Jurnal Antidiabetes

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 198 (2017) 531599
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep
Review
Plants used to treat diabetes in Sri Lankan Siddha Medicine An

ethnopharmacological review of historical and modern sources
Saravanan V. Sathasivampillai a, Pholtan R.S. Rajamanoharan b, Michael Munday a,
Michael Heinrich a,n
a
Research Cluster 'Biodiversity and Medicines', UCL School of Pharmacy, University of London, United Kingdom
b
Planning Unit, Provincial Department of Indigenous Medicine, Trincomalee, Eastern Province, Sri Lanka
art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Introduction and background: In recent decades diabetes mellitus has become a considerable health problem in
Received 12 April 2016 countries like Sri Lanka and results in an increasing economic burden hampering the social and economic de-
Received in revised form velopment of these countries. About 60% to 70% of the rural population in Sri Lanka rely on indigenous medicinal
21 June 2016
systems as their main source for primary health care. Siddha (Tamil) Medicine is one of the four Sri Lankan
Accepted 18 July 2016
Available online 19 July 2016
traditional medicinal systems and it is practised mostly in the eastern and northern provinces of Sri Lanka where
the majority of Tamils reside.
Keywords: Aim: The foundation of this study is a documentation of plant species recorded in historical and modern Sri
Alpha glucosidase inhibition assay Lankan Siddha Medical documents used to treat diabetes. Based on the systematic documentation and analysis of
alpha amylase inhibition assay Siddha concepts about diabetes and its signs and preparations used to treat diabetes in Sri Lankan Siddha
Diabetes Mellitus
Medicine, the plant species included in these preparations (excluding globally or very widely used, very well
Fabaceae
studied species) were evaluated in terms of the current state-of-the-art about these species' pharmacology and
Senna auriculata
Siddha Medicine
effectiveness in order to lay a foundation for their further development.
Sri Lanka Method: Historic and modern Sri Lankan university texts books in Tamil were used as sources for information on
Streptozotocin diabetes Siddha concepts and antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha Medicine preparations. Information on the known
Tamil Medicine antidiabetic effects of extracts and compounds obtained from these species were used in order to assess the
current state of the art of these species.
Results and discussion: Information of ingredients, preparation methods, amount of ingredients used, and do-
sages of 60 antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha Medicine preparations were obtained. Animal parts including marine
organisms, inorganic substances, and plants are the three types of ingredients used. Overall 171 plant species in
73 families were documented. Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. (Fabaceae) was identied as the most frequently cited
species. Globally distributed and very well studied plants were excluded in the pharmacological and clinical
literature review which includes 123 plant species. The majority (48%) of the plant species reviewed were
studied up to in vivo level as the current maximum level of scientic evidence available. Followed by 41% of
species have not been studied for antidiabetic activities or did not show antidiabetic activity. Moreover, 6% and
5% were studied up to in vitro and in clinical levels, respectively. The majority of the species were studied only in
the models that represent type 1 diabetes.
Conclusion: This is the rst study systematically assessing the importance of preparations and plants used in
antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha Medicine preparations. Antidiabetic plants are a crucial health care resource in Sri
Lankan Siddha Medicine. This study also identied a wide range of methodological problems in the studies
conducted so far. More and better type 2 diabetes models should be employed in future studies. This compre-
hensive review creates the basis for a more systematic study of these local resources.
& 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Abbreviations: DM, diabetes mellitus; SM, Siddha Medicine; SL, Sri Lanka; T1DM, type 1 diabetes mellitus; T2DM, type 2 diabetes mellitus
n
Correspondence to: Research Cluster 'Biodiversity and Medicines', UCL School of Pharmacy, University of London, 2939 Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, United
Kingdom.
E-mail address: m.heinrich@ucl.ac.uk (M. Heinrich).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.053
0378-8741/& 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
532 S.V. Sathasivampillai et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 198 (2017) 531599
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
1.1. Plants, traditional medicines, and diabetes globally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
1.2. Plants, traditional medicines, and diabetes in Sri Lanka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
2. Aim. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
3. Background and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
3.1. Diabetes mellitus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
3.2. Bioassays and in vivo models used for studying andtiiabetic activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
3.2.1. In vitro bioassays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
3.2.2. In vivo models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
3.2.3. Type 1 diabetes animal models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
3.2.4. Type 2 diabetes animal models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
3.3. Siddha/Tamil Medicine ( Siththa/Thamil Vaiththiyam) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
3.4. Antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
3.5. Characteristics of diabetes in Siddha Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
3.5.1. Causes of diabetes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
3.5.2. Signs of diabetes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
3.5.3. Types of diabetes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
3.5.4. Diabetes complications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
3.6. Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
4. Results and discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
4.1. Siddha treatments for diabetes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
4.2. Comparison of diabetes concepts in Biomedicine and Siddha Medicine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
4.3. Antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations an overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
4.3.1. Ethnobotanical analysis and types of plants used in the antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
4.3.2. Plants used against diabetes the wider economical botanical context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
4.4. Animal parts used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
4.5. Inorganic substances used. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
4.6. Amount of ingredients and dosages used. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
5. Pharmacological information on individual species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
5.1. Pretreatment of plant part and extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
5.2. Levels of evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
5.2.1. Species which have not been studied at all for antidiabetic related activities or did not show antidiabetic activity. . . . . . . . . . 541
5.2.2. Limited in vitro evidence and active compound identied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
5.2.3. In vivo evidence and active compound identied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
5.2.4. Clinical evidence and active compound identied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
5.3. Toxic plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Appendix A. List of plants used in antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Appendix B. Antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations (often different types are included under the same name) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
1. Pararasaseharam (Fifth Part) ( ( ) Pararaasaseharam (Ainthaam Paaham)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
1. Kaanthakkulihai (p. 10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
2. Thavidu (p. 28) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
3. Thavidu (p. 28) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
4. - Pittu (p. 29) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
5. - Pittu (p. 29) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
6. - Pittu (p. 29) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
7. - Pittu (p. 29) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
8. Elaathichchooranam (p. 33) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
9. - Elaathichchancheevichchooranam (p. 34) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
10. - Periya kulihai (p. 40) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
11. Mehanaathakkulihai (p. 41) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
12. - Kapaada Sinthaamanikkulihai (p. 42) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
13. - Ayakkaanthakkulihai (pp. 42, 43) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
14. Suravappidippaanundai (p. 12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
15. - Salakkalichchalpalavukkum kaimarunthu (p. 27) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
20. - Salakkalichchalpalavukkum kaimarunthu (p. 27). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
23. - Salakkalichchalpalavukkum kaimarunthu (pp. 27, 28) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
25. Kudineer (p. 30) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
26. Kudineer (p. 30) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
27. Kudineer (p. 30). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
28. Kudineer (p. 30) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
S.V. Sathasivampillai et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 198 (2017) 531599 533
29. Kudineer (p. 30) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562

30. Kaanthaayakkulihai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
31. Vellaikkundrimanikkulihai (p. 37) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
32. - Kaareeya sinthooram (p. 38) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
33. Manosilaikkulihai (p. 37) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
34. Thirilohavadaham (p. 39) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
35. Piramehakkulihai (pp. 37, 38) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
36. Piramehakkulihai (p. 38) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
37. Piramehakkulihai (p. 38) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
43. Naaval ney (pp. 44, 45) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
44. Santhanaathiyennai (pp. 50, 51). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
45. - Vachchirasinthaamani irasaayanam (pp. 45, 46) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
46. Piramehachchanthanaathiyennai (pp. 51, 52) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
47. Neerilivuchchanthanaathiyennai (pp. 54, 55, 56) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
48. Kaantharasakkulihai (p. 36). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
2. Seharaasasehara treatment ( - Seharaasasehara Vaiththiyam) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
49. - Kudineer (vs 25; p. 205) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
50. Kudineer (vss 30, 31; p. 205) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
51. Kudineer (vss 32, 33; p. 205) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
52. Thool (vs 40; p. 205) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
53. Thool (vs 41; p. 207) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
54. - Neerilivukku vangasenthooram (vss 43, 44; pp. 207, 208) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
55. - Pirameha neerilivukku Vettumaaran thool (vs 45; p. 208) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
56. - Neerilivukku vanga (vs 42; p. 207) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
3. - Siththa Audatha Seimurai Siddha Medicinal Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
57. ( ) - Amuthu Sarkkaraichchooranam (Ettuppirathi) (p. 14). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
58. ( ) - Nantheesura Sinthaamani (Suthesa Vaithiya Audathaththirattu) (p. 20). . . . . . . . . . 577
59. ( ) - Pooranachchanthiraathi Maaththirai (Irupaalaichchettiyar Vaiththiya
Vilakkam) (p. 41). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
60. ( ) - Miruththa Sanjeevini Maaththirai (Irupaalaichchettiyaar Vaiththiya
Vilakkam) (pp. 47, 48). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
Appendix C. Pharmacology studies of reviewed plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
1. Introduction
Diabetes mellitus (DM) has become an enormous and fast developing health problem and is an increasing economic burden hampering
the social and economic development of many countries. Undiagnosed cases cause greater risk of elevating cost and dangerous compli-
cations (IDF, 2014). In 2015, globally 415 million (215.2 million men and 199.5 million women) people had DM with a prevalence of 8.8%. In
other words, one in eleven people have DM (IDF, 2015). Nearly 90% of people with DM around the world have type 2 DM (T2DM) (WHO,
1999) and in every country the number of people with T2DM has been increasing mostly dramatically (IDF, 2014). The majority of people
with DM live in urban areas (269.7 million; with 145.1 million in rural areas). In China alone there are 109.6 million cases (IDF, 2015).
Moreover, the majority (320.5 million) of people with DM are in the 2064 age range. In 2015, 5 million DM related deaths were reported
and there were an estimated 192.8 million undiagnosed cases (46.5%). The highest proportion of undiagnosed cases are found in Africa
(66.7%) (IDF, 2015). Every six seconds one person dies from DM. Importantly, 77% of the diabetics live in low and middle income countries,
and thus have a much more limited access to biomedical health care (IDF, 2014).
In 2015, globally US$ 673 billion (12% of health expenditure) was spent on treating DM whereas the USA is the country with the highest
costs (US$ 320 billion) (IDF, 2015). Europe has the highest prevalence of children with T1DM. For 2040, it is estimated that 642 million
people will have DM representing a global DM prevalence of 10.4%.
In South Asia (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka (SL)) and Mauritius, in 2015 there were 78 million diabetics and
by 2040 this will increase to 140 million (IDF, 2015). One in twelve people in this region has DM (IDF, 2014). Again, in 2015 there were 40.8
million undiagnosed cases and DM caused 1.2 million deaths in South Asia and Mauritius area. Some 53% of those deaths were in people
under 60 years old. More women (664,071) died than men (524,394) with DM, whereas majority of people with DM died in India in this
region. The largest number of diabetics (20 to 79 years) in South Asia and Mauritius area lives in India (69 million).
In SL, in 2015 there were 1.2 million diabetics including 625,000 undiagnosed cases (20 to 79 years) (IDF, 2015). One in twelve people
had DM (IDF, 2014). In 2015, 16,318 deaths (20 to 79 years) were caused by DM. The cost per diabetic is US$ 429.2 (IDF, 2015). Overall, there
is a need to develop national and regional strategies to prevent the development of DM and to mitigate its effects (Home et al., 2013).
1.1. Plants, traditional medicines, and diabetes globally
Plants have been used in traditional medicines to treat vast number of disorders including DM for centuries and these are easily available
and affordable (Nearing, 1985). Traditional Medicine preparations could be a potential source of novel antidiabetic compounds (Marles and
Farnsworth, 1995) or phytomedicines/supplements. Metformin (a biguanide) is a primary line drug currently used to control DM in Bio-
medicine which was developed from galegine (a guanidine) isolated from Galega ofcinalis L. (Fabaceae) (Witters, 2001).
In recent years systematic studies and comparative reviews have been published highlighting the importance of antidiabetic plants in
countries, like India (Grover et al., 2002), Nigeria (Ezuruike and Prieto, 2014), and Mexico (Andrade-Cetto and Heinrich, 2005). In the USA
22% of people with DM use herbal therapy and 31% use dietary supplements (Shane-McWhorter, 2009).
1.2. Plants, traditional medicines, and diabetes in Sri Lanka
About 60% to 70% of the rural population in SL use indigenous medicinal systems as their main source for primary health care (Perera,
2012). Siddha (Tamil) Medicine (SM) is one of the four traditional medicinal systems currently practised in SL (Weragoda, 1980) and it is
practised mostly in the east and north provinces of SL where the majority of Tamils reside (Sivashanmugarajah, 2000). People with DM very
commonly use herbal supplements in SL (Medagama et al., 2014). A review of plants used to treat DM in SL by Ediriweera and Ratnasooriya
(2009) only includes information collected from Ayurvedic and traditional physicians in south, west, and Sabaragamuva provinces of SL,
where SM is not practised. Only a few ethnobotanical surveys and clinical studies of SM preparations have been carried out in SL. Recent
ethnobotany surveys in Sillalai, Jaffna (Rajamanoharan, 2013) and Asikulam, Vavuniya (Rajamanoharan, 2014) revealed that medicinal
plants are mostly used to treat disorders including DM. Arugankattai ( ) (Gly-Cyn-Neu), literally Glycyrrhiza glabra L. and
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. for neuropathy, is a topical, two component Siddha preparation used to treat neuropathy. Recent clinical studies
of topically administering Arungankattai to people with DM for 4 weeks showed effective improvements in in diabetic complications
without any side effects (Rajamanoharan and Sewwandi, 2013). However, no detailed review of plants used in Sri Lankan SM is available.
Recently a book written in Tamil, A handbook of herbs for healthy life ( Moolihaihalum
Aarokkiya Vaalvum Patiya Kainool) (Rajamanoharan and Sivathas, 2014) provides a description of herbs and practical advice to prevent and
treat several simple disorders at home focusing on the needs of rural Tamil populations around the world. The search for novel AD
medications from Indian Traditional Medicine (Marles and Farnsworth, 1995) continues and since SM has not been studied in any great
detail, it offers unique opportunities.
2. Aim
With a lack of critical appraisal of medicinal plans used in SM in the treatment and management of DM, this review aims at:
Presenting a comprehensive review of DM in SM including the indigenous concepts about its symptoms.
Reviewing information on local and traditional uses of antidiabetic SL SM preparations as they are recorded in historical and modern
documents.
Assessing the reported scientic evidence for the effectiveness of the plants used in those preparations.
3. Background and methods
3.1. Diabetes mellitus
DM's symptoms are well known including hyperglycaemia with a wide range of complications (Singh et al., 2014) including damage to
the nervous system, blood vessels, eyes, gums and teeth, heart, kidneys, or feet and skin (Zaccardi et al., 2015). Three groups are dis-
tinguished: (1) Autoimmune T1DM or insulin dependent DM or juvenile DM (2) T2DM or noninsulin dependent DM or Maturity Onset DM
and (3) Gestational DM. All forms of DM are treated by dietary control. However, T1DM requires insulin replacement via injection of
hormone or Islet transplantation. Novel delivery via oral, inhaled and sublingual routes are the topic of intense current investigation
(Shahani and Shahani, 2015). T2DM is considerably more amenable to therapeutic drug intervention and is treated with insulin secreta-
gogues e.g. sulphonylureas, megltinides, incretins; insulin sensitisers e.g. thiazelidendiones, metformin; direct reduction of plasma glucose
e.g. SGLT2 inhibitors, metformin (Bailey et al., 2016) and there are a wide range of preventive interventions under development (Breeze
et al., 2015). Natural products and herbal medicines that have claimed to be effective in the treatment of DM are thus most effective in the
treatment of T2DM (Kouzi et al., 2015). As discussed earlier this is fortunate as T2DM is the form of DM that makes up the major part of the
global epidemic.
3.2. Bioassays and in vivo models used for studying andtiiabetic activity
Diverse models have been employed to investigate antidiabetic effects of Siddha medicinal plants. Pharmacodynamic models include in
vitro bioassays, in vivo and clinical models and their relevance with regards to assessing the antidiabetic effects of SM vary. There are a large
number of targets and bioassays used for T2DM. In ethnopharmacology studies the following bioassays and in vivo models are particularly
widely used.
3.2.1. In vitro bioassays

-glucosidase and -amylase inhibition assays are commonly employed to investigate anti-diabetic activity in in vitro studies. Bioassays
such as Acetyl CoA carboxylase 1 enzyme bioassay and Acetyl CoA carboxylase 2 enzyme bioassay which are closely related in developing
T2DM (Munday, 2002). Currently -glucosidase inhibitors such as acarbose and miglitol are prescribed in Biomedicine. However, they cause
unwanted adverse side effects such as abdominal pain, diarrhoea, bloating, and passing of gas (TASHSP, 2016a; 2016b).
The advantages of in vitro bioassays are economic, less time consuming, and more samples can be screened. However, a major dis-
advantage is that anti-diabetic activity against a single target can only be tested in each bioassay rather than general anti-diabetic activity
against the pathological phenotype.
3.2.2. In vivo models

In vivo anti-diabetic activity is studied in T1DM and type T2DM animal models typically rat and mouse. The advantage of these studies is
that one can observe therapeutic effects on physiology, although one might not know the true drug target that achieves that effect.
3.2.3. Type 1 diabetes animal models

In T1DM, cells in pancreas are destroyed and do not secrete adequate insulin. Streptozotocin and Alloxan induced diabetic animal
models are commonly used to investigate T1DM (King and Bowe, 2016; King, 2012). Streptozotocin [2-deoxy-2-(3-(methyl-3-nitrosour-
eido)D-glucopyranose] and Alloxan (2,4,5,6-tetraoxypyrimidine; 5,6-dioxyuracil) both are toxic to cells in pancreas and destroy them
(Szkudelski, 2001). However, constant and everlasting DM conditions can be obtained in streptozotocin induced diabetic models. On the
other hand, both Alloxan and Streptozotocin induced diabetic in vivo models are not identical to human diabetic conditions (Islas-Andrade
et al., 2000). The advantages of chemically induced DM animal models are that they are relatively simple and cheap (Dufrane et al., 2006)
and the disadvantage is Streptozotocin and Alloxan can be toxic to other body organs (Lee et al., 2010). Another advantage is that both do
mimic the pathological consequences of DM i.e. hyperglycaemia, glycosuria, ketoacidosis etc. Both can rapidly produce the symptoms of
insulin deciency. However, apart from toxicity a disadvantage is that they are T1DM models and this is not really a druggable condition and
hence not ideal for investigating natural products that would treat T2DM.
3.2.4. Type 2 diabetes animal models

T2DM is characterised by insulin resistance and a diminished capacity for insulin secretion by cells. Thus insulin resistance animal
models are employed to investigate T2DM. Obesity is closely associated with T2DM progression linked through the fatty acid induced
insulin resistance discussed above. Therefore obese animal models are used in the investigations because they replicate human conditions.
For example, obesity induced hyperglycaemia models such as db/db mouse, KKAy mouse, and high fat fed animal models are employed to
investigate T2DM. There are genetic models of obesity and T2DM e.g. ob/ob and db/db mice, fa/fa and OLETF rats. There are also non-obese
genetic T2DM models e.g. Goto-Kakizaki (GK) rat. All require a mention and perhaps even an explanation e.g. role of hyperphagia and
obesity. Then there are the obesity-induced models. There are many of these and most involve increased calorie intake through increased
fat feeding or fructose feeding (the latter is very popular because it mimics human consumption of zzy drinks) (King and Bowe, 2016; King,
2012).
3.3. Siddha/Tamil Medicine ( Siththa/Thamil Vaiththiyam)
SM is based on Saiva philosophy ( Saiva Siththantham). Saivism or Saivam ( Saivam) is one of the six branches
of Hinduism ( Inthu samayam) which reveres Sivaperuman ( ) as the principle God. SM is believed to have
originated in ancient Tamil regions in southern India in the era of BCE 10,000 to BCE 4000 (NIS, 2016). It is currently practised mostly in
Tamil speaking regions in India, SL, and around the world (AYUSH, 2010).
Siththa ( ) means heavenly bliss or achieving perfection or established truth. A person who achieved this status and can relieve
human suffering is called Siththar ( ). They are considered to be super humans with great intelligence, culture, and powers and spiritual
scientists discovered and explained the association between human and nature by supernatural powers and experimental discoveries.
There are 18 Siththars who have contributed to SM (NIS, 2016; ISM, 2011; Uthamaroyan, 1992; Piet, 1952): Agathiyar ( ), Thir-
umoolar ( ), Bogar ( ), Konganar ( ), Therayar ( ) Korakkar ( ), Karuvooraar ( ) , Idaikkaadar
( ), Sattamuni ( ), Suntharaananthar ( ), Iraamathevar ( ), Paampaatti ( ), Machchamuni
( ), Kuthampai ( ), Aluhannar ( ) , Ahappe ( ), Nanthithevar ( ), and Kahapusundar ( ).
There are some general philosophical concepts of Siththars which include food is medicine, medicine is food (
- unave marunthu, marunthe unavu) and sound mind makes a sound body ( manamathu
semmaiyaanaal manthiram sebikka vendaa) (NHPI, 2015). There are a few notable Sri Lankan Siddhars lived in north and east SL. Especially
Yogarswami ( ) who lived half a century ago and his guru Sellappa Swami ( ) are very well known around the
world.
SM is less known to the western world because most of the Siddha literature are still in Tamil and have not been translated (Thas, 2008).
However, it was recognised by Biomedicine as an alternative East Indian medicinal system predominant within Tamil communities (Ste-
phen, 2005). The aims of SM are to make the body perfect, imperishable, and promote longevity and it is the rst medicinal system to
emphasis health as the perfect state of mental, physical, moral, social, and spiritual element of humans (ISM, 2011).
As SM philosophy is developed in the medicinal, spiritual, and intellectual aspects, it provides equal importance to internal soul and
external body, diagnosing methods especially urine investigation ( - neerkkuri), alchemy (converting base metals into gold) and
materia medica (using enormous range of ingredients) are the uniqueness of SM over the other Traditional Medicines including Ayurveda
(AYUSH, 2010; Narayansami, 1975). Currently SM is accepted as being suitable to treat all disorders expect emergency cases (AYUSH, 2010).
Also herbomineral or herbometal preparations which contain nanoparticles are considered to be more effective in life threatening and
chronic disorders (ISM, 2011).
The principle of SM is the universe-body principle ( andapinda thaththuvam) or the association between the
universe and human body. The physical structure of the human body ( udal thaathukkal) is composed of ve elements
( panjapoothangal) which are earth ( nilam), water ( neer), re ( neruppu), wind ( vali), and sky
( aahaayam). Human body functions are retained by the physiological units ( uyir thaathukkal) also called three
forces or faults, which are wind ( vaatham), bile ( piththam), and phlegm ( siletpanam). Imbalance of these three
forces causes illnesses (Narayansami 1975). Every living body is sustained by seven fundamental tissues ( elu thathukkal)
which are, lymph ( saram), blood ( kuruthi), esh ( oon), fat ( koluppu), bone ( elumbu), marrow (
moolai), and semen ( veneer) (Shanmuka Velu, 1987).
There are eight Siddha diagnostic methods: pulse examination ( naadi), touch ( parisam), tongue examination ( naa),
body colour ( niram), speech ( moli), eye ( vili), stool ( malam), and urine ( mooththiram). Another
diagnotic method called urine investigation ( neerkkuri) is a unique to SM. A sesame oil drop placed over urine and its shape and
spreading patterns are observed. The fundamental principle of this diagnosis is linked to the surface tension of urine (Narayansami, 1975).
Sidhar Yugimuni ( Siththar Yuhimuni) identied 4448 disorders (ISM, 2011) and there are three types of treatments:
divine ( theva maruththuvam), rational ( maanida maruththuvam), and surgical treatment (
asura maruththuvam). Also there are three types of medications which are, miracle, sophisticated, and common medications. Drug
ingrdeients are classied into three and they are herbal ( thaavaram varkkam), inorganic ( thaathu varkkam),
such as metals and minerals, and animal products ( jeeva varkkam) (NIS, 2016). More than 80% are herbal products (ISM, 2011).
Treatments are individual as they are provided considering environment, patient, age, sex, lifestyles, habitat, mental state, meteorological
condition, appetite, physiological structure, and physical state which reduces diagnosis and treatment faults (AYUSH, 2010).
3.4. Antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations sources
The documents used to obtain information on antidiabetic SL SM preparations are current university text books which were originally
from SL and written in Tamil. They are used as teaching material in Bachelor of Siddha Medicine and Surgery (BSMS) degree in the
universities in SL and thus form the basis for Siddha practice:
1. Pararasaseharam (Fifth Part) ( ( ) Pararaasaseharam (Ainthaam Paaham)): This book was compiled under King
Pararaasaseharan ( ) between 1478 and 1519. It was initially printed as a book in 1935 by Ponniapillai, I. in Mallaaham and
reprinted in 2003 by Sripathy Sarma, P. and published by Niyanthree Publication in Nallur, Jaffna, SL. (Anonymous, 2003).
2. Seharaasasehara Treatment ( Seharaasasehara Vaiththiyam): Contents of this book were compiled under King
Seharaasaseharan ( ) between 1380 and 1414. It was rst printed in 1927 by Ponniapillai, I. and reprinted in 2000 by the
Provincial Department of Indigenous Medicine, Ministry of Health north and east Provinces. (Anonymous, 2000).
3. Siddha Medicinal Procedure ( Siththa Audatha Seimurai): This book was compiled by S.M. Ponniah and I. Sa-
bapathipillaiin 1980 and published by the Department of Ayurveda, Ministry of Health & Indigenous Medicine. (Ponniah and Saba-
pathipillai, 1980).
Only Anonymous (2003) and Anonymous (2000) contain the information about the symptoms and causes of DM as well as information
of preparations, however source three (Ponniah and Sabapathipillai (1980)) only contains information on preparations. SL origin pre-
parations are only considered in this study and few preparations mentioned on source three were excluded as they were stated as of Indian
origin.
3.5. Characteristics of diabetes in Siddha Medicine
In the following causes and signs which are seen to be the Siddha correspondence of DM are described. The description is based on
Siddha texts and as such follows the principles of Siddha medical theory. Generic term Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is used, since a distinction of
T1DM or T2DM is not meaningful in this context. In Pararaasaseharam (Fifth Part) (Anonymous 2003) DM is called as losing water (
neerilivu; salakkalichchal), water related disease ( salaroham), and sweet urine ( mathumeham) in SM
and it is characterised by frequently passing hot urine, passing foamy urine like a pearl (drop) of fresh honey in the water, and this is an
incurable disease (Anonymous, 2003). It is grouped within the polyuria related conditions ( mehanoi) of which there are 20
types. These are categorized into three groups: re ( piththameham) (6 types), wind ( vaathameham) (4 types), and
water related polyuria conditions ( siletpanameham) (10 types). Moreover, DM is considered as one of the wind related
polyuria related condition.
3.5.1. Causes of diabetes

