix order 2x2 with elements of inverse
% of resilient matrix ILT.
% -------------------------------------------------------------------------
ILT = (((s*MatrixI) - MatrixA)^-1);
MatrixSTM = [ilaplace(ILT(1,1)) ilaplace(ILT(1,2));ilaplace(ILT(2,1))
ilaplace(ILT(2,2))];
simplify(MatrixSTM);
% Display State Transition Matrix -----------------------------------------
disp('State Transition Matrix is = ');
disp(MatrixSTM);

% Direct method if A is Known

syms s
A=[-5 1; -6 0];
Phi=inv(s*eye(2)-A)

5.5 OBSERVATION:

5.6 RESULT:

State Transition matrix has been calculated of a given system

NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Experiment No: 6

STUDY OF SATURATION AND DEAD ZONE NON LINEARITY USING

DESCRIBING FUNCTION TECHNIQUE OF A RELAY CONTROL SYSTEM
6.1 Objective 6.2 Apparatus required 6.3 Theory 6.4 Circuit Diagram 6.5 Graph 6.6 Result

6.1 OBJECTIVE: Study of saturation and dead zone non linearity using describing function
technique of a relay control system.

6.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED: PC with Matlab Software (Simulink)

6.3 THEORY:
Non Linearity:
A system for which there is a nonlinear relationship between input and output, that does not involve a
differential equation is called a static non linearity. On the other hand, the input and output may be related
through a non linear differential equation. Such a system is called a dynamic non linearity.

Saturation Non Linearities

The output showing linear behavior in the beginning but after that there is a saturation in the curve which
one kind of non linearity in the system.

Dead Zone Non Linearities

This type of non linearity is shown by various electrical devices like motors, dc servomotors, actuators etc.
Dead zone non linearities refer to a condition in which output becomes zero when the input crosses
certain limiting value.
NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Describing function method is used for finding out the stability of a non linear system. Of all the
analytical methods developed over the years for non linear control systems, this method is generally agreed
upon as being the most practically useful. This method is basically an approximate extension of frequency
response methods including Nyquist stability criterion to non linear system.
The describing function method of a non linear system is defined to be the complex ratio of amplitudes
and phase angle between fundamental harmonic components of output to input sinusoid. We can also
called sinusoidal describing function. Mathematically,

Where, N = describing function, X = amplitude of input sinusoid, Y = amplitude of fundamental harmonic

component of output, 1 = phase shift of the fundamental harmonic component of output.

6.4 CIRCUIT DAIGRAM:

NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NEW DELHI DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

6.5 GRAPH:

6.6 RESULT:
Studied saturation and dead zone non linearity using describing function technique of a
relay control system.