Consumption of ghee (semiuid butter), curd, and milk (which increase the coolness of the body), consumption of meat, not applying oil
on the body, excessively walking in the sun, and excessive sexual intercourse with woman are considered to be causes of DM (
neerilivu) (Anonymous, 2000).
Consuming excess or dearth food (eating disorder), having meals at irregular times (irregular eating), excess consumption of ghee and
milk, excessive consumption of sour foods and Irasam ( ). Irasam is a decoction (common dish) which is served with meals especially
lunch and it is prepared using Cuminum cyminum L. dried fruit (Apiaceae), Coriandrum sativum L. dried fruit, Allium cepa L. (Amaryllidaceae)
fresh bulb, A. sativum L. dried bulb, Tamarindus indica L. (Fabaceae) dried fruit juice, Piper nigrum L. (Piperaceae) dried fruit, Murraya koenigii
(L.) Spreng. (Rutaceae) fresh leaf, Capsicum annuum L. (Solanaceae) dried fruit, and Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae) dried rhizome powder.
Also having excessive sexual intercourse with a woman and excessively walking in the sun during summer may cause DM (Anonymous,
2000).
3.5.2. Signs of diabetes

The signs of DM ( neerilivu) include feeling laziness, excessive sweating, body odour, always wanting to sleep, dry tongue, grease
formation on tongue, sweet taste in mouth, desiring to consume cold drinks and foods, dry chest and throat, rapid growth of hair and nail,
and ants and ies gather around the urine (Anonymous, 2003).
The signs in Anonymous (2000) are somewhat different and include burning sensation in the stomach, paleness of body skin, weight
loss, consciousness loss, dry tongue, feeling thirsty, excessive urination during the night (nocturia), difculty in walking, blurred vision on
humid, foggy, and rainy days, excessive urination, and feeling depressed.
Another set of signs is described including burning sensation in the stomach, sweating, difculty in walking, blurred vision, wanting to
quench thirst by drinking buttermilk (whey) and coconut water, loss of appetite, dry tongue, body ache, passing clear and foamless urine
during day and night, extreme pain, ear congestion, and unable to fall asleep (insomnia) (Anonymous, 2000).
Additionally, sweet taste of urine, gathering of ants and ies on urine, passing urine with properties of coconut water during the night,
dry tongue, feeling thirsty, body weakness, laziness are seen as signs and may cause death (Anonymous, 2000).
3.5.3. Types of diabetes

In SM 24 types of neerilivu (what according to the textbook is considered to be DM) are distinguished and grouped into seven categories.
These categories are based on the impact the basic elements have on the human body and the types are identied based on the taste and
odour of the urine. The seven categories are:
1. Wind associated DM ( Vaatha neerilivu) including three types. The urine can be characterised by:
An odour of Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae) ower and sour taste, or

An odour of Crocus sativus L. (Iridaceae) ower and sour-bitter taste.
2. Wind-re associated DM ( Vaathapiththa neerilivu) including four types. The urine can be characterised by:
An odour of Curcuma longa L. rhizome (Zingiberaceae) and sour-bitter taste,

An odour of Nerium oleander L. (Apocynaceae) ower and sweet-pungent-bitter-sour-astringent taste,
An odour of milk and buttery taste, and
An odour of brain odour and bitter taste.
3. Fire associated DM ( Piththa neerilivu) including three types. The urine can be characterised by:
An odour of fruit juice and bitter taste,

A salty odour and taste, and
An odour of Jasminum sambac (L.) Aiton (Oleaceae) ower and producing a burning sensation when urinating
4. Fire-wind associated DM ( Piththavaatha neerilivu) including two types. The urine can be characterised by:
An odour of cow urine and astringent taste and

An odour of Santalum album L. (Santalaceae) wood and peppery taste.
5. Water associated DM ( Siletpana neerilivu) including four types. The urine can be characterised by:
An odour of Pandanus odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze (Pandanaceae) ower- cow manure-lemon-blood and sweet taste.
6. Water-re associated DM ( Siletpanapiththa neerilivu) including four types. The urine can be characterised by:
An odour of Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre (Magnoliaceae) ower,

A taste like Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Myrtaceae) fruit,
A bad odour and a bitter-sour taste as well as ants gathering around the urine, and
An odour of slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) and producing a burning sensation (similar to the one caused by lime (calcium oxide) when
urinating.
7. Water-wind associated DM ( Siletpanavaatha neerilivu) including four types. The urine can be characterised by:
A strong odour and sour taste. (Sithamparthanuppillai, 1982).
3.5.4. Diabetes complications

Like in Biomedicine DM complications have been reported in SM. Some of the complications include lower abdominal pain, tiredness
after urinating, atulence , increased deciency in sperm secretion, sperm in urine, general body weakness, loss of appetite, abscess for-
mation, diarrhoea, unconsciousness, and death (Sithamparthanuppillai, 1982).
3.6. Methods
Information of the antidiabetic SL SM preparations were obtained from the text books which were written/complied and currently used
in the universities in SL (see Section 3.4. Antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations sources). Scientic names of the plants used in the
preparations are based on Sugathadasa et al. (2008) and The Plant List (2013). Since historical documents are used as a source in this work,
there might be some discrepancies of the plant species mentioned in the original sources and botanically identied. Therefore,
all plant species names are validated taxonomically but the exact botanical identication is based on the information available in
the historical and other archival documents only and based on the accepted names in these written sources. Both, accepted and synonym (in
brackets), names are stated for those found in the Checklist of Medicinal Plants of SL as synonym. The family names of the plant species
were validated using APG III (2009).
In order to assess what is known in bioscientic and biomedical terms about these species, relevant literature was identied through
Web of Science electronic database searches until January 2016. Antidiabetic pharmacology studies only associated with activities of re-
ducing blood glucose levels and inhibition activity of enzymes such as -amylase and -glucosidase were considered and studies of DM
complications were excluded. Also species stated in AHP (2011), Brendler et al. (2010), EMA (2009), Upton et al. (2011), WHOMSM1 (1999),
WHOMSM2 (2004), WHOMSM3 (2007), and WHOMSM4 (2009) were excluded from further analysis and thus from the search. Both genus
and species names together in double quotation marks (" ") was used as a primary search and the results were rened by using diabet* as a
secondary search term.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Siddha treatments for diabetes
DM is diagnosed by local Siddha healers and academic Siddha medical doctors by pulse reading and odour and taste of the urine and is
not based on a biomedical diagnosis. Oral preparations such as pills, powders, decoctions, diets, oils as well as topical creams are used as
preparations with pills are the most common formulation used. Preparations are provided at state Siddha hospitals which are manufactured
in large scale by SL Ayurveda Drugs Corporation in SL and are also imported from India (MIM, 2013).
Preparations provided by local Siddha healers are prepared by themselves at their homes. Consequently, there is some variability in their
composition if an ingredient is unavailable then it is simply left out. However, the absent ingredient(s) might be the principle component
with more effect in that particular preparation. According to Siddha concepts, if such an incomplete preparation is taken by the patients,
the full recovery or effectiveness is not achieved affecting the reliability of Traditional Medicine treatments. On the other hand, preparations
provided at state Siddha hospitals contain all the ingredients and as such seem to be more consistent in their composition.
Adjuvants like honey, decoctions or buttermilk are usually taken with these SM preparations, whereas, in Biomedicine no such adjuvants
are used. Adjuvants are recommended; however, they are not supplied by either state Siddha hospitals or local Siddha healers. Therefore
adjuvants have to be prepared by the patients. Diet management is currently recommended by Biomedicine and this is also recommended
in SM. Dietary items are consumed together with the specic antidiabetic preparations. Again diets are not compulsory but are re-
commended for achieving better treatment outcomes. When consuming some preparations certain foods should be avoided. For example,
sh, bitter and sour foods should be avoided while taking preparation 14 (Suravappidippaanundai ) (see Appendix B).
4.2. Comparison of diabetes concepts in Biomedicine and Siddha Medicine
Since Banting and Bests discovery in 1921 (Nobel Media AB, 2014) that an extract from cattle foetal pancreas lowers blood sugar levels of
depancreatised dogs, DM has become a more and more prominent part of the biomedical research and practice. The typical biomedically
recognised symptoms of DM are well known as is the treatment with associated changes in a patients lifestyle.
There are some similarities and differences between Biomedicine and SM in denition, causes, types, diagnosis, treatment, and com-
plications of DM. In SM (especially in the earlier textbooks) the causes of DM are linked to the consumption of unsuitable diets rich in
animal fat and social behaviour (see Section 3.5.1. Causes of diabetes) and not to biomedical changes in the human body. In both Bio-
medicine and SM DM is considered as a polyuria associated condition. Biomedicine denes DM as excessive secretion of sweet urine while
SM denes as passing foamy urine like a pearl of fresh honey in the water. Furthermore, both medicinal systems consider it as an incurable
disorder and the symptoms such as frequent urination, excessive thirst, blurred vision and weight loss are also mentioned in both systems.
In Biomedicine DM is classied into three types whereas in SM 24 types in seven categories are distinguished. It is diagnosed by various
blood tests in Biomedicine whereas SM uses a diagnosis based on the odour and taste of the urine. Biomedicine states that one the reasons
for body odour or insomnia is DM, which are indicated as symptoms in SM. In Biomedicine Fuchs' dystrophy (build-up of uids in cornea
tissues in eyes) symptoms have been found to be more severe on a humid or rainy day and one of the diabetic ketoacidosis (a diabetic
complication) symptoms, sweet taste in mouth, were mentioned as symptoms of DM in addition in SM (Anonymous, 2000). Moreover, in
both systems, oral administration of medications is employed. In SM decoctions and powders may be used In SM uses topical preparations
(e.g. oils and creams) may also be used while injections are used in Biomedicine.
Biomedicine remedies are known to cause several unwanted adverse side effects while these are not mentioned in SM. Furthermore, as SM
treatments are individual, it is assumed that they cause less or no side effects. However, there is no scientic evidence base for the latter.
4.3. Antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations an overview
4.3.1. Ethnobotanical analysis and types of plants used in the antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations
Family and scientic name, Tamil name, part used, preparation, and source of 171 plants in 73 families which are recorded in the SL SM
preparations used to treat DM are presented in Appendix A. The most frequently used species is Senna auriculata and the largest number of
taxa is from the Fabaceae.
Detailed information of ingredient (scientic or English name), family (where applicable), amount used (converted to metric units from
Tamil units where applicable), preparation procedure, and dosage of 60 antidiabetic SL SM preparations obtained from the sources earlier
mentioned in the background and methods (see Section 3.4. Antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations sources) are not solely used to
treat DM and they are also used to treat several other disorders which are not related to DM. There are several other common preparations
also available to treat all 20 types of polyuria associated conditions. Preparations particularly mentioned to treat DM are only presented in
this Appendix B.
Anonymous (2003) contains the largest number of antidiabetic SL SM preparations followed by Anonymous (2000), and Ponniah and
Sabapathipillai (1980). Oral and topical preparations are used to treat DM. Pills, powders, decoctions, diets, and oils/creams are used as oral
medications and oils/creams are used as topical medications. pillas are the most common (nearly two thirds) preparation used, followed by
powder, cream, decoction, diet, and oil. Pittu ( ) is a common diet which is prepared, usually with rice our (sometimes with other grain
ours such as Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper (Fabaceae), Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. (Poaceae)), whereas preparations 4, 5, 6, and 7 (see
Appendix B) are different types of pittu ( ) which are not commonly prepared. Preparations 44 (Santhanaathiyennai -
), 46 (Piramehachchanthanaathiyennai - ), and 47 (Neerilivuchchanthanaathiyennai
) (see Appendix B) are the only three topical preparations.
Plants, animal (including marine organism), and inorganic substances (minerals and metals) are used in the antidiabetic SL SM pre-
parations. Almost all antidiabetic SL SM contain botanical drugs except preparation 41 (Piramehakkulihai ) which contain
only animal materials and preparation 42 (Piramehakkulihai - ) which contain animal and inorganic ingredients. More than
two thirds of preparations contain only plant ingredients, the vast majority (97%) contain botanical drugs. Combination of plant and in-
organic materials, combination of plant, inorganic, and animal materials, and combination of plant and animal materials are far less
common. Furthermore, the majority of the ingredients in the preparations containing combination of different types of ingredients are also
botanical drugs. Preparations 16 (Salakkalichchalpalavukkum kaimarunthu ) and 53 ( Thool) contain
only a single ingredient i.e. one botanical drug. This is highlighting the importance of the plants in antidiabetic SL SM preparations.
Combinations of all three types of ingredients are only used in 13 preparations. Preparation 46 (Piramehachchanthanaathiyennai
), is the preparation which contains the most number (64) of ingredients including 54 plant species in 40
families. Almost all decoctions mentioned in Anonymous (2003) and Anonymous (2000) only contain plant materials with preparation 50 of
Anonymous (2000) containing a combination of inorganic substance with plant material. Same plant part (bark) of different plant species
are used in preparation 49 (Kudineer ) whereas different parts of Senna auriculata are the only ingredients in preparation 24
(Salakkalichchalpalavukkum kaimarunthu ). Remarkably, almost all preparations containing only botanical
drugs contain either toxic plant species or are from families known to yield many toxic species. Plant parts such as leaves, seeds, barks,
stems, roots, fruits, owers, rhizomes, and wood were used in antidiabetic SL SM preparations with seed being most commonly used.
4.3.2. Plants used against diabetes the wider economical botanical context
Many of the species are economically important, often cultivated/managed species and they are part of the wider Sri Lankan culture. Very often
these species also have other uses such as a food, in ritual, in cosmetics and hygiene, as artefact, and as medicines used for other conditions.
A large number of well-known and widely used food plants including Allium sativum, Curcuma longa, Tamarindus indica , various Piper
species like P. cubeba., P. nigrum, Saccharum ofcinarum, and Zingiber ofcinale are also part of DM preparations, as are diverse fruits
(Anacardium occidentale, Cocos nucifera, Phoenix dactylifera, Ph. pusilla., Punica granatum, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Musa paradisiaca, and
Syzygium cumini). Various green leaves are consumed as a part of a daily diet in SL, the most commonly used are Alternanthera sessilis,
Ipomoea aquatica, Rivea ornata, Coccinia grandis, Mukia maderaspatana, and Murraya koenigii. Spices can be dened as being any of various
pungent, aromatic plant substances used to avour foods or beverages. Cinnamomum verum, Myristica fragrans, Elettaria cardamomum, and
Syzygium aromaticum are the common spices used in and exported from SL. Grains are consumed as the main part of the diet and Oryza
sativa, Sesamum indicum, Vigna mungo, Cajanus cajan, Eleusine coracana, Panicum sumatrense, Paspalum scrobiculatum are the most com-
monly used.
As SM is based on Saiva philosophy ( Saiva Siththantham) several plants used in Saiva rituals such as Elaeocarpus
tuberculatus, Myroxylon balsamum, Cinnamomum cappara-coronde, Aegle marmelos, Azadirachta indica, Santalum album, and Curcuma ar-
omatica are part of ingredients in the preparations.
Crocus sativus, Chrysopogon zizanioides, Santalum album, and Curcuma aromatica the natural cosmetic substances used in Tamil tradition
for centuries. In Saiva and Tamil traditions Ficus benghalensis aerial root and Azadirachta indica tender stem have been used to brush teeth
also for centuries.
Furniture is mostly made by heartwood which is strong and long lasting, such as Acacia chundra and Azadirachta indica, which are
commonly used in SL. Moreover, plant used to obtain cotton wool and manufacturing cloth (Gossypium arboretum) and handicrafts
(Bambusa bambos, Cocos nucifera, and Borassus abellifer), aquatic plants (Nelumbo nucifera and Nymphaea pubescens), coastal plant (Pan-
danus odorifer), incense plants (Myroxylon balsamum and Santalum album) are also included in the preparations. Some plants such as Musa
paradisiaca, Cocos nucifera, and B. abellifer are used for several purposes in daily life whereas each part of these plants has several uses.
Many are locally used common medicinal plants with a wide distribution throughout south Asia and other continents such as Justicia
adhatoda, Acorus calamus, Terminalia chebula, Ricinus communis, Vitex negundo, Azadirachta indica, Coscinium fenestratum, and Aloe vera.
Weeds, i.e. species which are successful in disturbed environments, fast growing, and, often but not always herbaceous (Zimdahl, 1992) are,
as in other medical traditions, employed frequently. Some of the weeds used include Cyperus rotundus, Euphorbia hirta, Boerhavia diffusa,
Phyllanthus amarus or Tribulus terrestris. Apart from the medicinal benets, some weeds are also used as foods. For example, Achyranthes
aspera and Cardiospermum halicacabum.
4.4. Animal parts used
More than one third of preparations contain animal parts as ingredients. Male deer musk (produced in a glandular sac in the lower
abdomen), deer horn, civet musk (secreted in anal scent glands), rhinoceros horn, cow gallstone and urine, human colostrum (foremilk), ant
egg, Coccus lacca (Shellac resin excreted by the females of the lac insect) are used, cow gallstones are the most frequently used. Deer horn
is used in calx form. Civet musk and rhinoceros horn are rare and they will be unavailable in the future. Also it is illegal to possess trade or
use them. In addition, marine organisms such as pearl and red coral are also used in some preparations.
4.5. Inorganic substances used
Nearly half of the preparations contain inorganic ingredients. Metals such as mercury, arsenic, iron, silver, gold, zinc, and lead as well as
minerals such as rock salt, borax, cinnabar, biotite (black mica), saltpetre (potassium nitrate), Roche alum, graphite, beryl, asbestos, gypsum,
stibnite (contains antimony sulphide), mica (aluminium silicate) magnetite, and sulphur are used in antidiabetic SL SM preparations. Magnetite is
the most frequently used substance. Many of these substances are often highly poisonous (mercury, arsenic, etc.). Silver and gold are used in calx
form whereas borax, cinnabar, and graphite are used in puried form. There are some studies which evaluated the toxicity of some inorganic
substances used in Traditional Medicines. Biotite, for example, is used in several antidiabetic SL SM preparations. Biotite ash with different drug
vehicles did not show any systemic toxicity (Srinivasa et al., 2010) and no genotoxicity in in vivo micronucleus assay and comet assay in Wistar rat
of both sexes (Vardhini et al., 2010). Detoxication procedures are employed in the preparation procedures while using some of these substances.
For example mica (Wijenayake et al., 2014). Clearly such practices are of major concern and toxicological risks need to be addressed.
4.6. Amount of ingredients and dosages used
The amount of ingredients and dosages were converted from Tamil units where applicable and are presented in metric units (Appendix
B). Standard Tamil weight measures, such as palam ( ,1 40 g), panaavidai/kaasidai ( ,1
488 g), and kalanju ( ,1 5 g) are used, whereas marakkaal ( ,1 1200 ml), naali ( ,1 600 ml),
kalam ( ,1 57.6 l) and koththu ( ,1 150 ml) are used to measure volume of liquids. Moreover, nonstandard
Tamil units such as 1 handful (1 1 pidi) including half handful ( pidi) and one quarter handful ( pidi), size of a small
coconut ( siru thengaaiyalavu), as required ( thevaiyaanavalavu), size of an Areca catechu L. (Arecaceae)
seed ( paakkalavu 5 g), and lemon size ( elumichchangkaayalavu) are also used.
Tamil units such as size of an Areca catechu seed (5 g) have been standardised to equivalent in metric units. However, other Tamil units
like one handful or half handful have not been standardised into metric units. Using non-standardised metric units would lead to incon-
sistency in the preparations because measured amount of ingredients would vary from one region to the next (lemon size, size of a small
coconut etc.), and from person to person (handful, half handful, and one quarter handful). Therefore, it is recommended to standardise these
units into metric units and encourage Siddha preparation manufacturers including local Siddha healers to use exact amounts during
manufacturing and prescription.
Most of the formally described preparations (see Appendix B) and preparations produced by local Siddha healers (passed on orally
through the generations) are still used in SL today. However, local Siddha healers do not reveal any information about the preparations
prescribed by them and it is only passed to the next generation as a secret.
5. Pharmacological information on individual species
While in the previous parts at the composition and use of SL SM preparations were assessed, this part aims to assess the individual
species in terms of the ethnopharmacological properties that made them suitable for use as antidiabetic remedies. Focus was exclusively on
individual species used in SM since:
1. The evaluation does not cover the complex preparations as such since no or insufcient information on these preparations is available
and since at this stage it is not scientically feasible to evaluate such multicomponent mixtures.
2. None of the 60 antidiabetic SL SM preparations (Appendix B) have been studied scientically. Therefore, the pharmacological studies
relevant for anti-diabetic activity of individual species used in those 60 preparations were reviewed.
Systematically reviewed information on the pharmacology studies such as parts used, pre-treatment of plant parts, extraction method, (active)
compounds/fractions/extracts, model, dosage/concentration, duration, way of administration, maximum nontoxic dosage and duration, and re-
ference are presented in Appendix C. Pharmacological information relevant for understanding secondary complications of DM is not included.
5.1. Pretreatment of plant part and extraction
SM uses a range of methods for drying the botanical drugs including the use as fresh material (incl. pressed juices), shade or sun dried.
However, in the pharmacological experiments mostly shade dried biomasses were employed. In some cases fresh materials were used.
Solvents such as methanol, water, ethanol, mixture of different percentage aqueous ethanol were used in extraction procedures; however,
ethanol is most frequently used. In SM water and plant part juices are usually used as solvents. Thus future research should pay closer
attention to such SL SM preparation practices especially the use of fresh plant material. Only when fresh material is unavailable, solvent
extraction of dried material should be employed whereas fresh plant material available freeze dried plant part juices should be employed as
extracts for screening and further studies. Moreover, investigating the plant part used in Traditional Medicine would provide more positive
results in pharmacology studies rather than trying a different one.
5.2. Levels of evidence
About 28% (48 out of 171) of the overall species recorded (Appendix A) are globally distributed and used. These are very well studied
such as Allium sativum, Zingiber ofcinale which were excluded from the further analysis and the scientic literature of the total 123 species
were reviewed. The species studied for anti-diabetic activity (Appendix C) can be categorised into four levels based on the models used and
other evidence available:
Species which have not been studied at all for antidiabetic related activities or did not show anti-diabetic activity ,
Limited in vitro evidence and active compound identied,
In vivo evidence and active compound identied, and
Clinical evidence and active compound identied.
5.2.1. Species which have not been studied at all for antidiabetic related activities or did not show antidiabetic activity
Nearly 41% (51 out of 123) species reviewed have either not been studied at all or did not show anti-diabetic activity including Lannea
coromandelica, Piper cubeba, Trachyspermum roxburghianum, Phoenix pusilla, and Saccharum ofcinarum. Species such as Limonia acidissima,
Nymphaea pubescens, Hyoscyamus reticulatus, Aconitum heterophyllum, Cinnamomum cappara-coronde, Cissampelos pareira, Mesua ferrea, and
Acacia chundra are used individually in ve or more preparations thus it is recommended to study the anti-diabetic activity of these species
in either in vitro or in vivo models.
5.2.2. Limited in vitro evidence and active compound identied

According to the studies listed in Appendix C, - and -glucosidase, as well as -amylase inhibition, glycogen synthesis assays, and 3T3-
L1 cell line were employed to investigate anti-diabetic activity in in vitro studies. The -glucosidase inhibition assay was most frequently
used. As mentioned above, approximately 90% of people, which have DM globally have T2DM (WHO, 1999). Therefore, bioassays which are
closely related to T2DM mentioned in Section 3.2.1 should be employed in future studies.
Only 6% (7 out of 123) of species reviewed such as Anacyclus pyrethrum, Bambusa bambos, and Gossypium arboretum had been studied
only in in vitro bioassays and anti-diabetic activity was observed. Abrus precatorius is the most frequently studied species up to this level.
Higher and lower concentrations of extracts were employed in some of the species studied up to this level. Ethanol extract (29.25 mg/ml) of
A. pyrethrum dried root showed inhibitory effect in the -amylase inhibition assay (Kumar and Lalitha, 2014). Also an aqueous extract (10.10
mg/ml) of G. arboreum dried leaves exhibited potent inhibitory activity in -amylase inhibition assay (Kazeem et al., 2013).
Active compounds have been identied only from A. precatorius and Dichrostachys cinerea. Three compounds (Lupenone, 24- methy-
lenecycloartenone, and Luteolin) were identied from A. precatorius dried leaf, 50% methanol extract detected a potent inhibitory activity in
-amylase inhibition assay (Yonemoto et al., 2014). The active compounds of the rest of the species should be identied and both these
species and their antidiabetic active compounds should be studied in further in vivo models. However, this is the lowest level study of
pharmacology evidence and provides insufcient evidence.
5.2.3. In vivo evidence and active compound identied

T1DM and T2DM animal models (see 3.2.12. In vivo models) were employed to study anti-diabetic activity (Appendix C) using animal
models such as rat, mouse, and rabbit with rat being the most frequently used animal. The majority of the studies were done in T1DM
models (esp. Streptozotocin - induced diabetes) rather than T2DM models. T2DM models are db/db, KKAy, and high fat fed animal models
with the db/db animal model being the most frequently employed one.
Nearly 48% (59 out of 123) of species reviewed including Tamarindus indica, Thespesia populnea, Ficus religiosa, Phyllanthus amarus, and
Alpinia galangal have been studied up to this level. Syzygium cumini is most frequently studied in in vivo models within the species studied
up to this level. As mentioned before higher and lower dosages of extracts were employed in in vivo studies. In some studies using T1DM
models lower dosage such as 5 mg/kg showed anti-diabetic activity . For an example 70% methanol extract (5 mg/kg) of Musa paradisiaca
shade dried sucker orally administrated to Alloxan induced diabetic rat for 21 d decreased elevated blood glucose level (Akinlolu et al.,
2015). In T2DM models ethyl acetate fraction of ethanol extract (100 mg/kg) of Acorus calamus dried radix orally administrated for 3 weeks
to db/db mouse signicantly reduced serum glucose (Wu et al., 2009). High dosage such as 4000 mg/kg was also employed in some studies.
For example, aqueous extract (4000 mg/kg) of Alpinia galangal dried rhizome orally administrated to Alloxan induced diabetic rabbit for 6 h
signicantly lowered the blood glucose level (Akhtar et al., 2002). However, this study did not reveal any toxicity of this dosage and the
extremely high dose casts serious doubts at the pharmacological relevance of such data.
Antidiabetic compounds have been identied in 12 species including Acorus calamus, Areca catechu, Cheilocostus speciosus, Myristica
fragrans, and Plumbago zeylanica. The majority of active compounds (ve) have been identied in Oroxylum indicum. In T1DM models, -
amyrin palmitate (50 mg/kg) from Hemidesmus indicus root orally administered to Alloxan induced diabetic rat for 15 d showed remarkable
lowered blood glucose levels (Nair et al., 2014). Whereas in T2DM models, macelingan (10 mg/kg) from Myristica fragrans seed kernel orally
administrated to db/db mouse for 14 d also reduced serum glucose (Han et al., 2008).
Toxicity of active extracts and compounds were investigated in many studies. For example both aqueous and methanol (4000 mg/kg)
extracts of Achyranthes aspera shade dried whole plant were orally administered to Alloxan induced diabetic rabbit decreased blood glucose
levels in 4 h. However, toxicity study of this extract up to 8000 mg/kg for 7 d revealed as nontoxic (Akhtar and Iqbal, 1991). As the highest
dosage is nontoxic and half of the nontoxic dosage showed antidiabetic effects in shorter time this plant possesses promising antidiabetic
properties. Mycaminose (2000 mg/kg) identied from Syzygium cumini air dried mature seed administered to Streptozotocin induced
diabetic rat for 14 d was revealed as nontoxic (Kumar et al., 2008). As higher dosage of this active compound showed not to be toxic this
compound possesses a strong anti-diabetic activity, but again the relevance of is very doubtful due to the administered dosage. Hence, the
antidiabetic active compound of the rest of the species showing anti-diabetic activity in in vivo models should be identied and both the
species and their active compounds should be further studied in clinical models. Additionally, T1DM animal models are more frequently
employed compared toT2DM models. As majority of the people have T2DM, more T2DM related animal models mentioned in Section 3.2.4.
Type 2 diabetes animal models should be therefore employed in in vivo antidiabetic pharmacological studies in the future.
5.2.4. Clinical evidence and active compound identied

T1DM, T2DM, and healthy volunteers were employed to investigate the anti-diabetic activity at this level with T2DM studies being the
most frequently employed ones (Appendix C). Again as the aim is to study the anti-diabetic activity diabetic subjects should be employed.
Employing normal subjects would lead to results of limited relevance.
Approximately 5% (6 out of 123) of the species reviewed have clinical evidence including Cyanthillium cinereum, Salacia reticulata, and
Ficus racemose. An aqueous extract (1200 mg/d) of Ficus racemosa bark orally administrated to T2DM patients (18 men and 12 women who
had T2DM for less than a year) for 1 month as the only treatment showed a signicant reduction in fasting blood glucose concentration
(Ahmed et al., 2011). This is the lowest dosage of an extract studied that showed efcacy in the group of plants studied up to this level. Hot
water extract (equivalent to 20 g/kg of starting material) of Artocarpus heterophyllus mature leaf was administered orally to 20 normal and
diabetic volunteers in each group 1 h before glucose loading. Reduced blood glucose level was observed after 30 min of glucose admin-
istration (Fernando et al., 1991). DM is a chronic disorder thus a chronic clinical study would provide more accurate results. A preparation
(6 g/d) containing C. cinereum root (as well as unspecied ingredients) was administrated for 6 months orally to T2DM sufferers (who had
the disease for more than 6 months) and signicantly decreased blood glucose levels (Bin Sayeed et al., 2013). This is a very high dosage.
However, it is not reported how much C. cinereum root was present in the preparation.
Antidiabetic compounds (-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and lanosterol), which, however, are ubiquitous compounds, were only identied in
Ficus racemosa and overall further assessment of these scientic claims are needed. Thus, it is recommended to identify the active com-
pounds of the other species and in a next step these compounds should be studied in in vitro, in vivo, as well as clinical levels.
5.3. Toxic plants
Toxicity investigations play a very important role in assessing the therapeutic benets of drugs and medicines derived from them. From
the bibliographic data such as Roth et al. (2012) and Harborne et al (1996) some species may well have acute or chronic toxicity as well as
posing the risk of teratogenicity and carcinogenesis as well as of allergic reactions. Nearly 49% (60 out of 123) of plant species and various
parts used in antidiabetic SL SM preparations were catagorised as toxic including Abrus precatorius, Strychnos potatorum, Aconitum het-
erophyllum, Hyoscyamus reticulatus, and Cycas circinalis. However, a toxicity assessment of the plants used in antidiabetic SL SM preparations
is beyond the scope of this manuscript.
6. Conclusion
This is the rst study systematically assessing the importance of preparations and plants used in antidiabetic SL SM preparations. It
documents the importance of such treatments and creates the basis for a more methodical study of these local resources. This review
documents 60 preparations and 171 species (in 73 families) used to treat DM in SL SM. Botanical drugs are very important in antidiabetic SL
SM preparations and the most frequently used species is Senna auriculata. Currently, non-standardised units for ingredient measurements
in the preparations and dosages are used; these need to be converted into standardised units.
None of the 60 preparations documented in this review have been studied scientically at all in any model. However, considerable
pharmacology information on extracts of individual species is available. Therefore, anti-diabetic activity and toxicity of all preparations
presented in this work should be scientically studied using in vitro, in vivo, and clinical models in order to better understand their safety,
pharmacological effects and clinical efcacy. Simple, preparations containing inexpensive, nontoxic, and common plant materials (such as
preparations 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 49, 50, and 51) are the most suitable candidates for further scientic investigations such as a full char-
acterisation of their chemical composition. Plant extracts contain mixtures of active, partly active, and inactive compound. The bioactivity of
a plant extract is not dependent on a single compound thus, due to this complexity, results from bioactivity assessments are often not
reproducible (Heinrich, 2010). Therefore, a clear phytochemical characterisation, using for example metabolomics techniques linked with in
vitro or in vivo screening for bioactivity and toxicity, can be used for a better characterisation of phytomedicines.
Indigenous and local medical knowledge has advanced and also made a greater contribution to global healthcare. Improvement of this
knowledge base required that it incorporates evidence-based approaches to its practice. SM preparations produced by Sri Lanka Ayurvedic
Drug Corporation (under the Sri Lankan Ministry of Indigenous Medicine) are believed to be consistent. On the other hand, SM preparations
produced by Siddha healers have no assessment to be proved that they are consistent. Therefore, Sri Lankan Ministry of Indigenous
Medicine should introduce new stricter laws to register the preparations, preparation methods, and ingredients, storage conditions, and
shelf life prepared by local Siddha healers in terms to follow the consistency of SM preparations. Additionally, Sri Lankan Ministry of
Indigenous Medicine should also carry out regular inspections to conrm the reliability of the preparations prepared by Siddha healers.
Keeping information on such preparations secret or only accessible in a limited way would ultimately lead to its disappearance in the near
future. Also any healers who are not willing to reveal the essential information on such preparations they use should be barred from
registering and practising. Improved regulations of SM will also the likelihood of exclusion and avoidance of toxic materials such as mercury
and arsenic being used in preparations.
Yet, as there is no SL SM pharmacopoeia available. Hence, it is recommended to develop and published such a legally binding document
in the near future which would be used as an important teaching material in SM education, regulations ,and easier for the Siddha healers
and Siddha academic doctors for identifying and treating disorders.
SM has been used for hundreds of years and it has shown numerous benets, such as affordability, and ease of access, etc. Apart of these
advantages, it also has certain limitations and one of the main ones being certain ingredients such as rhinoceros horn and rare plant species
are difcult to come by and in some cases illegal to handle. Therefore rare plant species which considered as important in the preparations
should be cultivated to prevent from disappearance in the near future.
Most of the pharmacology studies have been carried out in T1DM models. However, as stated above approximately 90% of diabetics
suffer from T2DM. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out further investigations in T2DM models. Fresh juices of various parts of plants are
used as solvent in several antidiabetic SL SM preparations, for example, preparation 1. Hence, freeze dried fresh juices of plant materials
could be used to study the pharmacological investigations where available, easily obtainable, and appropriate. Also, the pharmacological
studies reviewed are often methodologically problematic for other reasons, including, for example, unrealistic high doses or poor general
design. Therefore, in the future more rigorous experimental approach will be needed. Additionally, the pharmacology studies of pre-
parations containing only organic substances (expect some minerals and metals), should be tested and where they give better outcomes
then, those organic substances can be excluded from future preparations. Further studies also should be performed to identify potential
drugdrug interactions and side effects caused.
One of the objectives of this work is to make such information publicly available to prevent its disappearance in the future and to
ascertain that the local and traditional knowledge is promoted internationally. Only if this information is in the public domain will it be
possible to establish that this knowledge is based on SM. Lastly, this work builds the foundation for a more efcient study of antidiabetic SL
SM preparations and the plants used.
Acknowledgements
SVS would like to thank his father, sisters family (Veena, Sureswaran, Adish, Aksara, and Avanish), brothers family (Chenthuran, Dr
Sinthu Chenthuran, and Sivayan), and especially his cousins (Mrs Thiyaleshnalatha Aravindabos and Mrs Thanujah Chandrakumar) for all
the support and the assistance in Tamil English translation. Also we would like to thank Mr Stephen Teo, Mr Antony Omita, Mr Lixiang
Zhai, and Ms Sarah Soares for providing valuable ideas. This project received no external funding.
Appendix A List of plants used in antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations
Abbreviation
Table A.1
List of plants used in antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations.
Family and scientic name Tamil name Part Preparation Source

used
Acanthaceae
Justicia adhatoda L. [syn. Adhatoda vasica Nees] (Aadaathodai) RO 50 SA
Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine (Neermulli) WP 1 PA
Acoraceae
Acorus calamus L. (Vasambu) RH 10 PA
Amaranthaceae
Achyranthes aspera L. (Naayuruvi) WP 56 SV
WP 32 PA
Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. LE 47 PA
(Ponnaangkaani)
LE 59 SA
WP 44, 46, 47 PA
Amaryllidaceae
Allium sativum L. BU 58 SA
(Vellai vengaayam)
Anacardiaceae
Anacardium occidentale L. (Munthirihai) FR 9 PA
FR 51 SV
Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. [syn. Odina wodier Roxb.] (Othiyam) BA 13, 45 PA
Rhus succedanea L. (Katkadahasingi) GA 9, 11 PA
Apiaceae
Anethum graveolens L. (Sathahuppai) SE 58 SA
Cuminum cyminum L. (Seeraham) / FR 9, 8, 46 PA
(Sirunjcheeraham)
FR 55 SV
FR 57, 59, 58, 60 SA
Ferula assa-foetida L. (Perungkaayam) RE 58 SA
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (Perunjcheeraham) FR 9 PA
FR 55 SV
Trachyspermum roxburghianum (DC.) H. Wolff [syn. Trachyspermum involucratum (Omam) / FR 8, 44 PA
(Roxb.) H. Wolff] (Asamathaaham)
FR 55 SV
FR 57, 58 SA
Apocynaceae
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex Schult. (Nannaari) RB 59 SA
RO 8, 46, 47 PA
Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G.Don (Vetpaalai) SE 44, 46, 47 PA
SE 58 SA
Arecaceae
Areca catechu L. (Kamuhu) RE 9 PA
SE 1 PA
SE 51 SV
Borassus abellifer L. (Panai) FR 12 PA
Cocos nucifera L. (Thennai) FL 10, 11, 48 PA
FR 44, 47 PA
UF 36, 48 PA
Phoenix dactylifera L. (Pereechchai) FR 8, 9 PA
FR 51 SV
Phoenix pusilla Gaertn. (Eechchai) FL 10, 46 PA
UF 35 PA
Asparagaceae
Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Saaththaavaari) LE 47 PA
RH 9, 44, 46, 47 PA
Table A.1 (continued )

used
Asteraceae
Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) Lag. (Akkaraahaaram) RO 9, 12 PA
RO 58, 59, 60 SA
Aucklandia lappa DC. [syn. Saussurea lappa (Decne.) C.B.Clarke] (Kottam) RO 8, 9, 10, 43, 44, 46, 47 PA
Centipeda minima (L.) A.Braun & Asch. (Marukkolunthu) WP 46 PA
Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.Rob. [syn. Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less.] (Seetheviyaar WP 46 PA
sengkaluneer)
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. WP 1 PA
(Karisalaangkanni)
Bignoniaceae
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz (Vaahai) RE 1 PA
Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC. [syn. Stereospermum suaveolens (Roxb.) DC] (Paathiri) RO 46 PA
Boraginaceae
Cordia dichotoma G.Forst. (Naruvili) BA 38, 45 PA
Burseraceae
Commiphora mukul (Hook. ex Stocks) Engl. (Kukkil) RE 35 PA
Calophyllaceae
Mesua ferrea L. (Sirunaaham) FL 44, 46, 47 PA
FL 58, 60 SA
Cannabaceae
Cannabis sativa L. (Kanjaa) LE 46 PA
LE 55 SV
LE 58 SA
SE 57 SA
Capparaceae
Cadaba fruticosa (L.) Druce (Veeli) LE 44, 47 PA
Caprifoliaceae
Nardostachys jatamansi (D.Don) DC. [syn. Nardostachys grandiora DC] (Sadaamaanjil) RO 44, 46, 47 PA
Celastraceae
Celastrus paniculatus Willd. (Vaaluluvai) SE 58 SA
Gymnosporia emarginata (Willd.) Thwaites [syn. Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) (Mutpullaanthy) BA 45 PA
Ding Hou]
Salacia reticulata Wight (Kadaliraanji) BA 1, 10, 13, 14, 29, 34, 35, 43, 45 PA
BA 49, 51 SV
RO 46 PA
Combretaceae
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn. (Maruthu) BA 34, 35, 45 PA
Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (Thaandri) FR 9, 14, 26, 29, 30, 34, 46 PA
Terminalia chebula Retz. (Kadukkaai) FR 13, 14, 19, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, PA
31, 46
FR 50 SV
SE 9 PA
SE 60 SA
WP 46 PA
Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. (Vallal) LE 47 PA
Ipomoea littoralis Blume (Thaali) LE 47 PA
Rivea ornata Choisy (Musuttai) SE 35 PA
TL 21 PA
Costaceae
Cheilocostus speciosus (J.Koenig) C.D.Specht [syn. Costus (Venkottam) RH 47 PA
speciosus (J.Koenig) Sm.]
RO 57, 58, 60 SA
Cucurbitaceae
Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt (Kovvai) LE 47 PA
Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.Roem. LE 47 PA
(Mosumosukkai)
Cycadaceae
Cycas circinalis L. (Mathanakaamam) FL 44 PA
Cyperaceae
Cyperus mitis Steud. (Perungkorai) RH 46 PA
Cyperus rotundus L. (Korai) RH 1, 7, 8, 9, 27, 47 PA
RO 26 PA
Dipterocarpaceae
Shorea robusta Gaertn RE 47 PA
(Venkunthirukkam)
Elaeocarpaceae
Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. (Uruththiraatcham) SE 60 SA
Erythroxylaceae
Erythroxylum monogynum Roxb. (Semmanaththi) BA 13 PA
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia antiquorum L. (Kalli) LA 54 SV
RO 39 PA

used
Ricinus communis L. (Aamankku) RO 46 PA

Euphorbia hirta L. (Ammaan WP 37, 45 PA
pachcharisi)
Fabaceae
Abrus precatorius L. (Kundrimani) RO 10, 43 PA
RO 51 SV
SE 11, 14, 17, 30, 1, 33 PA
Acacia chundra (Rottler) Willd. (Karungkaali) BA 25 PA
HE 29 PA
RE 11, 34 PA
RO 27 PA
Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. (Velvel) BA 13 PA
RE 1, 11 PA
Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile (Karuvel) BA 13, 34, 43, 45 PA
BA 51, 56 SV
RE 1, 11, 13, 17, 31, 35 PA
TL 18 PA
Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. (Kuthiraivaali) WP 23 PA
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. (Kalatchi) TL 21 PA
Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. (Thuwarai) RO 46 PA
Cassia stula L. (Kondrai) BA 10, 43 PA
BA 25, 49 SV
LE 11 PA
RO 21 PA
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. (Vidaththal) TL 21 PA
Erythrina variegata L. (Murukku) LE 47 PA
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Athimathuram) RO 9, 44, 46, 47 PA
RO 51 SV
RO 57, 58, 59, 60 SA
Indigofera tinctoria L. (Avuri) LE 18 PA
Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms (Saampiraani) RE 55 SV
Pterocarpus santalinus L.f. (Senjchanthanam) WO 44, 46, 47 PA
Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. [syn. Cassia auriculata L.] (Aavaarai) BA 1, 8, 10, 13, 14, 19, 24, 35, 39, PA
43
BA 49 SV
BA 57 SA
FB 23 PA
FL 8, 10, 24, 38 PA
FL 57 SA
LE 8, 11, 23 PA
MR 51, 52 SV
RB 23 PA
RB 53 SV
RO 8, 10, 24, 29 PA
RO 51 SV
RO 57 SA
SE 1 PA
SE 10, 12, 17, 19, 29, 30, 31, 34, PA
36, 39, 40, 48
SE 57 SA
TL 1, 4, 5, 15, 18, 24 PA
TL 57 SA
UF 57 SA
UF 8, 10, 24, 38 PA
WP 20, 21, 34 PA
WP 55 SV
Senna sophera (L.) Roxb. [syn. Cassia sophera L.] (Ponnaavarai) MS 3 PA
Senna tora (L.) Roxb. [syn. Cassia tora L.] (Oosiththaharai) SE 44, 47 PA
Tamarindus indica L. (Puli) SE 1, 9, 11, 21, 34 PA
SE 54 SV
Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (Venthayam) SE 44, 46, 47 PA
SE 59 SA
Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper (Ulunthu) SE 2 PA
Hypoxidaceae
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Nilappanai) RH 9, 11, 29, 46 PA
Iridaceae
Crocus sativus L. (Kungkumam) SI 44, 47 PA
SI 58, 60 SA
Lamiaceae
Gmelina arborea Roxb. (Perungkumil) RO 27 PA
Gmelina asiatica L. (Nilakkumil) RO 46 PA

used
Plectranthus hadiensis (Forssk.) Schweinf. ex Sprenger [syn. Plectranthus za- (Iruveli) RO 44, 46, 47 PA
tarhendi var. tomentosus (Benth.) Codd]
Pogostemon heyneanus Benth. (Pachchilai) LE 44, 46, 47 PA
Rotheca serrata (L.) Steane & Mabb. [syn. Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon] (Siruthekku) RO 58, 60 SA
Vitex negundo L. (Nochchi) LE 47 PA
RO 44 PA
Lauraceae
Cinnamomum cappara-coronde Blume (Katpooram) RE 8, 9, 44, 47 PA
RE 60 SA
Cinnamomum verum J.Presl (Karuvaa) BA 46 PA
BA 59, 60 SA
Loganiaceae
Strychnos potatorum L.f. (Thetraan) SE 1, 11, 13, 14, 21, 23, 28, 29, 30, PA
33, 34, 35
SE 60 SA
Lythraceae
Punica granatum L. (Maathulai) FR 9, 45 PA
RO 35 PA
Magnoliaceae
Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre [syn. Michelia champaca L.] (Senpaham) FL 9, 44, 46 PA
FL 60 SA
Malvaceae
Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. (Thakkolam) SE 44, 46, 47 PA
Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet (Thuththi) RO 45 PA
SE 1 PA
Bombax ceiba L. (Mullilavu) BA 45 PA
RE 45 PA
Gossypium arboreum L. (Paruththi) SE 17, 23, 31 PA
Sida cordifolia L. (Sitraamatti) RO 44, 46, 47 PA
Sterculia foetida L. (Poothavirukkam) BA 46 PA
Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Corra (Poovarasu) BA 13 PA
RB 23 PA
Pavonia odorata Willd. (Peraamatti) RO 46 PA
Meliaceae
Azadirachta indica A.Juss. (Vembu) RE 1, 11, 34 PA
Menispermaceae
Cissampelos pareira L. (Malaithaangi) TL 4, 6 PA
WP 16, 25, 26, 29 PA
Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W.Theob. (Kattukkodi) LE 34 PA
Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr. (Maramanjal) ST 11, 34, 27, 29 PA
Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. [syn. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers] (Seenthil) ST 27, 44, 46, 47 PA
ST 57 SA
ST 59 SA
Molluginaceae
Mollugo cerviana (L.) Ser. (Patpadaaham) WP 46 PA
Moraceae
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. (Palaa) ML 47 PA
Ficus amplissima Sm. (Iththi) BA 14 PA

Ficus benghalensis L. (Aal) BA 14, 35 PA
RO 29 PA
Ficus racemosa L. (Aththi) BA 10, 13, 14, 43, 45, 46, PA
BA 49, 51 SV
LA 45 PA
Ficus religiosa L. (Arasu) BA 14 PA
Moringaceae
Moringa oleifera Lam. (Murungai) BA 20, 22, 28, 29, 30 PA
LE 44 PA
RE 1 PA
Musaceae
Musa paradisiaca L. [syn. Musa sapientum L.] (Vaalai) FR 39 PA
LE 18 PA
RH 9 PA
Myristicaceae
Myristica fragrans Houtt. (Saathikkaai) LE 1, 9, 44, 46, 47 PA
LE 57 SA
MA 8, 12, 44, 47 PA
MA 57, 58, 60 SA
MA 53, 55 SV
SE 1, 8, 9, 12, 44, 46, 47 PA
SE 57, 58, 59, 60 SA
SE 55 SV

used
Myrtaceae
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry (Karaambu) FB 8, 9, 12, 15, 44, 46, 47 PA
FB 58, 59, 60 SA
FB 55 SV
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Naaval) BA 34, 43 PA
BA 49, 51 SV
MB 50 SV
TL 21 PA
Nelumbonaceae
Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (Thaamarai) RC 44, 46, 47 PA
RH 9 PA
RH 51 SV
SE 57 SA
Nymphaeaceae
Nymphaea pubescens Willd. (Sengkaluneer) RH 10,43, 44, 46, 47 PA
RH 51 SV
Nyctaginaceae
Boerhavia diffusa L. (Mookkarattai) TL 5 PA
Orchidaceae
Nervilia concolor (Blume) Schltr. [syn. Nervilia aragoana Gaudich.] WP 59 SA
(Orilaiththaamarai)
Pandanaceae
Pandanus odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze [syn. Pandanus odoratissimus L.f.] (Thaalai) FL 44, 47 PA
Papaveraceae
Papaver somniferum L. (Abin) LA 12, 37, 39, 40 PA
LA 57, 58 SA
LA 55 SV
Pedaliaceae
Sesamum indicum L. (Ellu) MS 52 SV
RO 9 PA
SE 1, 5, 7, 18, 35, 39, 44, 46, 47 PA
Phyllanthaceae
Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. (Neerppoolaa) BA 14, 45 PA
TL 37 PA
Phyllanthus emblica L. (Nelli) FR 8, 13, 14, 19, 26, 28, 29, 30, PA
34, 39, 46
FR 51, 55 SV
RO 46 PA
Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. (Keelkaainelli) RO 45 PA
WP 46 PA
Pinaceae
Abies spectabilis (D.Don) Mirb. (Thaalisapaththiri) LE 9, 44 PA
Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don (Thevathaaru) WO 44, 46, 47 PA
WO 59, 60 SA
Piperaceae
Piper chuvya Hunter ex C.DC. (Sevviyam) RO 58 SA
RO 26 PA
Piper cubeba L.f. (Vaalmilahu) FR 58, 59, 60 SA
Piper longum L. (Thippili) FR 44, 45, 46 PA
FR 58, 60 SA
FR 56 SV
Piper nigrum L. (Milahu) FR 44, 45 PA
FR 60 SA
FR 53 SV
Plantaginaceae
Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiora (Pennell) D.Y.Hong (Kaduhurohini) RO 47 PA
[syn. Picrorhiza scrophulariiora Pennell]
RO 58, 60 SA
SE 44 PA
Plumbaginaceae
Plumbago zeylanica L. (Kodiveli) RB 11 PA
RO 26 PA
Poaceae
Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss (Moongil) LE 29 PA
Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty [syn. Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash] (Ilaamichchai) RO 44 PA
RO 9 PA
RO 46 PA
RO 47 PA
Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. (Kurakkan) SE 2, 3, 6 PA
Oryza sativa L. (Nel) SE 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 33 PA
SE 52 SV
Panicum antidotale Retz. (Kirumisaththuru) FR 58 SA
Panicum sumatrense Roth (Saamai) SE 2 PA

used
Paspalum scrobiculatum L. (Varahu) SE 2, 3 PA

Saccharum ofcinarum L. (Karumbu) ST 9, 45 PA
ST 51 SV
Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. (Perungkarumbai) ST 26 PA
Primulaceae
Embelia ribes Burm.f. SE 27 PA
(Vaaividangam)
Ranunculaceae
Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle (Athividayam) RO 8, 9 PA
RO 57, 59, 60 SA
RO 55 SV
Nigella sativa L. (Karunjcheeraham) SE 58, 60 SA
Rhamnaceae
Ziziphus rugosa Lam. (Thudari) TL 21 PA
Ziziphus jujuba Mill. (Ilanthai) LE 11 PA
TL 14 PA
Rubiaceae
Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng. (Marukkaarai) RO 27 PA
Gardenia crameri Tirveng. (Kambi) RE 45 PA
Rubia cordifolia L. (Manjitti) BU 46 PA
RO 44 PA
ST 44, 47 PA
Spermacoce hispida L. (Naththaichchoori) SE 59 SA
Rutaceae
Aegle marmelos (L.) Corra (Vilvai) BA 19 PA
RO 9, 44, 46, 47 PA
RO 60 SA
Limonia acidissima Groff (Vilaaththi) FR 9 PA
RE 1, 13, 14, 33, 34, 35, 45 PA
RO 30, 31 PA
Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. (Karivembu) LE 45 PA
ST 29 PA
RO 29 PA
Santalaceae
Santalum album L. (Santhanam) WO 8, 9, 10, 44, 46, 47 PA
WO 60 SA
WO 51 SV
Sapindaceae
Cardiospermum halicacabum L. WP 46 PA
(Mudakkoththaan)
Sapotaceae
Madhuca longifolia (J.Koenig ex L.) J.F.Macbr. (Iluppai) FL 1, 8 PA
FL 58 SA
Solanaceae
Datura metel L. (Oomaththai) SE 12 PA
SE 58 SA
SE 55 SV
Hyoscyamus reticulatus L. (Kurosaani SE 8, 12, 44, 47 PA
omam)
SE 57, 58 SA
Solanum erianthum D. Don (Karimulli) SE 9 PA
Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Amukkiraai) RH 46 PA
Symplocaceae
Symplocos racemosa Roxb. BA 27, 44 PA
(Velliloththiram)
Thymelaeaceae
Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. (Ahil) WO 44 PA
Violaceae
Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F.Muell. WP 46 PA
(Orithalththaamarai)
Xanthorrhoeaceae
Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (Katraalai) LE 10, 44, 47 PA
LE 51 SV
RO 53, 55 SV
Zingiberaceae
Alpinia calcarata (Haw.) Roscoe (Sitraraththai) RH 47 PA
RH 59, 60 SA
Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. (Peraraththai) RH 44 PA
RH 60 SA
Curcuma aromatica Salisb. (Kasththoori RH 11 PA
manjal)

used
Curcuma longa L. (Manjal) RH 13, 14, 28, 30 PA

Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton (Elam) FR 8, 9, 44, 46, 47 PA
FR 57, 58, 59, 60 SA
FR 55 SV
FR 47 PA
Kaempferia galanga L. (Kachcholam) RH 44, 47 PA
Zingiber ofcinale Roscoe (Inji) RH 35, 39, 40, 44, 45 PA
RH 58, 59, 60 SA
RH 51 SV
Zygophyllaceae
Tribulus terrestris L. (Nerunjchil) WP 46 PA
RO 26 PA
Part used
BA: bark, BU: bulb, FL: ower, FB: ower bud, FR: fruit, HE: heartwood, GA: gall, LA: latex, LE: leaf, MA: mace/aril, MB: mature bark, ML:
mature leaf, MR: mature root, MS: mature seed, RB: root bark, RC: receptacle, RE: resin, RH: rhizome, RO: root, SE: seed, SI: stigma, ST: stem,
TL: tender leaf, UF: unripe fruit, WO: wood, WP: whole plant (Table A1)
Preparation
1: Kaanthakkulihai; 2, 3: Thavidu; 4, 5, 6, 7: Pittu; 8: Elaathichchooranam; 9:

Elaathichchancheevichchooranam; 10: - Periya kulihai; 11: Mehanaathakkulihai;
12: - Kapaada Sinthaamanikkulihai; 13: Ayakkaanthakkulihai; 14:
Suravappidippaanundai; 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24: - Salakkalichchalpalavukkum kaimarunthu; 25,
26, 27, 28, 29, 49, 50, 51: Kudineer; 30: Kaanthaayakkulihai; 31: Vellaikkun-
drimanikkulihai; 32: - Kaareeya sinthooram; 33: Manosilaikkulihai; 34: Thir-
ilohavadaham; 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42: Piramehakkulihai; 43: - Naaval ney; 44:
Santhanaathiyennai; 45: - Vachchirasinthaamani irasaayanam; 46: Pir-
amehachchanthanaathiyennai; 47: Neerilivuchchanthanaathiyennai; 48: Kaanthar-
asakkulihai; 52, 53: Thool; 54: - Neerilivukku vangasenthooram; 55: - Pir-
ameha neerilivukku Vettumaaran thool; 56: - Neerilivukku vanga senthooram; 57: - Amuthu
Sarkkaraichchooranam; 58: - Nantheesura Sinthaamani; 59: - Pooranachchanthiraathi Maath-
thirai; 60: - Miruththa Sanjeevini Maaththirai.
Source
PA: Pararasaseharam (Fifth Part) ( ( ) - Pararaasaseharam (Ainthaam Paaham) (Anonymous, 2003), SV: Se-
haraasasehara Treatment ( - Seharaasasehara Vaiththiyam) (Anonymous, 2000), SA: Siddha Medicinal Procedure
( - Siththa Audatha Seimurai) (Ponniah and Sabapathipillai, 1980).
Appendix B. Antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations (often different types are included under the same name)
1. Pararasaseharam (Fifth Part) ( ( ) Pararaasaseharam (Ainthaam Paaham))
Refer to 3.4. Antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations sources for detailed information about this historical source. This source
contains 48 antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations and the information of ingredient, amount, method, and dosage of each preparation
are presented below.
1. Kaanthakkulihai (p. 10)
Ingredients
Family Scientic/English name Processed botanical drug Amount
Acanthaceae Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine Whole plant 5g

Arecaceae Borassus abellifer L. Fruit juice As required
Asteraceae Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Whole plant juice As required
Bignoniaceae Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz Resin 5g
Celastraceae Salacia reticulata Wight Bark 5g
Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus L. Rhizome 5g
Fabaceae Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Resin 5g
Fabaceae Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Resin 5g
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Seed 5g
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Tender leaf 5g
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Bark 5g
Fabaceae Tamarindus indica L. Seed 5g
Loganiaceae Strychnos potatorum L.f. Seed 5g
Malvaceae Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Seed 5g
Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Resin 5g
Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam. Resin 5g
Myristicaceae Myristica fragrans Houtt. Seed 5g
Myristicaceae Myristica fragrans Houtt. Leaf 5g
Pedaliaceae Sesamum indicum L. Seed 5g
Rutaceae Limonia acidissima Groff Resin 5g
Sapotaceae Madhuca longifolia (J.Koenig ex L.) J.F.Macbr. Flower juice As required
NA Beryl NA 5g
NA Bitumen NA 5g
NA Buffalo curd NA 5g
NA Cinnabar NA 5g
NA Magnetite NA 5g
NA Mercury NA 5g
NA Puried graphite NA 5g
NA Roche alum NA 5g
NA Rose water NA As required
Method
Pulverise or scrape or press or crush all the ingredients separately where applicable.
Mix all the other ingredients except Borassus abellifer fruit juice, Madhuca longifolia ower juice, rose water, Eclipta prostrata whole
plant juice, and buffalo curd together.
Grind this mixture while adding Borassus abellifer followed by Madhuca longifolia ower juice, rose water, Eclipta prostrata whole plant
juice, and buffalo curd. Then make Strychnos potatorum L.f. (Loganiaceae) seed size tablets and dry them.
Dosage: 1 tablet morning and night after meals
2. Thavidu (p. 28)
Ingredients
Fabaceae Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper Seed Equal amount

Poaceae Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. Seed Equal amount
Poaceae Oryza sativa L. Seed Equal amount

Poaceae Panicum sumatrense Roth Seed Equal amount
Poaceae Paspalum scrobiculatum L. Seed Equal amount
Method
Pulverise all the ingredients separately into powder and mix them together. Open dry roast the mixture while stirring.
Dosage: 1 table spoon 3 times a day after meals
3. Thavidu (p. 28)
Ingredients
Fabaceae Senna sophera (L.) Roxb. Mature seed Equal amount

Poaceae Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. Seed Equal amount
Poaceae Paspalum scrobiculatum L. Seed Equal amount
Method
Pulverise all the ingredients separately into powder and mix them together. Open dry roast the mixture while stirring.
Dosage: 1 table spoon 3 times a day after meals
4. - Pittu (p. 29)
Ingredients
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Tender leaf Equal amount

Menispermaceae Cissampelos pareira L. Tender leaf Equal amount
Poaceae Oryza sativa L. Open dry roasted seed our Equal amount
Method
Mix tender leaves ofCissampelos pareira and Senna auriculata together and add to open dry roasted rice our. Then add hot water to the
mixture and stir it to make small chunks. Open steam the mixture until observing the steam passing through it.
Dosage: Consume as food as required once a day either morning or night
5. - Pittu (p. 29)
Ingredients
Family Scientic / English name Processed botanical drug Amount
Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia diffusa L. Tender leaf Equal amount

Pedaliaceae Sesamum indicum L. Seed oil cake Equal amount
Method
Mix Boerhavia diffusa tender leaf and sesame oil cake together and add to open roasted rice our. Then add hot water to the mixture and
stir it to make small chunks. Open steam the mixture until observing the steam passing through it.
6. - Pittu (p. 29)
Ingredients

Menispermaceae Cissampelos pareira L. Tender leaf Equal amount
Poaceae Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. Open dry roasted seed our Equal amount
Method
Mix open roasted rice our and Eleusine coracana seed our together and add tender leaves of Senna auriculata and Cissampelos pareira to
it. Then add hot water to the mixture and stir it to make small chunks. Open steam the mixture until observing the steam passing through it.
7. - Pittu (p. 29)
Ingredients
Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus L. Rhizome our Equal amount

Pedaliaceae Sesamum indicum L. Puffed seed Equal amount
Method
Mix Cyperus rotundus rhizome our and Sesamum indicum seed puff together and add to open roasted rice our. Then add hot water to
the mixture and stir it to make small chunks. Open steam the mixture until observing the steam passing through it.
8. Elaathichchooranam (p. 33)
Ingredients
Apiaceae Cuminum cyminum L. Dried fruit Equal amount

Apiaceae Trachyspermum roxburghianum (DC.) H. Wolff Dried fruit Equal amount
Apocynaceae Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex Schult. Root Equal amount
Arecaceae Phoenix dactylifera L. Fruit Equal amount
Asteraceae Aucklandia lappa DC. Root Equal amount
Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus L. Rhizome Equal amount
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Leaf Equal amount
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Flower Equal amount
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Unripe fruit Equal amount
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Root Equal amount

Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Bark Equal amount
Lauraceae Cinnamomum cappara-coronde Blume Resin Equal amount
Myristicaceae Myristica fragrans Houtt. Mace Equal amount
Myristicaceae Myristica fragrans Houtt. Seed Equal amount
Myrtaceae Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry Flower bud Equal amount
Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus emblica L. Fruit Equal amount
Ranunculaceae Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle Root Equal amount
Santalaceae Santalum album L. Wood Equal amount
Sapotaceae Madhuca longifolia (J.Koenig ex L.) J.F.Macbr. Flower Equal amount
Solanaceae Hyoscyamus reticulatus L. Seed Equal amount
Zingiberaceae Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton Dried fruit Equal amount
NA Dried cow gallstone NA Equal amount
NA Male deer musk NA Equal amount
Method
Sundry all the ingredients and pulverise or scrape or press or crush all the ingredients separately where applicable. Mix all the in-
gredients together and sift the mixture.
Dosage: 265 mg 3 times a day after meals
9. - Elaathichchancheevichchooranam (p. 34)
Ingredients
Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. Fruit 5g

Anacardiaceae Rhus succedanea L. Gall 5g
Apiaceae Cuminum cyminum L. Dried fruit 5g
Apiaceae Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Dried fruit 5g
Arecaceae Areca catechu L. Resin 5g
Arecaceae Areca catechu L. Seed 5g
Arecaceae Phoenix dactylifera L. Fruit 5g
Asparagaceae Asparagus racemosus Willd. Tuber 5g
Asteraceae Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) Lag. Root 5g
Asteraceae Aucklandia lappa DC. Root 5g
Combretaceae Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Fruit pulp 5g
Combretaceae Terminalia chebula Retz. Seed 5g
Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus L. Rhizome 5g
Fabaceae Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Root 5g
Fabaceae Tamarindus indica L. Seed 5g
Hypoxidaceae Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Tuber 5g
Lauraceae Cinnamomum cappara-coronde Blume Resin 5g
Lythraceae Punica granatum L. Fruit 5g
Magnoliaceae Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre Flower 5g
Musaceae Musa paradisiaca L. Rhizome 5g
Myristicaceae Myristica fragrans Houtt. Leaf 5g
Myrtaceae Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry Flower bud 5g
Nelumbonaceae Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Rhizome 5g
Pedaliaceae Sesamum indicum L. Root 5g
Pinaceae Abies spectabilis (D.Don) Mirb. Leaf 5g
Poaceae Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty Root 5g
Poaceae Saccharum ofcinarum L. jaggery NA 65 g
Ranunculaceae Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle Root 5g
Rutaceae Aegle marmelos (L.) Corra Root 5g
Rutaceae Limonia acidissima Groff Fruit 5g
Santalaceae Santalum album L. Wood 5g
Solanaceae Solanum erianthum D. Don Seed 5g
Zingiberaceae Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton Dried fruit 5g
NA Asbestos NA 5 g
NA Dried cow gallstone NA 5 g
NA Male deer musk NA 5 g
NA Roche alum NA 5 g
Method
Pulverise or scrape or press or crush all the ingredients separately where applicable. Mix all the ingredients together and add Saccharum
ofcinarum jaggery (one third of the amount of powder) to the mixture. Preserve it.
10. - Periya kulihai (p. 40)
Ingredients
Acoraceae Acorus calamus L. Rhizome 30 g

Arecaceae Cocos nucifera L. Flower 30 g
Arecaceae Phoenix pusilla Gaertn. Flower 30 g
Asteraceae Aucklandia lappa DC. Root 30 g
Celastraceae Salacia reticulata Wight Bark 30 g
Fabaceae Abrus precatorius L. Root 30 g
Fabaceae Cassia stula L. Bark 30 g
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Bark 30 g
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Flower 30 g
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Root 30 g
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Seed 30 g
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Unripe fruit 30 g
Moraceae Ficus racemosa L. Bark 30 g
Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea pubescens Willd. Rhizome 30 g
Santalaceae Santalum album L. Wood 30 g
Xanthorrhoeaceae Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Dried pulp of leaf 30 g
NA Gold NA 30 g
NA Mica NA 30 g
NA Pearl NA 30 g
NA Red coral NA 30 g
NA Reservior water NA As required
Method
Pulverise or press or scrape or crush all the ingredients separately where applicable. Mix mica, roche alum, dried cow gallstone, pearl,
red coral, gold, Nymphaea pubescens rhizome, roots of Aucklandia lappa, Abrus precatorius and Senna auriculata, Aloe vera dried pulp of leaf,
Santalum album wood, owers of Phoenix pusilla, Cocos nucifera, and Senna auriculata, seed and unripen fruit of Senna auriculata, barks of
Senna auriculata and Salacia reticulata together.
Then mix Ficus racemosa bark and Acorus calamus rhizome together and pour reservoir water. Boil and lter it.
Grind previously prepared mixture while adding the decoction for three days. Finally make Ficus racemosa L. (Moraceae) fruit size tablets
and shade dry.
Dosage: 1 tablet twice a day after meals

11. Mehanaathakkulihai (p. 41)
Ingredients
Anacardiaceae Rhus succedanea L. Gall 5g

Fabaceae Abrus precatorius L. Seed 5g
Fabaceae Acacia chundra (Rottler) Willd. Resin 10 g
Fabaceae Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Resin 10 g
Fabaceae Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Resin 10 g
Fabaceae Cassia stula L. Leaf juice As required
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Leaf juice As required
Fabaceae Tamarindus indica L. Seed outer skin 5g
Hypoxidaceae Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Rhizome 10 g
Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Resin 10 g
Menispermaceae Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr. Stem 10 g
Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zeylanica L. Root bark 10 g
Rhamnaceae Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Leaf juice As required
Zingiberaceae Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Rhizome 10 g
NA Black tin powder NA 30 g
NA Gypsum NA 10 g
NA Mercury calx NA 10 g
NA Mica NA 20 g
NA Puried sulfur and arsenic NA 50 g
Method
Pulverise or press or scrape or crush all the ingredients separately where applicable.
Mix mica, mercury calx, gypsum, black tin red powder, puried sulphur and arsenic, resins of Acacia chundra, A. leucophloea, A. nilotica,
and Azadirachta indica, Coscinium fenestratum stem, Plumbago zeylanica root bark, rhizomes of Curcuma aromatica and Curculigo orchioides,
Cocos nucifera ower, Tamarindus indica seed outer skin, seeds of Abrus precatorius and Strychnos potatorum, and Rhus succedanea gall
together and grind the mixture with Senna auriculata leaf juice for 3 days. Then grind with leaf juices of Ziziphus jujuba and Cassia stula
each per 3 days and make Strychnos potatorum seed size tablets. Shade dry them.
12. - Kapaada Sinthaamanikkulihai (p. 42)
Ingredients
Arecaceae Areca catechu L. Resin 5g

Myristicaceae Myristica fragrans Houtt. Mace 5g
Papaveraceae Papaver somniferum L. Latex 2.5 g
Solanaceae Datura metel L. Seed 2.5 g
Solanaceae Hyoscyamus reticulatus L. Seed 5g
NA Asbestos NA 5g
NA Beryl NA 5g
NA Buffalo buttermilk NA 10 ml
NA Cinnabar NA 5g
NA Magnetite NA 5g
NA Roche alum NA 5g
Method
Pulverise or press or scrape or crush all the ingredients separately where applicable.
Mix all the other ingredients together except Senna auriculata seed and buffalo whey together. Lightly open dry roast Senna auriculata
seed while stirring and add to the mixture. Grind the mixture while adding buffalo curd and make Solanum torvum Sw. (Solanaceae) fruit
size tablets. Then shade dry them.
Dosage: 1 tablet twice a day after meals for 40 days
13. - Ayakkaanthakkulihai (pp. 42, 43)
Ingredients
Anacardiaceae Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. Bark 400 g

Combretaceae Terminalia chebula Retz. Fruit pulp Equal amount
Erythroxylaceae Erythroxylum monogynum Roxb. Bark 400 g
Fabaceae Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Bark 400 g
Fabaceae Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Bark 400 g
Fabaceae Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Resin Equal amount
Loganiaceae Strychnos potatorum L.f. Seed Equal amount
Malvaceae Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Corra Bark 400 g
Rutaceae Limonia acidissima Groff Resin Equal amount
Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa L. Rhizome Equal amount
NA Graphite NA Equal amount
NA Iron NA Equal amount
NA Magnetite NA Equal amount
NA Mercury NA Equal amount
NA Mica NA Equal amount
NA Water NA 4800 ml
Method
Mix graphite and mercury together and melt the mixture. Then crush it.
Pulverise or press or scrape or crush all the other ingredients separately where applicable.
Mix crushed molten graphite and mercury mixture, iron, magnetite, mica, Terminalia chebula fruit pulp, Phyllanthus emblica fruit,
Strychnos potatorum seed, Curcuma longa rhizome, resins of Acacia nilotica and Limonia acidissima together.
Mix barks of Ficus racemose, Senna auriculata, Salacia reticulata, Acacia nilotica, A. leucophloea, Lannea coromandelica, Thespesia populnea
and Erythroxylum monogynum together. Pour water and boil it for 8 days.
Grind previously prepared mixture while adding the decoction and make Areca catechu L. (Arecaceae) seed size (5 g) tablets. Shade dry
and crush them into powder.
14. Suravappidippaanundai (p. 12)
Ingredients

Combretaceae Terminalia chebula Retz. Fruit 400 g
Combretaceae Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Fruit 400 g
Fabaceae Abrus precatorius L. Seed 50 g
Loganiaceae Strychnos potatorum L.f. Outer skin removed seed 50 g

Moraceae Ficus benghalensis L. Bark 3200 g
Moraceae Ficus religiosa L. Bark 3200 g
Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. Bark 160 g
Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus emblica L. Fruit 400 g
Rhamnaceae Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Tender leaf 80 g
Rutaceae Limonia acidissima Groff Resin 200 g
Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa L. Rhizome 50 g
Moraceae Ficus amplissima Sm. Bark 3200 g
NA Cow urine NA 50 g
NA Graphite NA 50 g
NA Human colostrum / foremilk NA 50 g
NA Water NA 9600 ml
NA Water NA 4800 ml
NA Magnetite NA 50 g
Method
Pulverise or scrape or press or crush all the ingredients separately where applicable. Mix barks of Ficus racemosa L., Ficus amplissima,
Ficus benghalensis, and Ficus religiosa, Senna auriculata, Salacia reticulata, and Phyllanthus reticulatus and Ziziphus jujuba tender leaf and pour
9600 ml water into the mixture. Then boil until reaching one eight of the initial volume.
Mix Terminalia chebula, fruits of Phyllanthus emblica, and Terminalia bellirica together and pour 4800 ml water into the mixture and boil
until reaching one fourth of the initial volume. Add this decoction to previously prepared decoction and stir it. Then boil the decoction
mixture and lter it.
Grind graphite with human colostrum. Pour cow urine to magnetite and boil it thoroughly. Mix ground graphite, boiled magnetite,
Curcuma longa rhizome and seeds of Abrus precatorius, and Strychnos potatorum together and grind with previously prepared decoction mix.
Then boil and add Limonia acidissima resin. Boil it again and make 5 g tablets. Finally shade dry them.
15. - Salakkalichchalpalavukkum kaimarunthu (p. 27)
Ingredients
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Tender leaf Half handful

Myrtaceae Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry Flower bud 5
Method
Pulverise all the ingredients separately and mix them together. Pour buffalo buttermilk into a clay pot and cover the pot mouth with a
piece of cotton cloth. Place the ground mixture on the cloth and cover by placing another clay pot upside down on top of the pot with
buttermilk. Then boil it. Finally grind the mixture with boiled buffalo buttermilk.
Dosage: 10 ml twice a day after meals for 21 days
Ingredients
Family Scientic/ English name Processed botanical drug Amount
Menispermaceae Cissampelos pareira L. Whole plant As required

Method
Shade dry and pulverise Cissampelos pareira whole plant.
Dosage: As required 3 times a day after meals
Ingredients
Fabaceae Abrus precatorius L. Seed 5g

Fabaceae Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Resin 20 g
Malvaceae Gossypium arboreum L. Seed 15 g
NA Buffalo buttermilk NA As required
Method
Pulverise all the ingredients separately and mix them together. Then grind the mixture with buffalo buttermilk.
Dosage: As required twice a day after meals
Ingredients
Fabaceae Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Tender leaf Equal amount

Fabaceae Indigofera tinctoria L. Leaf Equal amount
Musaceae Musa paradisiaca L. Leaf Equal amount
Pedaliaceae Sesamum indicum L. oil NA Equal amount
NA Magnetite NA As required
Method
Pulverise or press or crush all the other ingredients separately where applicable except Musa paradisiaca leaf. Then mix them to-
gether. Wrap the mixture in a Musa paradisiaca leaf and burn it in dried Oryza sativa L. (Poaceae) husk. Then grind it with sesame oil.
Ingredients
Combretaceae Terminalia chebula Retz. Dried fruit Equal amount

Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Seed Equal amount
Rutaceae Aegle marmelos (L.) Corra Bark Equal amount
Method
Pulverise all the other ingredients separately except Phyllanthus emblica fruit and mix them together. Pour buffalo buttermilk into
Phyllanthus emblica fruit and macerate overnight. Then press all Phyllanthus emblica fruits and pour the solution into previously prepared
powder. Dissolve it.
Dosage: As required twice a day before meals
Ingredients
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Whole plant Equal amount

Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam. Bark Equal amount
NA Honey NA Equal amount
Method
Grind both ingredients separately and mix them together. Grind the mixture with honey.
Ingredients
Convolvulaceae Rivea ornata Choisy Tender leaf Equal amount

Fabaceae Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. Tender leaf Equal amount
Fabaceae Cassia stula L. Root Equal amount
Fabaceae Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. Tender leaf Equal amount
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Whole plant Equal amount
Fabaceae Tamarindus indica L. Seed juice Equal amount
Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Tender leaf Equal amount
Rhamnaceae Ziziphus rugosa Lam. Tender leaf Equal amount
NA Roche alum NA Equal amount
Method
Pulverise or scrape or press or crush all the ingredients separately where applicable. Then mix them together and grind the mixture.
Ingredients
Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam. Bark As required

NA Honey NA As required
Method
Pulverise Moringa oleifera bark and grind with honey.
23. - Salakkalichchalpalavukkum kaimarunthu (pp. 27, 28)
Ingredients
Fabaceae Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. Whole plant Half handful

Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Flower bud Half handful
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Leaf Half handful
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Root bark Half handful
Loganiaceae Strychnos potatorum L.f. Seed One quater handful
Malvaceae Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Corra Mature root bark Half handful
Malvaceae Gossypium arboreum L. Seed One quatar handful
Method
Pulverise or press all the ingredients separately where applicable. Then mix them together and grind the mixture.
Dosage: Lemon size 3 times a day after meals
Ingredients

Method
Pulverise all the ingredients separately and mix them together.
25. Kudineer (p. 30)
Ingredients
Fabaceae Acacia chundra (Rottler) Willd. Bark Equal amount

Fabaceae Cassia stula L. Bark Equal amount
Menispermaceae Cissampelos pareira L. Whole plant Equal amount
NA Water NA As required
Method
Mix all the ingredients and pour water into the mixture. Boil it until reaching one eighth of the initial volume.
Ingredients
Combretaceae Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Fruit Equal amount

Combretaceae Terminalia chebula Retz. Fruit Equal amount
Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus L. Root Equal amount
Piperaceae Piper chuvya Hunter ex C.DC. Root Equal amount
Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zeylanica L. Root Equal amount
Poaceae Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. Stem Equal amount
Zygophyllaceae Tribulus terrestris L. Root Equal amount
Method
Mix all the ingredients and pour water into the mixture. Boil the mixture.
Ingredients

Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus L. Rhizome Equal amount
Fabaceae Acacia chundra (Rottler) Willd. Root Equal amount
Lamiaceae Gmelina arborea Roxb. Root Equal amount
Menispermaceae Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr. Stem Equal amount
Menispermaceae Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Stem Equal amount
Primulaceae Embelia ribes Burm.f. Seed Equal amount
Rubiaceae Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng. Root Equal amount
Symplocaceae Symplocos racemosa Roxb. Bark Equal amount
Method

Ingredients

Loganiaceae Strychnos potatorum L.f. Seed 40 g
Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam. Bark 160 g
Method
Mix all the ingredients and pour water into the mixture. Boil it until reaching one eighth of the initial volume.
Ingredients
Celastraceae Salacia reticulata Wight Bark Equal amount

Combretaceae Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Fruit Equal amount
Fabaceae Acacia chundra (Rottler) Willd. Heartwood Equal amount
Hypoxidaceae Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Rhizome Equal amount
Menispermaceae Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr. Stem Equal amount
Moraceae Ficus benghalensis L. Root Equal amount
Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam. Bark Total amount of all the other ingredients
Poaceae Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss Leaf Equal amount
Rutaceae Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. Stem Equal amount
Rutaceae Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. Root Equal amount
Method
Dosage: As required twice a day before meals for 7 days
30. Kaanthaayakkulihai
Ingredients


Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam. Bark 50 g
Rutaceae Limonia acidissima Groff Root 25 g
NA Graphite NA 80 g
Method
Mix fruits of Terminalia chebula, Phyllanthus emblica, and Terminalia bellirica and pour water into the mixture. Then boil it. Pulverise or
crush all the other ingredients separately where applicable. Then mix them and grind with previously prepared decoction. Finally make 244
g size tablets.
31. Vellaikkundrimanikkulihai (p. 37)
Ingredients

Fabaceae Abrus precatorius L. Seed Equal amount
Fabaceae Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Resin Equal amount
Malvaceae Gossypium arboreum L. Seed Equal amount
Rutaceae Limonia acidissima Groff Root Equal amount
NA Magnetite NA Equal amount
Method
Pulverise Terminalia chebula fruit and pour water into it. Then boil it.
Open dry roast all the other ingredients separately while stirring. Pulverise or crush all the ingredients separately where applicable. Then
mix and grind with previously prepared decoction. Make 244 g size tablets.
32. - Kaareeya sinthooram (p. 38)
Ingredients
Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera L. Whole plant 160 g

NA Puried graphite NA 160 g
Method
Pulverise both ingredients separately and mix. Then open dry roast the mixture while stirring until turning into red.

33. Manosilaikkulihai (p. 37)
Ingredients

Poaceae Oryza sativa L. Seed macerated water As required
Poaceae Oryza sativa L. Seed As required
NA Graphite NA 80 g
NA Mercury NA 10 g
NA Red arsenic NA 45 g
Method
Pulverise or crush all the ingredients except mercury separately where applicable. Then mix. Place the mixture as a heap on a cotton
cloth and dig a hole on the middle of the heap (from the peak of the heap). Then pour mercury into the hole and wrap the mixture with the
cloth. Tie it and macerate in Oryza sativa (rice) washed water for 4 days. On the fourth day grind the macerated mixture with Oryza sativa
seed macerated water and make Abrus precatorius L. (Fabaceae) seed size (125 mg) tablets. Finally shade dry them.
Dosage: I tablet twice a day after meals
34. Thirilohavadaham (p. 39)
Ingredients

Combretaceae Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn. Bark 4000 g
Fabaceae Acacia chundra (Rottler) Willd. Resin 40 g
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Whole plant 4000 g
Fabaceae Tamarindus indica L. Seed juice 40 g
Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Resin 40 g
Menispermaceae Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W.Theob. Leaf 4000 g
Menispermaceae Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr. Stem outer skin 40 g
Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Bark 4000 g
NA Iron NA 40 g
NA Mercury NA 40 g
NA Water NA 115.2 l
Method
Mix Senna auriculata whole plant, barks of Salacia reticulata, Syzygium cumini, Acacia nilotica, and Terminalia arjuna, and Cocculus hirsutus
leaf and pour water into the mixture. Then boil it until reaching to one eighth of initial volume and lter.
Pulverise or press or crush iron, magnetite, mercury, Coscinium fenestratum stem outer skin, Tamarindus indica seed juice, resins of
Limonia acidissima, Azadirachta indica, and Acacia chundra, seeds of Strychnos potatorum and Senna auriculata, Terminalia bellirica and
Phyllanthus emblica separately where applicable. Then mix them and grind the mixture with previously prepared decoction. Then boil the
mixture and after cooled make Areca catechu L. (Arecaceae) seed size tablets. Finally shade dry them.

35. Piramehakkulihai (pp. 37, 38)
Ingredients
Arecaceae Phoenix pusilla Gaertn. Unripe fruit 80 g

Burseraceae Commiphora mukul (Hook. ex Stocks) Engl. Resin As required
Convolvulaceae Rivea ornata Choisy Seed As required
Fabaceae Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Resin As required
Loganiaceae Strychnos potatorum L.f. Seed As required
Lythraceae Punica granatum L. Root 80 g
Moraceae Ficus benghalensis L. Bark 80 g
Pedaliaceae Sesamum indicum L. Seed As required
Rutaceae Limonia acidissima Groff Resin As required
Zingiberaceae Zingiber ofcinale Roscoe Rhizome 80 g
NA Graphite NA As required
NA Iron powder NA As required
NA Magnetite NA As required
NA Mercury NA As required
NA Red ochre NA As required
NA Stibnite NA As required
NA Sulfur NA As required
NA Zinc NA As required
Method
Pulverise or scrape or press or crush all the ingredients separately where applicable. Mix barks of Ficus benghalensis, Salacia reticulata,
Senna auriculata, and Terminalia arjuna, Punica granatum root, Phoenix pusilla unripe fruit, and Zingiber ofcinale and pour water into the
mixture. Then boil until reaching to one eighth of initial volume and lter.
Mix all the other ingredients together and grind the mixture with previously prepared decoction. Make Punica granatum L. (Lythraceae)
seed size tablets and shade dry them.
36. Piramehakkulihai (p. 38)
Ingredients
Arecaceae Cocos nucifera L. Unripe fruit 10

NA Graphite NA 8g
NA Magnetite NA 8g
NA Mercury NA 8g
NA Sulfur NA 8g
Method
Pulverise or scrape or press or crush all the other ingredients except buffalo buttermilk separately where applicable. Then mix them
together and grind it with buffalo buttermilk. Make tablets and macerate them in buffalo buttermilk.

Ingredients
Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia hirta L. Whole plant 1 Handful

Papaveraceae Papaver somniferum L. Latex 1952 g
Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. Tender leaf Size of a small coconut
Method
Mix Phyllanthus reticulatus tender leaf and Euphorbia hirta whole plant mix together and close steam using buffalo buttermilk instead of
water. Then add Papaver somniferum to it and grind the mixture. Then make Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. (Fabaceae) seed size tablets and
shade dry.
Ingredients
Boraginaceae Cordia dichotoma G.Forst. Bark Equal amount

NA Buttermilk NA As required
NA Cow milk NA As required
NA Graphite NA 20 g
NA Mercury NA 80 g
NA Mercury NA 20 g
NA Sulfur NA 80 g
Method
Pulverise or scrape or press or crush all the ingredients separately where applicable. Mix mercury (80 g), sulphur and Cordia dichotoma
bark and pour cow milk into the mixture. Then boil the mixture. Melt graphite and mix with mercury (20 g). Mix Senna auriculata ower
and unripe fruit together and close steam using buttermilk instead of water. Mix all three mixtures and grind with buffalo buttermilk. Make
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. (Fabaceae) seed size tablets. Finally shade dry.
Ingredients
Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia antiquorum L. Root 25 g

Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Firewood As required
Musaceae Musa paradisiaca L. Fruit Equal amount
Papaveraceae Papaver somniferum L. Latex Equal amount
Pedaliaceae Sesamum indicum L. oil Seed Equal amount

Zingiberaceae Zingiber ofcinale Roscoe Rhizome Equal amount
NA Honey NA Equal amount
NA Lead NA Equal amount
NA Water NA Equal amount
Method
Pulverise or scrape or press or crush all the ingredients separately where applicable. Mix magnetite, Phyllanthus emblica fruit, Euphorbia
antiquorum root, and Senna auriculata seed in a rusted (reddish-yellow hydrated ferric oxides) bowl and pour Sesamum indicum oil while
stirring. Then pour water (twice the amount of previously prepared mixture) into a clay pot and cover and tie a piece of cotton cloth on the
mouth of the pot. Then place the mixture on the cloth and cover and tie the mixture with another piece of cotton cloth. Cover the covered
mixture with another clay pot placing upside down and use Senna auriculata bark as rewood to boil the mixture until the whole water
evaporates. Preserve the mixture in an oily container.
Dosage: 5 g twice a day after meals
Ingredients
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Seed As required

Papaveraceae Papaver somniferum L. Latex Equal amount
Zingiberaceae Zingiber ofcinale Roscoe Rhizome Equal amount
NA Honey NA As required
NA Lead NA Equal amount
Method
Pulverise or scrape or press or crush all the ingredients separately where applicable. Melt lead and mix with all the other ingredients
together. Then grind the mixture while adding honey and make Solanum trilobatum L. (Solanaceae) fruit size tablets.
Ingredients
Scientic/English name Processed botanical drug Amount
Ant egg NA As required

Buffalo milk NA As required
Milk NA As required
Method
Press ant egg and dry thoroughly. Then grind it with buffalo milk and leave it for a day. Grind it with milk and shade dry the mixture.
Then grind and sift it.
Dosage: Oryza sativa L. (Poaceae) seed size 3 times a day

Ingredients
NA Ant egg NA As required

NA Orpiment NA As required
Method
Open dry roast ant egg and grind it. Then mix with puried arsenic trisulde and grind the mixture.
43. Naaval ney (pp. 44, 45)
Ingredients

Fabaceae Abrus precatorius L. Root 15 g
Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea pubescens Willd. Rhizome 5g
NA Ghee NA 600 ml
Method
Mix barks of Syzygium cumini, Ficus racemosa, Cassia stula, Senna auriculata, Salacia reticulata, and Acacia nilotica. Pour water to the
mixture. Boil and add ghee. Then boil it again.
Mix Nymphaea pubescens rhizome, roots of Aucklandia lappa and Abrus precatorius and roche alum and grind with previsouly prepared
mixture.
Dosage: Consume 5 g twice a day after meals
44. Santhanaathiyennai (pp. 50, 51)
Ingredients
Amaranthaceae Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. Whole plant 3600 ml

Apiaceae Trachyspermum roxburghianum (DC.) H. Wolff Dried fruit 30 g
Apocynaceae Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G.Don Seed 30 g
Arecaceae Cocos nucifera L. Fruit water 3600 ml
Asparagaceae Asparagus racemosus Willd. Rhizome juice 3600 ml
Calophyllaceae Mesua ferrea L. Flower 30 g
Capparaceae Cadaba fruticosa (L.) Druce Leaf 3600 ml
Caprifoliaceae Nardostachys jatamansi (D.Don) DC. Root 30 g
Cycadaceae Cycas circinalis L. Flower 30 g
Fabaceae Pterocarpus santalinus L.f. Wood 30 g

Fabaceae Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Seed 30 g
Fabaceae Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Seed 30 g
Iridaceae Crocus sativus L. Stigma As required
Lamiaceae Plectranthus hadiensis (Forssk.) Schweinf. ex Sprenger Root 30 g
Lamiaceae Pogostemon heyneanus Benth. Leaf 30 g
Lamiaceae Vitex negundo L. Root juice 3600 ml
Lauraceae Cinnamomum cappara-coronde Blume Resin As required
Leguminosae Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Root 30 g
Magnoliaceae Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre Flower 30 g
Malvaceae Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. Seed 30 g
Malvaceae Sida cordifolia L. Root 240 g
Menispermaceae Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Stem 240 g
Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam. Leaf juice 3600 ml
Myristicaceae Myristica fragrans Houtt. Leaf 30 g
Myristicaceae Myristica fragrans Houtt. Mace 30 g
Myristicaceae Myristica fragrans Houtt. Seed 30 g
Myrtaceae Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry Flower bud 30 g
Nelumbonaceae Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Receptacle 240 g
Pandanaceae Pandanus odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze Flower As required
Pedaliaceae Sesamum indicum L. oil NA 7200 ml
Pinaceae Abies spectabilis (D.Don) Mirb. Leaf 30 g
Pinaceae Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don Wood 30 g
Piperaceae Piper longum L. Dried fruit 30 g
Piperaceae Piper nigrum L. Dried fruit 30 g
Plantaginaceae Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiora (Pennell) D.Y.Hong Seed 30 g
Poaceae Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty Root 240 g
Rutaceae Aegle marmelos (L.) Corra Root 240 g
Solanaceae Hyoscyamus reticulatus L. Seed 30 g
Symplocaceae Symplocos racemosa Roxb. Bark 30 g
Thymelaeaceae Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. Wood 240 g
Xanthorrhoeaceae Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Leaf 3600 ml
Zingiberaceae Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton Dried fruit 30 g
Zingiberaceae Kaempferia galanga L. Rhizome 30 g
Zingiberaceae Zingiber ofcinale Roscoe Dried rhizome 30 g
Zingiberaceae Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. Rhizome 30 g
Rubiaceae Rubia cordifolia L. Root 30 g
Rubiaceae Rubia cordifolia L. Stem 30 g
NA Bitumen NA 30 g
NA Dried cow gallstone NA As required
NA Male deer musk NA As required
NA Stibnite NA 30 g
NA Water NA 4200 ml
Method
Mix woods of Aquilaria agallocha and Santalum album, Aegle marmelos root, Nelumbo nucifera receptacle, Tinospora sinensis stem juice,
roots of Sida cordifolia and Chrysopogon zizanioides together and pour water to the mixture. Boil and lter it.
Mix Myristica fragrans mace, rhizomes of Kaempferia galanga, Alpinia galanga, and Nymphaea pubescens, roots of Nardostachys jatamansi,
Plectranthus hadiensis, Rubia cordifolia, Glycyrrhiza glabra, and Aucklandia lappa, owers of Cycas circinalis, Mesua ferrea, and Magnolia
champaca, dried fruits of Elettaria cardamomum, Trachyspermum roxburghianum, Piper nigrum, and Piper longum, leaves of Pogostemon
heyneanus, Myristica fragrans, and Abies spectabilis, seeds of Abelmoschus moschatus, Holarrhena pubescens, Hyoscyamus reticulatus, Trigonella
foenum-graecum, Senna tora, Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiora, and Myristica fragrans, Rubia cordifolia stem, Symplocos racemosa bark, woods of
Cedrus deodara and Pterocarpus santalinus, Zingiber ofcinale dried rhizome, Syzygium aromaticum ower bud, bitumen, and stibnite to-
gether and mix this mixture with previously prepared decoction. Macerate it.
Then mix Alternanthera sessilis whole plant juice, Vitex negundo root juice, Asparagus racemosus rhizome juice, leaf juices of Aloe vera,
Moringa oleifera, and Cadaba fruticose and Cocos nucifera fruit water together and add this mixture and sesame oil to macerated mixture.
After that boil until reaching wax state and mix Pandanus odorifer ower, Crocus sativus stigma, Cinnamomum cappara-coronde resin,
dried cow gallstone and male deer musk together. Then add to the boiled mixture before it cooled.
Dosage: Apply as required all over the body including head once a day and have a shower.
45. - Vachchirasinthaamani irasaayanam (pp. 45, 46)
Ingredients
Anacardiaceae Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. Bark 400 g

Boraginaceae Cordia dichotoma G.Forst. Bark 400 g
Celastraceae Gymnosporia emarginata (Willd.) Thwaites Bark 400 g
Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia hirta L. Whole plant 400 g
Lythraceae Punica granatum L. Fruit juice 600 ml
Malvaceae Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Root 400 g
Malvaceae Bombax ceiba L. Bark 400 g
Malvaceae Bombax ceiba L. Resin 400 g
Moraceae Ficus racemosa L. Latex 400 g
Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. Root 400 g
Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. Bark 400 g
Piperaceae Piper nigrum L. Dried fruit powder 400 g
Poaceae Saccharum ofcinarum L. jaggery NA 200 g
Rubiaceae Gardenia crameri Tirveng. Resin 400 g
Rutaceae Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. Leaf 4000 g
Rutaceae Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. Leaf juice 2400 ml
Zingiberaceae Zingiber ofcinale Roscoe Dried rhizome 200 g
NA Bitumen NA 20 g
NA Honey NA 600 ml
NA Kerria lacca NA 400 g
NA Mercury NA 400 g
NA Mica NA 200 g
NA Water NA 230.4 l
Method
Mix mercury, barks of Ficus racemosa, Cordia dichotoma, Acacia nilotica, Salacia reticulata, Bombax ceiba, Terminalia arjuna, Gymnosporia
emarginata, Phyllanthus reticulatus, and Lannea coromandelica, roots of Phyllanthus amarus, Abutilon indicum, and Euphorbia hirta, resins of
Bombax ceiba, Limonia acidissima, Bauhinia variegata, and Gardenia crameri and Kerria lacca, Zingiber ofcinale dried rhizome, Piper longum
dried fruit, and Murraya koenigii leaf. Pour water into the mixture and boil.
Then pour Murraya koenigii leaf juice and Punica granatum fruit juice into the mixture. Add Piper nigrum dried fruit powder, bitumen,
mica, and Saccharum ofcinarum crushed jaggery. Pour honey and boil until reaching wax state.
Dosage: 1250 mg twice a day after meals for 40 days
46. Piramehachchanthanaathiyennai (pp. 51, 52)
Ingredients
Amaranthaceae Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. Whole plant 1 Handful

Apiaceae Cuminum cyminum L. Dried fruit 15 g
Apocynaceae Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex Schult. Root 1 Handful
Arecaceae Phoenix pusilla Gaertn. Flower 15 g
Asparagaceae Asparagus racemosus Willd. Rhizome juice 600 ml
Asteraceae Centipeda minima (L.) A.Braun & Asch. Whole plant 15 g
Asteraceae Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.Rob. Whole plant 1 Handful

Asteraceae Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Whole plant 1 Handful
Bignoniaceae Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC. Root 1 Handful
Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa L. Puried leaf 1 Handful
Celastraceae Salacia reticulata Wight macerated water Root 600 ml
Cyperaceae Cyperus mitis Steud. Rhizome 1 Handful
Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis L. Root 1 Handful
Fabaceae Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Root macerated water 600 ml
Fabaceae Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Root 15 g
Hypoxidaceae Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Rhizome 1 Handful
Lamiaceae Gmelina asiatica L. Root 1 Handful
Lauraceae Cinnamomum verum J.Presl Bark 15 g
Magnoliaceae Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre Flower 15 g
Malvaceae Pavonia odorata Willd. Root 1 Handful
Malvaceae Sida cordifolia L. Root 1 Handful
Malvaceae Sterculia foetida L. Bark 15 g
Menispermaceae Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Stem 1 Handful
Molluginaceae Mollugo cerviana (L.) Ser. Whole plant 1 Handful
Myrtaceae Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry Dried ower bud 15 g
Nelumbonaceae Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Receptacle juice 600 ml
Pedaliaceae Sesamum indicum L. oil Seed As required
Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. Whole plant 1 Handful
Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus emblica L. Fruit juice 600 ml
Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus emblica L. macerated water Root 600 ml
Rubiaceae Rubia cordifolia L. Bulb 15 g
Rutaceae Aegle marmelos (L.) Corra Root 1 Handful
Sapindaceae Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Whole plant 1 Handful
Solanaceae Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Rhizome 1 Handful
Violaceae Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F.Muell. Whole plant 1 Handful
Zygophyllaceae Tribulus terrestris L. Whole plant 1 Handful
NA Butter NA 15 g
NA Civet musk NA 30 g
NA Cow milk NA 600 ml
NA Kerria lacca macerated water NA 600 ml
NA Water NA 600 ml
Method
Mix woods of Santalum album, Cedrus deodara (160 g), and Pterocarpus santalinus and pour water into the mixture. Then boil the mixture.
Mix Phyllanthus emblica fruit juice, Cannabis sativa puried leaf, macerated water of Salacia reticulata, Phyllanthus emblica, (600 ml) and
Cajanus cajan, rhizomes of Cyperus mitis, Asparagus racemosus, Curculigo orchioides, and Withania somnifera, roots of Gmelina asiatica, Ricinus
communis, Sida cordifolia, Pavonia odorata, Hemidesmus indicus, Aegle marmelos, Stereospermum chelonoides, Plectranthus hadiensis, and
Chrysopogon zizanioides, Tinospora sinensis stem, whole plants of Phyllanthus amarus, Tribulus terrestris, Cardiospermum halicacabum, Mol-
lugo cerviana, Alternanthera sessilis, Cyanthillium cinereum, Hybanthus enneaspermus, and Eclipta prostrata, Nelumbo nucifera receptacle juice,
Phoenix pusilla fruit juice, Kerria lacca macerated water, and cow milk and pour water into the mixture. Then boil the mixture. Then mix this
decoction with previously prepared decoction and pour sesame oil.
After that mix barks of Sterculia foetida, Ficus racemosa, and Cinnamomum verum, Syzygium aromaticum bud, Rubia cordifolia bulb, dried
fruits of Cuminum cyminum, Elettaria cardamomum and Piper longum, owers of Mesua ferrea and Magnolia champaca, fruits of Phyllanthus
emblica (15 g), Terminalia chebula, and Terminalia bellirica leaves of Pogostemon heyneanus and Myristica fragrans, Nymphaea pubescens
rhizome, roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra, Nardostachys jatamansi , and Aucklandia lappa, seeds of Trigonella foenum-graecum, Holarrhena pub-
escens, Myristica fragrans, Abelmoschus moschatus, Centipeda minima whole plant, Cedrus deodara wood (15 g), and butter and add to the
decoction mixture. Grind and lter it. Finally sprinkle dried cow gallstone and civet musk and preserve.
Dosage: Apply as required all over the body (from head to toe) once a day and have a shower
47. Neerilivuchchanthanaathiyennai (pp. 54, 55, 56)
Ingredients
Amaranthaceae Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. Whole plant 240 g

Amaranthaceae Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. Leaf juice 3600 ml
Apocynaceae Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex Schult. Root 240 g
Arecaceae Cocos nucifera L. Tender fruit water 7200 ml
Asparagaceae Asparagus racemosus Willd. Rhizome 240 g
Asparagaceae Asparagus racemosus Willd. Leaf juice 3600 ml
Capparaceae Cadaba fruticosa (L.) Druce Leaf juice 3600 ml
Convolvulaceae Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. Leaf 30 g
Convolvulaceae Ipomoea littoralis Blume Leaf juice 3600 ml
Costaceae Cheilocostus speciosus (J.Koenig) C.D.Specht Root 30 g
Cucurbitaceae Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt Leaf juice 3600 ml
Cucurbitaceae Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.Roem. Leaf 30 g
Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus L. Rhizome 240 g
Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus L. Rhizome 30 g
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea robusta Gaertn Resin 30 g
Fabaceae Erythrina variegata L. Leaf juice 3600 ml
Fabaceae Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Seed 30 g
Iridaceae Crocus sativus L. Stigma 30 g
Iridaceae Crocus sativus L. Stigma As required
Lamiaceae Vitex negundo L. Leaf juice 3600 ml
Lauraceae Cinnamomum cappara-coronde Blume Resin As required
Malvaceae Sida cordifolia L. Root 240 g
Moraceae Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Mature leaf 30 g
Myrtaceae Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry Dried ower bud 30 g
Nelumbonaceae Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Receptacle 240 g
Pandanaceae Pandanus odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze Flower petal As required
Pedaliaceae Sesamum indicum L. oil Seed 7200 ml
Plantaginaceae Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiora (Pennell) D.Y.Hong Root 30 g
Rubiaceae Rubia cordifolia L. Stem 30 g
Rutaceae Aegle marmelos (L.) Corra Root 240 g

Xanthorrhoeaceae Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Leaf juice 3600 ml
Zingiberaceae Alpinia calcarata (Haw.) Roscoe Rhizome 30 g
Zingiberaceae Kaempferia galanga L. Rhizome 30 g
NA Bitumen NA 30 g
NA Civet musk NA 30 g
NA Cow milk NA 30 g
NA Male deer musk NA 30 g
Method
Mix roots of Sida cordifolia, Aucklandia lappa, Chrysopogon zizanioides (240 g), Aegle marmelos, and Hemidesmus indicus, rhizomes of
Asparagus racemosus and Cyperus rotundus (240 g), Santalum album wood (240 g), Alternanthera sessilis whole plant, Tinospora sinensis stem,
Nelumbo nucifera receptacle and pour water into the mixture. Boil until reaching one eighth of the initial volume.
Mix Cocos nucifera tender fruit water, Sesamum indicum oil, and leaf juices of Coccinia grandis, Ipomoea littoralis, Alternanthera sessilis,
Asparagus racemosus, Aloe vera, Cadaba fruticosa, Erythrina variegata, and Vitex negundo and pour into the previously prepared decoction.
Mix bitumen, Syzygium aromaticum dried ower bud, Elettaria cardamomum dried fruit, Mesua ferrea ower, leaves of Ipomoea aquatica,
Mukia maderaspatana, Myristica fragrans and Pogostemon heyneanus, Artocarpus heterophyllus mature leaf, Myristica fragrans mace, Shorea
robusta resin, rhizomes of Kaempferia galanga, Nymphaea pubescens, Alpinia calcarata, and Cyperus rotundus (30 g), roots of Chrysopogon
zizanioides (30 g), Nardostachys jatamansi, Cheilocostus speciosus, Plectranthus hadiensis, Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiora, and Glycyrrhiza
glabra, seeds of Myristica fragrans, Abelmoschus moschatus, Hyoscyamus reticulatus, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Holarrhena pubescens, and
Senna tora, Rubia cordifolia stem, Crocus sativus stigma (30 g), and woods of Santalum album (30 g), Cedrus deodara, and Pterocarpus san-
talinus and mix with previously prepared decoction.
Blend with cow milk until reaching mustard seed particle size and spread Pandanus odorifer ower petals over it. Then lter it.
Mix male deer musk, dried cow gallstone, and civet musk, Cinnamomum cappara-coronde resin, and Crocus sativus stigma and add to the
ltered mixture. Mix while stirring.
Dosage: Apply as required all over the body (from head to toe) once a day and have a shower
48. Kaantharasakkulihai (p. 36)
Ingredients

Arecaceae Cocos nucifera L. Unripe fruit 4
NA Mercury NA 80 g
Method
Mix all the other ingreadients except buffalo buttermilk. Then grind the mixture with buffalo buttermilk and make 244 g size tablets.
Finally shade dry.
2. Seharaasasehara treatment ( - Seharaasasehara Vaiththiyam)
See 3.4. Antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations sources for further information about this source. Seharaasasehara Treatment has
eight preparations used to treat diabetes in Sri Lankan Siddha Medicine. Details information of these preparations are described as follows.
49. - Kudineer (vs 25; p. 205)
Ingredients

Method
Macerate all the ingredients in water overnight and lter. Then boil it.
50. Kudineer (vss 30, 31; p. 205)
Ingredients
Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Mature bark 100 g

NA Reservoir water NA 1200 ml
Method
Pulverise Syzygium cumini mature bark and crush magnetite. Mix both of them together and pour reservoir water. Finally boil thoroghly
until the whole water evaporates.
51. Kudineer (vss 32, 33; p. 205)
Ingredients
Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. Fruit Equal amount

Arecaceae Areca catechu L. Seed Equal amount
Arecaceae Phoenix dactylifera L. Fruit Equal amount
Celastraceae Salacia reticulata Wight Bark Equal amount
Combretaceae Terminalia chebula Retz. Dried fruit Equal amount
Fabaceae Abrus precatorius L. Root Equal amount
Fabaceae Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Bark Equal amount
Fabaceae Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Root Equal amount
Moraceae Ficus racemosa L. Bark Equal amount
Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Bark Equal amount
Nelumbonaceae Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Rhizome Equal amount
Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea pubescens Willd. Rhizome Equal amount
Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus emblica L. Dried fruit Equal amount
Poaceae Saccharum ofcinarum L. jaggery NA As required

Santalaceae Santalum album L. Wood Equal amount
Xanthorrhoeaceae Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Dried leaf pulp Equal amount
Zingiberaceae Zingiber ofcinale Roscoe Dried rhizome Equal amount
Method
Mix all the ingredients together and pour water to the mixture. Then boil it.
52. Thool (vs 40; p. 205)
Ingredients
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Mature root Equal amount

Pedaliaceae Sesamum indicum L. Mature seed Equal amount
Method
Pulverise all the ingredients separately and mix them together.
53. Thool (vs 41; p. 207)
Ingredients
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Root bark 5g
Method
Pulverise Senna auriculata root.
54. - Neerilivukku vangasenthooram (vss 43, 44; pp. 207, 208)
Ingredients
Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia antiquorum L. Latex 5g

Fabaceae Tamarindus indica L. Seed skin 5g
NA Tin NA 5g
Method
Mix tin with Euphorbia antiquorum latex and melt it by heating. Grind Tamarindus indica seed skin and mix it with previously prepared
mixture. Place into a clay pot and place another clay pot (as a lid to cover the pot) on top the clay pot with mixtures. Place this set up in a
furnace and burn it. Once cooled the powder would appear as red.
Dosage: 1.25 mg twice a day after meals
55. - Pirameha neerilivukku Vettumaaran thool (vs 45; p. 208)
Ingredients

Apiaceae Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Dried fruit 5 g
Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa L. Puried leaf 5 g
Fabaceae Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms Resin 5 g
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Whole plant 5 g
Papaveraceae Papaver somniferum L. Latex 5 g
Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus emblica L. Dried fruit 5 g
Ranunculaceae Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle Root 5 g
Solanaceae Datura metel L. Seed 5 g
NA Bitumen NA 5 g
NA Magnetite NA 5 g
Method
Pulverise and sift all the ingredients separately. Then mix them together.
Dosage: 5 g three times a day after meals
56. - Neerilivukku vanga (vs 42; p. 207)
Ingredients
Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera L. Whole plant Equal amount

Fabaceae Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Bark Equal amount
Piperaceae Piper nigrum L. Dried fruit Equal amount
Xanthorrhoeaceae Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Root Equal amount
NA Tin NA Equal amount
Method
Mix tin and Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. root together and burn the mixture. Then pulverise all the other ingredients separately and mix them
together. Finally add previously burnt ash into this mixture and open dry roast while stirring.
3. - Siththa Audatha Seimurai Siddha Medicinal Procedure
Refer to 3.4. Antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations sources for detailed information about this modern source. This source contains
four anti-diabetic SL SM preparations.
57. ( ) - Amuthu Sarkkaraichchooranam (Ettuppirathi) (p. 14)
Ingredients

Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa L. Seed 6.25 g
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Flower 25 g
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Root 25 g
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Tender leaf 25 g
Fabaceae Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. Unripe fruit 25 g
Nelumbonaceae Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Seed 100
Papaveraceae Papaver somniferum L. Latex 6.25 g
Ranunculaceae Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle Root 25 g
NA Civet musk NA 6.25 g
NA Male deer musk NA 6.25 g
Method
Pulverise Senna auriculata bark, Syzygium aromaticum ower bud, dried fruits of Cuminum cyminum, Trachyspermum roxburghianum and
Elettaria cardamomum, Senna auriculata ower, Myristica fragrans leaf, Myristica fragrans mace, roots of Cheilocostus speciosus, Glycyrrhiza
glabra, Senna auriculata, and Aconitum heterophyllum, seeds of Senna auriculata, Myristica fragrans, Nelumbo nucifera, and Hyoscyamus re-
ticulatus, and tender leaf and unripen fruit of Senna auriculata separately and mix them together.
Then pulverise male deer musk, civet musk, Papaver somniferum resin, Cannabis sativa seed, and Tinospora sinensis stem together and
mix with previously prepared mixture. Finally grind the mixture.
Dosage: 125 250 g twice a day after meals
58. ( ) - Nantheesura Sinthaamani (Suthesa Vaithiya Audathaththirattu) (p. 20)
Ingredients
Amaryllidaceae Allium sativum L. Bulb 5 g

Apiaceae Anethum graveolens L. Seed 5 g
Apiaceae Ferula assa-foetida L. Resin 5 g
Asteraceae Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) Lag. Root 5 g
Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa L. Puried leaf 5 g
Celastraceae Celastrus paniculatus Willd. Seed 5 g
Iridaceae Crocus sativus L. Stigma 5 g
Lamiaceae Rotheca serrata (L.) Steane & Mabb. Root 5 g

Papaveraceae Papaver somniferum L. Puried latex 5g
Piperaceae Piper chuvya Hunter ex C.DC. Root 5g
Piperaceae Piper cubeba L.f. Fruit 5g
Piperaceae Piper longum L. Dried fruit 5g
Plantaginaceae Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiora (Pennell) D.Y.Hong Root 5g
Poaceae Panicum antidotale Retz. Dried fruit 5g
Ranunculaceae Nigella sativa L. Seed 5g
Sapotaceae Madhuca longifolia (J.Koenig ex L.) J.F.Macbr. Flower 5g
Solanaceae Datura metel L. Seed 5g
Zingiberaceae Zingiber ofcinale Roscoe Rhizome 5g
NA Puried Arsenic NA 5g
NA Puried borax NA 5g
NA Puried cinnabar NA 5g
NA Puried magnetite NA 5g
NA Rock salt NA 5g
Method
Pulverise or scrape or press or crack all the ingredients separately where applicable and mix them together. Finally open dry roast the
mixture seven times, while stirring.
59. ( ) - Pooranachchanthiraathi Maaththirai (Irupaalaichchettiyar Vaiththiya

Vilakkam) (p. 41)
Ingredients
Family Scientic/English name/English name Processed botanical drug Amount
Amaranthaceae Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. Leaf juice 500 ml

Apiaceae Cuminum cyminum L. Dried fruit 5g
Apocynaceae Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex Schult. Root bark 5g
Fabaceae Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Seed 5g
Lauraceae Cinnamomum verum J.Presl Bark 5g
Menispermaceae Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Stem juice 500 ml
Orchidaceae Nervilia concolor (Blume) Schltr. Whole plant 5g
Pinaceae Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don Wood 5g
Piperaceae Piper cubeba L.f. Dried fruit 5g
Rubiaceae Spermacoce hispida L. Seed 5g
Zingiberaceae Alpinia calcarata (Haw.) Roscoe Rhizome 5g
Zingiberaceae Zingiber ofcinale Roscoe Dried rhizome 5g
NA Beryl NA 80 g
NA Rhinoceros horn NA 160 g
Method
Pulverise or scrape or press or crack all the ingredients separately where applicable and mix them together except Tinospora sinensis
stem, Alternanthera sessilis leaf, and Hybanthus enneaspermus whole plant.
Grind the mixture with Tinospora sinensis stem juice for a day followed by Alternanthera sessilis leaf juice, and Hybanthus enneaspermus
whole plant juice each per day. Finally make Solanum trilobatum L. (Solanaceae) fruit size tablets and dry them.

60. ( ) - Miruththa Sanjeevini Maaththirai (Irupaalaichchettiyaar Vaiththiya
Vilakkam) (pp. 47, 48)
Ingredients
Acanthaceae Justicia adhatoda L. Root 60 g

Apiaceae Cuminum cyminum L. Seed 5g
Calophyllaceae Mesua ferrea L. Flower 5g
Combretaceae Terminalia chebula Retz. Seed 5g
Costaceae Cheilocostus speciosus (J.Koenig) C.D.Specht Root 5g
Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. Seed 5g
Iridaceae Crocus sativus L. Stigma 5g
Lamiaceae Rotheca serrata (L.) Steane & Mabb. Root 5g
Lauraceae Cinnamomum cappara-coronde Blume Resin 5g
Magnoliaceae Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre Flower 5g
Myristicaceae Myristica fragrans Houtt. Mace 5g
Pinaceae Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don Wood 5g
Piperaceae Piper cubeba L.f. Dried fruit 5g
Piperaceae Piper longum L. Dried fruit 5g
Piperaceae Piper nigrum L. Dried fruit 5g
Plantaginaceae Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiora (Pennell) D.Y.Hong Root 5g
Ranunculaceae Nigella sativa L. Seed 5g
Rutaceae Aegle marmelos (L.) Corra Root 5g
Santalaceae Santalum album L. Wood 5g
Zingiberaceae Alpinia calcarata (Haw.) Roscoe Rhizome 5g
Zingiberaceae Zingiber ofcinale Roscoe Dried rhizome 5g
Zingiberaceae Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. Rhizome 5g
NA Deer horn calx NA 5g
NA Dried cow gallstone NA 5g
NA Gold calx NA 5g
NA Puried NA 5g
NA Puried cinnabar NA 50 g
NA Puried pearl NA 5g
NA Red coral NA 5g
NA Rhinoceros horn NA 5g
NA Rock salt NA 5g
NA Silver calx NA 5g
NA Water NA
Method
Pulverise or scrape or press or crack all the other ingredients separately where applicable and mix the ingredients together except roots
of Aegle marmelos and Justicia adhatoda, Piper longum dried fruit, Magnolia champaca ower, barks of Cinnamomum verum and Santalum
album, and puried cinnabar.
Pour water to Justicia adhatoda root and boil it until reaching one eighth of the initial volume. Grind previously prepared mixture with
this decoction for a day followed by decoctions of Piper longum dried fruit, Aegle marmelos root, Magnolia champaca ower, and Santalum
album bark per day.
Then add puried cinnabar to the ground mixture and grind it with Cinnamomum verum bark decoction for 12 hours. Finally make Vigna
radiata (L.) R.Wilczek (Fabaceae) seed size tablets and shade dry them.
Note: If this preparation taken with appropriate adjuvant, dead could be alive.
Appendix C. Pharmacology studies of reviewed plants
Abbreviation
NA: not applicable, NS: not stated (Table c1)
580
Part used
AE: aerial, BA: bark, EP: edible part, FB: ower bud, FE: fruit peel, FL: ower, FP: fruit pulp, FR: fruit, HE: heartwood, HR: herb, HW: hard wood, IN: inorescence, IS: infructescence
stalk, LE: leaf, MA: mace/aril, ML: mature leaf, MS: mature seed, PO: pod, RA: radix, RH: rhizome, RO: root, RT: root tuber, SB: stem bark, SE: seed, SK: seed kernel, ST: stem, SU: sucker,
Table C.1
Detailed information of pharmacology studies of reviewed plants.
Family and scientic name Part Pretreatment of Extraction Active compound/ Model Dosage/ Duration Way of Maximum nontoxic do- Reference
used material method Fraction/extract concentration administration sage and duration
Acanthaceae
Hygrophila auriculata (Schu-
mach.) Heine
In vivo AE AIR at rt EXT (24 h) 50% ET EX SID R 100, 250 mg/kg bw/ 3 week Oral NS Vijayakumar et al.
S.V. Sathasivampillai et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 198 (2017) 531599

d (2006)
Acoraceae
Acorus calamus L.
In vivo RA DRI MAC at rt (3 d) EA FRA (ET EX) db/db 100 mg/kg 3 week Oral NS Wu et al. (2007)
M
In vivo RA DRI MAC at rt (3 d) EA FRA (ET EX) NOR 200, 400, 800 mg/kg 1 h Gastric intubation NS Si et al. (2010)
M
RA DRI MAC at rt (3 d) EA FRA (ET EX) GL M, 400, 800 mg/kg 1h Gastric intubation NS
NOR
M
RA DRI MAC at rt (3 d) EA FRA (ET EX) AMY 100 mg/kg 0.5 - 2 h Gastric intubation NS
M
In vivo RA DRI MAC EA FRA (70% ET EX) db/db 100 mg/kg 5 week Gastric intubation NS Liu et al. (2015)
M
RA DRI MAC EA FRA (70% ET EX) SID M 100 mg/kg 4 week NS NS
RA DRI MAC EA FRA (70% ET EX) DIO M 100 mg/kg 2 week NS NS
In vivo RH SHA SOX (8 h) ME EX SID R 200 mg/kg 21 d Oral NS Prisilla et al. (2012)
In vitro RA DRI MAC at rt (3 d) EA FRA (ET EX) -GI A 0.41 g/ml NA NA NA Si et al. (2010)
In vitro RA DRI MAC at rt (3 d) EA FRA (ET EX) L6 R 12.5, 25 g/ml NA NA NA Wu et al. (2009)
skele-
tal
mus-
cle C
In vitro RH AIR EXT 3 times at rt 1,5-guiane-4,10- Hep- 1, 5, 25 g/ml NA NA NA Zhou et al. (2012)
(7 d) diol-6one (70% ET EX) G2 C
Amaranthaceae
Achyranthes aspera L.
In vivo LE, ST DRI SOX 80% ET EX AID R 200, 400 mg/kg bw/ 2 week NS NS Talukder et al. (2012)
d
In vivo WP SHA MAC AQ EX NOR 4 g/kg bw/d 4h Oral 8 g/kg/d (7 d) Akhtar and Iqbal
RAB, (1991)
AID
RAB
WP SHA SOX ME EX NOR 4 g/kg bw/d 4h Oral 8 g/kg/d (7 d)
RAB,
AID
RAB
WP SHA NA NA NOR 2, 3, 4 g/kg bw/d 4h Oral 8 g/kg/d (7 d)
RAB
WP SHA NA NA AID 4 g/kg bw/d 4h Oral 8 g/kg/d (7 d)
RAB
Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br.
ex DC.
In vivo AE DRI at 40 C EXT at rt (3 d) EA FRA (95% ET EX) H FD 250 mg/kg bw/d 2 week Oral NS Tan and Kim (2013)
R, SID
R
Apocynaceae
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br.
ex Schult.
In vivo RO NS EXT (24 h) -amyrin palmitate GL, 50 g/kg 15 d Oral NS Nair et al. (2014)
(TO EX) AID R
RO NS EXT (24 h) -amyrin palmitate SID R 50 g/kg 20 d Oral NS
(TO EX)
In vivo RO SHA NS 2-hydroxy-4-methoxy SID R 500 g/kg 7 week Oral NS Gayathri and Kanna-
benzoic acid (ME EX) biran (2009)
In vivo RO SHA MIX with WA AQ EX SID R, 500 mg/kg/d 12 week Oral NS Gayathri and Kanna-
GL R biran (2008)
In vivo RO NS NS AL EX NOR NS NS NS NS Rokeya et al. (1997)
R
RO NS NS AL EX T1DM NS NS NS NS
R

RO NS NS AL EX T2DM NS NS NS NS
R
Arecaceae
Areca catechu L.
In vivo HW NS EXT at rt (16 h) ET EX NG R, 250 mg/kg bw 24 h Oral NS Parveen and Ahmad
SID R (1994)
HW NS BOI (4 h) AQ EX NG R, 250 mg/kg bw 24 h Oral NS
SID R
In vivo NS NS EXT EA EX NOR 500 mg/kg 2h NS NS Boucher et al. (1994)
R
NS NS EXT EA EX AID R 250, 500 mg/kg/d 7d NS NS
In vivo SE FRE EXT Procyanidin (ME EX) SID R 1 mg/ml 5 week IntraGastric NS Huang et al. (2013)
intubationtrical
Borassus abellifer L.
In vivo RO NS NS AL EX AID R NS 1,2,3,4 NS NS Debnath et al. (2013)
week
RO NS NS AL EX NOR 100, 200, 400 mg/kg 7 d NS NS
R
Asteraceae
Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) Lag.
In vitro RO DRI SOX ET EX -AI A 29.25 g/ml NA NA NA Kumar and Lalitha
(2014)
Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.
Rob. [syn. Vernonia cinerea
(L.) Less.]
Clinical RO NA NA NA T2DM 6 g/d (preparation 6 month Oral 6 g/d (6 month) Bin Sayeed et al.
P contains unknown (2013)
(long- amount)
er
than
6
mont-
h)
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.
In vivo WP NS NS Eclalbasaponin II (ME AID R 10 mg/kg 7, 28 d Oral NS Rahman et al. (2011)
EX)
WP NS NS ME EX AID R 300 mg/kg 7, 28 d Oral NS
Bignoniaceae
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz
In vivo SB AIR NS 50% AQ ET SNID 250 mg/kg bw 28 d Oral NS Singh and Kakkar
R (2013)
In vitro SB DRI EXT Oroxylin A (AC EX, HE -GI A 25.90 g/ml NA NA NA Rao et al. (2007)
EX)
581
582
Table C.1 (continued )
SB DRI EXT Chrysin (AC EX, HE EX) -GI A 57.59 g/ml NA NA NA

SB DRI EXT Methoxy chrysin (AC -GI A 95 l/ml NA NA NA
EX)
SB DRI EXT Oroxyloside methyl -GI A 97.31 g/ml NA NA NA
ester (AC EX)
SB DRI EXT Baiclain (AC EX, HE EX) -GI A 38.71 g/ml NA NA NA
SB DRI EXT HE FRA (AC EX) -GI A 84 g/ml NA NA NA
SB DRI EXT AC EX -GI A 124 g/ml NA NA NA
In vitro SB AIR NS 50% AQ ET BSA A 2.10 g/ml NA NA NA Singh and Kakkar
(2013)
Stereospermum chelonoides
(L.f.) DC. [syn. Stereo-

spermum suaveolens
(Roxb.) DC]
In vivo BA SHA (15 d) SOX at 40 - 50 C EA FRA (95% ET EX) SID R 200 mg/kg 14 d Oral 3200 mg/kg (72 h) Balasubramanian et
(72 h) al. (2012)
In vivo BA SHA (15 d) SOX at 40 - 50 C 95% ET EX SID R 200, 400 mg/kg 14 d Oral 2546.70 mg/kg (72 h) Balasubramanian et
(72 h) al. (2009)
Caprifoliaceae
Nardostachys jatamansi (D.
Don) DC. [syn. Nardos-
tachys grandiora DC]
In vivo HR DRI BOI (2 h) AQU EX SID R 125 mg/kg 3d Intraperitoneal NS Song et al. (2010)
injection
Celastraceae
Salacia reticulata Wight
Clinical BA SHA NA NA T2DM 2 g/d 90 d Oral NS Radha and Amrith-
P aveni (2009)

In vivo LE DRI EXT at 50 C (2 AQ EX SID M 1 mg NS Oral NS Yoshino et al. (2009)
h)

LE DRI EXT at 50 C (2 AQ EX MAL 1 mg 30 min Oral NS
h) loa-
ded M

LE DRI EXT at 50 C (2 AQ EX SUC 1 mg 30 min Oral NS
h) loa-
ded M
In vivo ST DRI BOI (2 h) AQ EX KK- 4.5 mg dry matter/ 4 week NS NS Im et al. (2009)
Ayd 10 ml WA/d
M

In vitro LE DRI EXT at 50 C (2 AQ EX R in- 31, 220 g/ml NA NA NA Yoshino et al. (2009)
h) test-
inal -
GI A
(SUC
sub-
strat-
e)

LE DRI EXT at 50 C (2 AQ EX R in- 13, 110 g/ml NA NA NA
h) test-
inal -
GI A
(SUC
sub-
strat-
e)
Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea aquatica Forssk.
In vivo EP NS BOI AQ EX GLU 3.4 g/kg 2h Oral NS Malalavidhane et al.
chal- (2000)
len-
ged R
In vivo EP NS BOI (8 min) AQ EX GLU 3.3 g/kg bw 2h Oral NS Malalavidhane et al.
chal- (2001)
len-
ged R
In vivo LE, ST FRE NA NA SID R 3.4 g/kg 1 week Oral NS Malalavidhane et al.
(2003)
Costaceae
Cheilocostus speciosus (J.Koe-
nig) C.D.Specht [syn. Costus
speciosus (J.Koenig) Sm.]
In vivo RH SHA COP Costunolide and ere- SID R 20 mg/kg bw NS Oral NS Eliza et al. (2011)

manthin (HE EX)
In vivo RH SHA COP HE EX SID R 250 mg/kg 60 d Oral NS Daisy et al. (2008) and
Eliza et al. (2011)
In vivo RH SHA (10 d) EXT AQ EX SID R 200 mg/kg bw 240 min, Oral NS Rajesh et al. (2009)
14 d
In vivo RH SHA MAC (72 h) Eremanthin (HE EX) SID R 20 mg/kg bw 60 d Oral NS Eliza et al. (2009a)
In vivo RH SHA COP EA EX, ME EX SID R 400 mg/kg 60 d Oral NS Daisy et al. (2008)
In vivo RH NS Freeze dried NA NOR NS 30 min NS NS Mosihuzzaman et al.
juice R (1994)
In vivo RO NS SOX 95% ET EX SID R 400, 600 mg/kg bw 4 week Oral NS Ali et al. (2014)
In vivo RO SHA MAC (72 h) Costunolide (HE EX) SID R 5, 10, 20 mg/kg bw 30 d Oral NS Eliza et al. (2009b)
In vivo RO SHA SOX 95% ET EX AID R 300, 450 mg/kg 4 week IntraGastric in- NS Bavarva and Nar-
tubationtric tube asimhacharya (2008)
In vitro LE SHA (10 d) MAC ME EX -AI A 67.5 g/ml NA NA NA Perera et al. (2016)
LE SHA (10 d) MAC ME EX -GI A 5.88 mg/ml NA NA NA
Cucurbitaceae
Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt
In vivo LE DRI at 40 C REF (4 h) AQ EX SID R 0.75 g/kg 30 d Oral NS Attanayake et al.
(2015)
In vivo LE DRI at 40 C REF (4 h) AQ EX AID R 0.75 g/kg 4h Oral 2 g/kg (2 d) Attanayake et al.
(2013)
Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.
Roem.
In vitro WP SHA SOX (24 h) ME EX R liver 0.25 mg/ml NS NA NA Srilatha and Ananda
slice (2014)
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia antiquorum L.
In vivo RO NS SOX 95% ET EX FF R 200, 400 mg/kg 21 d Oral 2000 mg/kg Madhavan et al.
(2015)
RO NS MAC AQ EX FF R 200, 400 mg/kg 21 d Oral 2000 mg/kg
Fabaceae
Abrus precatorius L.
In vitro LE DRI EXT Lupenone (50% ME EX) -AI A 31 M NA NA NA Yonemoto et al.
(2014)
LE DRI EXT 24- methylenecy- -AI A 0.6 mM NA NA NA
cloartenone (50% ME
EX)
LE DRI EXT Luteolin (50% ME EX) -AI A 3.1 mM NA NA NA
LE DRI EXT 50% ME EX -AI A NS NA NA NA
In vitro SE RAW MAC ME EX -AI A 1 mg/ml NA NA NA Vadivel et al. (2011a)
SE RAW, SOA, COO MAC ME EX (total phenol -AI A 1 mg/ml NA NA NA
content)
SE RAW, SPR, OIL MAC ME EX (total phenol -GI A 1 mg/ml NA NA NA
583
584
content)
In vitro SE SPR, OIL EXT (ultrasonic ME EX -AI A NS NA NA NA Vadivel et al. (2011b)
bath)
SE SPR, OIL EXT (ultrasonic ME EX -GI A 100 l, 1 mg/ml NA NA NA
bath)
Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.)
Willd.
In vivo FL NS NS 7:3 ME:WA EX AID R 25 mg/kg 21 d Oral NS El-Toumy et al. (2009)
In vivo NS NS SUS NS AID R 1.5 mg/100 g bw 16 d Oral NS Eskander and Jun
(1995)
In vitro SE NS EXT Phenol EX -AI A 148.7 g/mg NA NA NA Gautam et al. (2012)
SE NS EXT Phytic acid EX -AI A 8.8 g/mg NA NA NA

SE NS EXT L- Dopa EX -AI A 239.7 g/mg NA NA NA
In vitro SE SPR and OIL EXT (ultrasonic ME EX -AI A NS NA NA NA Vadivel et al. (2011b)
bath)
SE SPR and OIL ME EX -GI A 1 mg/ml NA NA NA
Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile
In vivo BA DRI NS NS db/db 100 mg/kg 7d Oral NS Babish et al. (2010)
M
In vivo BA FRE BOI AQ EX AID R, 2 ml EX/200 g bw NS Oral NS Ahmad and Shaikh
GL R (1989)
In vivo FR Immersed in liquid MAC at rt (ON) ME EX NOR 200 mg/kg bw 3 week Oral NS Abuelgassim (2013)
nitrogen R
In vivo LE NS EXT (7 d) 80% ME EX AID R 400 mg/kg/d bw 2, 3 Oral NS Asad et al. (2015)
week
In vivo LE NS MAC 80% ME EX SID R 300 mg/kg 3 week Oral NS Asad et al. (2011)
In vivo PO AIR EXT at rt 3:7 WA:ME EX SID R 150, 300 mg/kg bw 60 d Oral NS Omara et al. (2012)
In vivo PO SHA SOX (8 h) 75:25 ME:WA AID R 400 mg/kg bw 1 month Oral NS Ahmad et al. (2008)
In vitro HE DRI NS EX (NS) 3T3- 50 g/ml 2d NA NA Babish et al. (2010)
L1
adi-
po-
cytes
A
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb.
In vivo SE DRI at 40 C (2 d) EXT at 37 C (36 2:3 WA:ME EX SID R 250 mg/kg bw 21 d Oral NS Jana et al. (2012)
h)
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.)
Wight & Arn.
In vitro ST ()-mesquitol (ME MAC SHA -GI A 32.083.0 m NA NA NA Raghavan (2004)
EX)
Erythrina variegata L.
In vivo LE SHA at 2426 C (34 SOX 95% ME EX SID R 900 mg/kg 21 d Oral 5000 mg/kg bw Kumar et al. (2011)
week)
Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.
In vivo BA SHA MAC at rt (2 d) 9:1 EA:ME FRA (95% ET SID R 150 mg/kg bw/d 45 d Gastric intubationtric NS Kondeti et al. (2010)
EX) inhubation with oral
gavage
In vivo BA SHA MAC at rt (2 d) 95% ET EX AID R 0.25 g/kg bw 7h Oral NS Rao et al. (2001)
In vivo HE DRI MAC (48 h) AQ EX SID R 250 mg/kg bw 16 week Oral NS Halim and Misra
(2011)
Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb.
[syn. Cassia auriculata L.]
In vivo FL SHA (4 - 5 d) MAC (48 h) 2-(3-acetoxy-4,4,14- AID R 5 mg/kg 15 d Oral NS Venkatachalam et al.
trimethylandrost-8- (2013)
en-17-yl) (1:1 WA:ME
EX)
In vivo FL DRI SOX (72 h) CH EX GLU overloaded D M 400 mg/ 2 and 3 h Oral 2000 mg/kg (14 d)
kg
Jarald et al. (2010)
FL DRI SOX (72 h) ET EX AID R 200, 400 mg/kg 7d Oral 2000 mg/kg (14 d)
FL DRI SOX (72 h) WA soluble FRA (ET AID R 200, 400 mg/kg 7d Oral 2000 mg/kg (14 d)
EX)
FL DRI SOX (72 h) CH EX Fasted 400 mg/kg 0.5, 1, 2, Oral 2000 mg/kg (14 d)
NOR 3h
RAB
In vivo FL SHA MA NB FRA (1:1 ME:WA AID R 0.20 g/kg 8d Oral NS Surana et al. (2008)
EX)
In vivo FL DRI at rt SOX (48 h) 90 % ET AID R 250 mg/kg 1, 2, 4 h Oral 2 g/kg bw (48 h) Hatapakki et al.
(2005)
In vivo FL DRI EXT at ambient ME EX NOR 4.9 mg/kg 30 min Oral NS Abesundara et al.
temp (1 h) R (2004)

FL DRI EXT at ambient ME EX NOR 5 mg/kg 60 min Oral NS
temp (1 h) R
In vivo FL NS CHE at 60 C (6 AQ EX SID R 0.45 g/kg 30 d Oral NS Latha and Pari (2003)
h)
In vivo FL NS CHE at 60 C (6 AQ EX SID R 0.15, 0.30, 0.45 g/kg 30 d Oral NS Pari and Latha (2002)
h) bw
In vivo LE SHA MAC (ON) AQ EX STZ I 400 mg/kg 5 h, 3 Oral 2000 mg/kg Gupta et al. (2009a)
mild week
DR
In vivo LE SHA MAC at 4 C (ON) AQ EX STZ I 100, 200, 400 mg/kg 21 d Oral 1000, 2000 mg/kg bw Gupta et al. (2009b)
mild bw (21 d)
DR
In vivo LE SHA SUS at 4 C (ON) AQ EX AXN I 400 mg/kg bw 3 - 21 d Oral NS Gupta et al. (2009c)
mild
D
RAB,
AXN I
se-
vere
DR
In vivo LE DRI EXT (ON) 1:1 ET:WA EX NOR 200 mg/kg bw 4h Oral 5000 mg/kg Sabu and Subburaju
R (2002)
LE DRI EXT (ON) 1:1 ET:WA EX AID R 200/mg/kg/d 3, 5, 7, Oral 5000 mg/kg
10 d
In vivo WP DRI SOX 95% ET EX SID R 400 mg/kg bw 28 d Oral NS Juvekar and Halade
(2006)
WP DRI BOI (2 h) AQ EX SID R 250, 500 mg/kg bw 28 d Oral NS
In vitro FL DRI MAC (48 h) ME EX -GI A 0.196 mg/ml NA NA NA Venkatachalam et al.
(2013)
In vitro FL DRI EXT at ambient ME EX -GI A 0.023 mg/ml NA NA NA Abesundara et al.
temp (1 h) (2004)
In vitro LE DRI EXT (ON) 1:1 ET:WA EX RHE 25 mg/ml NA NA NA Sabu and Subburaju
(2002)
In vitro NS NS NS Kaempferol-3-O- -GI NS NA NA NA Habtemariam (2012)
rutinoside A,
Pan-
crea-
tic li-
pase
in-
hibi-
tion A
Senna sophera (L.) Roxb. [syn.
585
586
Cassia sophera L.]

In vivo SE NS NS AQ EX DR 2g 2, 4 Oral NS Feng (2003)
week
Senna tora (L.) Roxb. [syn.
Cassia tora L.]
In vivo SE NS EXT at rt (24 h) BU FRA (85% ME EX) NOR 20 mg/100 g bw/d 30 min, Oral NS Nam and Choi (2008)
R 5d
Tamarindus indica L.
In vivo SB SHA (26 d) MAC (48 h) 90% ME EX AID R 250 mg/kg 16 h Oral 5000 mg/kg bw Yerima et al. (2014)
SB SHA (26 d) MAC (48 h) 90% ME EX AID R 1000 mg/kg 4, 8, 16, Oral 5000 mg/kg bw
24 h
SB SHA (26 d) MAC (48 h) 90% ME EX GID R 250 mg/kg 5h Oral 5000 mg/kg bw

SB SHA (26 d) MAC (48 h) 90 % ME EX GID R 500 mg/kg 1, 2, 3, 4, Oral 5000 mg/kg bw
5h
SB SHA (26 d) MAC (48 h) 90% ME EX GID R 1000 mg/kg 3, 5 h Oral 5000 mg/kg bw
SB SHA (26 d) MAC (48 h) 90% ME EX NG R 100, 200, 400 mg/kg 24 h Oral 5000 mg/kg bw
bw
In vivo SE DRI at 40 C (2 d) SOX (18 h) ME EX AID M 200, 400 mg/kg 2 week Oral 1 g/kg (14 d) Nahar et al. (2014)
In vivo SE DRI at 40 C (2 d) SOX (18 h) AQ EX SID R 120, 240 mg/kg bw 4 week Oral NS Sole and Srinivasan
(2012)
In vivo SE DR at 40 C SOX (18 h) AQ EX FF R 20 mg/0.5 ml dis- 8 week Oral NS Shahraki et al., (2011)
tilled WA/100 g bw/
d
In vivo SE DRI at 40 C (2 d) SOX (18 h) AQ EX SID R 50, 100, 200 mg/kg/ 1 week Oral NS Hamidreza et al.
d (2010)
In vivo SE DRI at 40 C (2 d) SOX (18 h) AQ EX SID R 80 and 120 mg/0.5 14 d Oral NS Maiti et al. (2005)
ml WA/ 100 g bw/d
In vivo SE DRI at 40 C (2 d) SOX (18 h) AQ EX SID R 80 mg/0.5 ml WA/ 7, 14 d Oral NS Maiti et al. (2004)
100 g bw/d
In vivo TL AIR EXT PE EX Fluor- NS 4 week Oral NS Vasant and Nar-
ide asimhacharya (2012)
ex-
posed
R
In vitro SE NS EXT Phenolic EX -AI A 1 mg/ml NA NA NA Gautam et al. (2012)
SE NS EXT L-Dopa EX -AI A 1 mg/ml NA NA NA
SE NS EXT Phytic acid EX -AI A 1 mg/ml NA NA NA
In vitro SE SPR, OIL EXT ME EX -AI A NS NA NA NA Vadivel et al. (2011b)
SE SPR, OIL EXT ME EX -GI A 100 l, 1 mg/ml NA NA NA
In vitro LE NS EXT at rt (20 NA -AI A 23.2 M NA NA NA Funke and Melzig
min) (2006)
Hypoxidaceae
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.
In vivo RH SUN EXT AQ EX SID R 100, 200 mg/kg 28 d Oral NS Thakur et al. (2012)
In vivo RT AIR at rt SOX 90% ET EX AID R 500, 1000 mg/kg bw 7 d Oral 3000 g/kg (7 d) Madhavan et al.
(2007)
RT AIR at rt MAC (24 h) AQ EX AID R 500, 1000 mg/kg bw 7, 14, Oral 3000 g/kg (7 d)
and 21 d
In vitro RH NS MAC (ON) ET EX 3T3- 214.73 g/ml NA NA NA Gulati et al. (2015)
L1 C
line
WO NS MAC (ON) ET EX 3T3- 171.45 g/ml NA NA NA
L1 C
line
Lamiaceae
Gmelina arborea Roxb.
In vivo BA DRI at 40 C REF (4 h) AQ EX AID R 1 g/kg 4h Oral 2 g/kg (2 d) Attanayake et al.
(2013)
In vivo BA AIR at rt MAC (7 d) AQ EX SID R 250, 500 mg/kg bw 28 d Oral NS Kulkarni and Veer-
anjaneyulu (2013)
Gmelina asiatica L.
In vivo RO SHA SOX 95% AL EX NOR 100, 250, 500 mg/kg 6 h Oral 1 g/kg bw (14 d) Kasiviswanath et al.
R, AID (2005)
R
Vitex negundo L.
In vivo LE SHA (23 week) SOX Iridoid glucoside (ME SID R 50 mg/kg bw 30 d Oral NS Sundaram et al.
EX) (2012)
In vivo LE DRI Homogenised ME EX GID M 5 mg/20 g 60 min Oral NS Villaseor and Lama-
drid (2006)
Loganiaceae
Strychnos potatorum L.f.
In vivo SE DRI SUS NA SID R 100 mg/kg 12 week Oral NS Biswas et al. (2012)

Magnoliaceae
Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill.
ex Pierre [syn. Michelia
champaca L.]
In vivo FB DRI BOI (15 min) AQ EX GL R 400 mg/kg 1h Oral 2000 mg/kg (14 d) Jarald et al. (2008)
FB DRI SOX (72 h) ET EX GL R 400 mg/kg 1, 2, 3 h Oral 2000 mg/kg (14 d)
FB DRI SOX (72 h) ET EX AID R 200, 400 mg/kg 7d Oral 2000 mg/kg (14 d)
FB DRI SOX (72 h) PE EX GL R 400 mg/kg 1h Oral 2000 mg/kg (14 d)
Malvaceae
Abelmoschus moschatus
Medik.
In vivo AE NS MAC (ON) Myricetin (ME EX) SID R 1 mg/kg 30 min Oral NS Liu et al. (2005)
Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet
In vivo LE FRE MAC at rt (3 d) 99.5% ME EX NOR 500 mg/kg 2h Oral NS Adisakwattana et al.
R, SID (2009)
R
In vivo LE FRE SOX AQ EX NOR 400 mg/kg 4 and 6 Oral NS Seetharam et al.
R h (2002)
In vivo LE, TW, DRI at 50 C SOX ET EX NOR 400 mg/kg 4 and 8 Oral NS Krisanapun et al.
RO R h (2011)
In vivo LE, TW, DRI at 50 C BOI (10 min) BU FRA of AQ EX SID R NS 2 week Oral NS Krisanapun et al.
RO (2010)
In vivo LE, TW, DRI at 50 C (hot air) BOI (10 min) AQ EX NOR 0.5, 1 g/kg bw 30 min Oral 5 g/kg (14 d) Krisanapun et al.
RO R, SID (2009)
R
In vitro LE FRE MAC at rt (3 d) 99.5 % ME EX -GI A 2.45 mg/ml NA NA NA Adisakwattana et al.
(2009)
Bombax ceiba L.
In vivo BA SHA HCP EA EX SID R 600 mg/kg/d 21 d Oral NS Bhavsar and Talele
(2013)
Gossypium arboreum L.
In vitro LE DRI at rt MAC (24 h) AQ EX -AI A 10.10 mg/ml NA NA NA Kazeem et al. (2013)
LE DRI at rt MAC (24 h) AC EX -GI A 2.75 mg/ml NA NA NA
Sida cordifolia L.
In vivo AE SHA at 3035 C SOX AL EX SID R 400 mg/kg 28 d Oral NS Ahmad et al. (2014)
Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex
Corra
In vivo FP SHA MAC AQ EX, 5% CH EX AID R 200 mg/kg 28 d Oral 2000 mg/kg bw (28 d) Belhekar et al. (2013)
FP SHA SOX ET EX AID R 200 mg/kg 28 d Oral 2000 mg/kg bw (28 d)
In vitro LE AIR MAC (72 h) ME EX -AI A 20 g NA NA NA Sangeetha and Ve-
dasree (2012)
LE AIR MAC (72 h) EA EX -AI A 50 g/ml NA NA NA
Menispermaceae
587
588
Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W.

Theob.
In vivo AE SHA at rt (10 d) SOX ME EX SID R 400, 800 mg/kg 15 d Oral 900 mg/kg (4 d) Sangameswaran and
Jayakar (2007)
In vivo AE NS NS ME EX AID R NS NS NS NS Ganapaty et al. (2006)
In vivo LE SHA SOX with PE AQ EX AID M 250, 500, 1000 mg/ 6 h, 28 d Oral NS Badole et al. (2006)
(6080 C). MAC kg
with WA
LE SHA SOX with PE AQ EX NOR 1000 mg/kg 30 min Oral NS
(6080 C). MAC M
with WA
In vivo RO NS EXT ME EX AID R NS NS NS NS Satyanarayana et al.

(2001)
Coscinium fenestratum
(Goetgh.) Colebr.
In vivo ST NS SOX (72 h) ET EX SNID 500 mg/kg 12 d Oral NS Punitha et al. (2005)
R
In vivo ST NS SOX (72 h) ET EX SNID NS 12 d NS 3000 mg/kg (72 h) Shirwaikar et al.
R (2005a)
In vivo ST DR MAC (7 d) 99:1 WA:CH EX NOR 250, 500 mg/kg 5d Oral 3000 mg/kg (72 h) Shirwaikar et al.
R, SID (2005b)
R
Moraceae
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.
Clinical ML FRE BOI (3 h) AQ EX NOR 20 g/kg (starting 1h Oral NS Fernando et al. (1991)
P, D P material)
In vivo LE SHA (several d) MAC at rt (48 h) ET EX AID R 100, 300, 500 mg/kg 7d Oral 5000 mg/kg bw Okonkwo Christopher
bw et al. (2015)
In vivo LE AIR MAC 70% ET EX, NB EX SID R 200 mg/kg/d 10 d Oral NS Omar et al. (2011)
In vitro LE DRI EXT at 4 C (12 AQ EX -AI A 1000 l/ml NA NA NA Kotowaroo et al.
h) (2006)
In vivo ML FRE SOX (3 h) EA FRA (DI EX) SID R 20 mg/kg 5 week Oral NS Chackrewarthy et al.
(2010)
In vitro SE NS BOI at 90 C (5 AQ EX Anti- NS NA NA NA Shakthi Deve et al.
min) glyca- (2014)
tion A
Ficus amplissima Sm.
In vivo BA AIR SOX ME EX GL R 50, 100, 150 mg/kg 1h Oral 2000 mg/kg (14 d) Arunachalam and
Parimelazhagan
(2013)
BA AIR SOX ME EX NOR 50, 100, 150 mg/kg 3h Oral 2000 mg/kg (14 d)
R
BA AIR SOX ME EX SID R 50, 100, 150 mg/kg 21 d Oral 2000 mg/kg (14 d)
Ficus benghalensis L.
In vivo SB DRI SOX 95% ET EX AID R 250 mg/kg twice a d 1 week Oral NS Kar et al. (2003)
Ficus racemosa L.
Clinical BA NS NS AQ EX T2DM 1.2 g/d 1 month Oral NS Ahmed et al. (2011)
P
In vivo BA NS NS AQ EX AID R, 200, 400 mg/kg 1 month Oral NS Bhaskara Rao et al.
NOR (2002)
R
In vivo FR DRI at 40 C MSC (42 h) AQ 80% ET EX SID R 1.25 g/kg bw per 10 60 min Fed by metallic tube NS Jahan et al. (2009)
ml WA
MSC (42 h) AQ 80% ET EX SID R 1.25 g/kg bw/10 ml 120 min Fed by metallic tube NS
WA
NS WA soluble FRA (AQ 80 NOR 1.25 g/kg bw/10 ml 60 min Fed by metallic tube NS
% ET EX) R WA
In vivo LE AIR SOX (20 h) -sitosterol, stigmas- SID R 100 mg/kg 7d Oral NS Kushwaha et al.,
terol, lanosterol (PET (2015)
EX (60 - 80 C))
In vivo LE DRI in NOR PER at rt 80% ET EX NOR 100, 200, 300 mg/kg 6 h Mucilage orally by 2000 mg/kg (24 h) Patil et al. (2010)
environment R, AID bw gavage
R
In vivo SB SHA SOX 95% ET EX High 200, 400 mg/kg 2 week Oral NS Veerapur et al. (2012)
FD R,
SID R
In vitro BA DRI at 50 C NA NA -AI A NS NA NA NA Ahmed and Urooj
(2010a)
BA DRI at 50 C NA NA -GI A 280 g/ml NA NA NA
BA DRI at 50 C NA NA -GI A 212 g/ml NA NA NA
BA DRI at 50 C NA NA SI A 367 g/ml NA NA NA
BA DRI at 50 C NA NS -AI A NS NA NA NA

BA DRI at 50 C NA NS -GI A 259 g/ml NA NA NA
BA DRI at 50 C NA NS -GI A 223 g/ml NA NA NA
BA DRI at 50 C NA NS SI A 239 g/ml NA NA NA
In vitro SB SHA SOX 95% ET EX Iso- 100 g/ml NA NA NA Veerapur et al. (2012)
lated
hemi-
dia-
phra-
gm of
DR
In vitro SB DRI at 50 C EXT with hot AQ EX GD A 5 mmol/l NA NA NA Ahmed and Urooj
WA at 70 C (24 (2010b)
h)
Ficus religiosa L.
In vivo BA SHA at less than at 40 BOI (15 min) AQ EX SID R 200 mg/kg 4 week Oral NS Kirana et al. (2011)
C
In vivo BA DRI MAC at rt (48 h) AQ EX NOR 50, 100 mg/kg/d 21 d Oral 2000 mg/kg/d (14 d) Pandit et al. (2010)
R, SID
R, GL
R
In vivo BA SHA at 40 C BOI (15 min) AQ EX SID R 100, 200 mg/kg 4 week Oral NS Kirana et al. (2009)
In vivo LE FRE EXT at 60-70 C AQ EX SID R 300 mg/kg 2h Oral NS Shukla et al. (2012)
(48 h)
LE FRE EXT at 60-70 C AQ EX NOR 300 mg/kg 3h Oral NS
(48 h) R
Musaceae
Musa paradisiaca L. [syn.
Musa sapientum L.]
Clinical FR FRE NA NA T2DM 5g 1 week Oral NS Edo et al. (2011)
P
In vivo FL DRI MAC ET EX AID R 200 mg/kg 8d Oral NS Dhanabal et al. (2005)
In vivo FL NS CHE CH EX AID R 0.25 g/kg bw 30 d Oral NS Pari and Umama-
heswari (2000)
In vivo FL NS CHE CH EX AID R 0.25 g/kg 30 d Oral NS Pari and Maheswari
(1999)
In vivo FL DRI BOI, HEA (10 AQ EX NOR 4 ml/kg 7d Intragastrical NS Alarcon-Aguilara et al.
min) RAB (1998)
In vivo FR SHA NS NA NG R 500 mg/kg bw 4, 5 h Oral NS Rai et al. (2009)
In vivo IN AIR SOX ME EX SID R 200 mg/kg bw/d 60 d Oral NS Nisha and Mini (2013)
In vivo IS FRE BOI (5 min) AQ EX SID R 50, 75 g/l 7, 21 d Oral NS Jaber et al. (2013)
In vivo RO DRI at 40 C (2 d) MAC at 37 C (36 60% ME EX SID R 80 mg/100 g bw/d 14 d Oral Nontoxic Mallick et al. (2007)
h)
In vivo ST FRE NA Lyophilised juice SID R 50 mg/kg 4 week Oral NS Dikshit et al. (2012)
589
590
In vivo SU SHA at 25 - 30 C (2 EXT (48 h) 70% ME EX AID R 5, 10 mg/kg 21 d Oral NS Akinlolu et al. (2015)
week)
In vivo UF DRI at 70 C NA NA SID R 65 mg/kg bw 12 d Oral NS Eleazu and Okafor
(2015)
In vivo UF DRI NA NA SID R NS 1-7d Oral NS Shodehinde et al.
(2015)
In vivo UF DRI at 50 C (48 h) NA NA SID R NS 21 d Oral NS Eleazu et al. (2013)
In vivo UF SHA at rt MAC (2 d) ET EX SID R 100 mg/kg/d 10 d Oral NS Kumar et al. (2013)
Myristicaceae
Myristica fragrans Houtt.
In vivo FR DRI MAC (16 h) 50% ET EX CID M 150, 450 mg/kg 7d Oral NS Arulmozhi et al.
(2007)

In vitro LE DRI EXT (12 h) ME EX In- 1.731 g/l NS NA NA Chee et al. (2007)
sulin
se-
cret-
ing
BRIN-
BD11
C line
In vivo SK SHA MAC at rt (24 h) Macelingan (75% ME db/db 10, 25 mg/kg 14 d Oral NS Han et al. (2008)
EX) M
In vitro MA NS SOX ME EX -GI A 0.85 mg/ml NA NA NA Patil et al. (2011)
Myrtaceae
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
In vivo BA NS NS NS SID R 500 mg/kg 21 d Oral NS Tripathi and Kohli
(2014)
In vivo BA DRI Homogenised ME EX GL M 5 mg/20 mg mouse 30 min Oral Raullah et al. (2006)
In vivo BA DRI Homogenised ME EX GID M 5 mg/20 g 30, 45 Oral NS Villaseor and Lama-
min drid (2006)
In vivo LE AIR at rt SOX (24 h) CH EX -AI A 25 mg/ml NA NA NA Bhat et al. (2011)
In vivo LE NS MAC at rt (10 d) ET EX Hy- 250 mg/kg 90 min Oral NS Schoenfelder et al.
per- (2010)
gly-
cemic
NOR
R
LE NS MAC at rt (10 d) ET EX AID R 125, 250 mg/kg 1, 2, 3 h Oral NS
In vivo LE DRI Defatted with ET AQ FRA, BU FRA (ET NOR 200 - 2000 mg/kg 7d Oral NS Oliveira et al. (2005)
EX) M twice/d
In vivo MS AIR at rt COP Mycaminose (ME EX) SID R 50 mg/kg 15 d Oral 2000 mg/kg bw (14 d) Kumar et al. (2008)
MS AIR at rt COP EA EX, ME EX SID R 200, 400 mg/kg 15 d Oral 2000 mg/kg bw (14 d)
In vivo SE Oven DRI at 35 C (48 MAC at 8 C (12 AQ EX AID R 200 mg/g bw NS Oral NS Peixoto and Freitas
h) h) (2013)
In vivo SE SUN NA NA SID R 1.25 g/kg bw 21 d Gastric intubationtric NS Bhuyan et al. (2010)
tube
SE SUN DIS 80% ET EX SID R 1.25 g/kg bw 21 d Gastric intubationtric NS
tube
In vivo SE DRI SOX (24 h) CH EX SID M 2 g/l 21 d Oral NS Bopp et al. (2009)
SE DRI NA Second FRA (CH EX) SID M 2.1 mg/ml 21 d Oral 12.33 mg/ml (21 d)
In vivo SE NA NA Cuminoside SID R 50 mg/kg 21 d Oral NS Farswan et al. (2009)
SE AIR at 25 - 28 C SOX (24 h) PE EX, CH EX, AC EX, SID R 100 mg/kg 21 d Oral 2 g/kg (7 d)
ME EX, AQ EX
In vivo SE NS NS EH FRA (ET EX) SID R NS NS Oral NS Mandal et al. (2008)
In vivo SE AIR BOI (1 h) AQ EX NOR 200 mg/kg 2, 4 h Oral NS Randriamampionona
R et al. (2008)
SE AIR BOI (1 h) AQ EX SID R 200 mg/kg 4h Oral NS
In vivo SE DRI SOX at 78 C ET EX AID R 75 mg/100 g bw 30 d Oral 75 mg/100g bw (14 d) Singh and Gupta
(2007)
In vivo SE DRI at rt NA 15% Unextracted (in- AID R, 3g 21 d Oral NS Pandey and Khan
tact) diet NOR (2002)
R
SE DRI at rt SOX with DI (16 15% defatted seed diet AID R, 3g 21 d Oral NS
h), AL (24 h) NOR
R
SE DRI at rt NA 6% Gummy bre diet AID R, 3g 21 d Oral NS
NOR
R
In vitro LE DRI REF (1 h) AQ EX ADI A 60, 200, 500, 1000 NA NA NA Teixeira et al. (2004)
g/ml
In vitro SE NS NS Belulinic acid, 3,5,7,4'- -AI A NS NA NA NA Karthic et al. (2008)
tetrahydroxy

avanone
In vitro SE SUN NS AQ EX Pro- NS NA NA NA Singh et al. (1990)
cine
pan-
crea-
tic -
AI A
In vitro SK DRI SOX (8 h) 70% ET EX -GI A 299.2 g/ml NA NA NA Shinde et al. (2008)
(SUC)
SK DRI SOX (8 h) 70% ET EX -GI A 299.2 g/ml NA NA NA
(MAL)
SK DRI SOX (24 h) AC EX -GI A 120.9 g/ml NA NA NA
(SUC)
SK DRI SOX (24 h) AC EX -GI A 120.9 g/ml NA NA NA
(MAL)
Nyctaginaceae
Boerhavia diffusa L.
In vivo LE NS CHE at 60 C (6 AQ EX AID R 200 mg/kg 4 week Oral NS Pari and Satheesh
h) (2004)
Pandanaceae
Pandanus odorifer (Forssk.)
Kuntze [syn. Pandanus
odoratissimus L.f.]
In vivo RO DRI MAC at rt (7 d) 80 % ET EX AID R 150, 300 mg/kg bw 10 d Oral 3 g/kg bw (48 h) Venkatesh et al.
(2012)
Papaveraceae
Papaver somniferum L.
In vivo SE NS Ground with WA AQ EX AID R, 2 ml EX/200 g bw NS Oral NS Ahmad and Shaik
GL R (1989)
Phyllanthaceae
Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir.
In vivo LE SHA SOX PE EX, ET EX AID R 1000 mg/kg 21 d Oral 5000 mg/kg (21 d) Kumar et al. (2008)
Phyllanthus amarus Schu-
mach. & Thonn.
In vivo AE SUN (1 week) MAC (48 h) 98% ME EX AID R 100, 200, 400 mg/kg 25 d Oral NS Okoli et al. (2011)
In vivo AE SUN (4 d) SOX ME EX NG R 200, 400 mg/kg 1h Oral 471.2 mg/kg Okoli et al. (2010)
AE SUN (4 d) SOX ME EX AID R 200, 400 mg/kg 28 d Oral 471.2 mg/kg
In vivo NS NS NS AQ EX AID R 200 mg/kg bw 45 d Oral NS Lemus et al. (2013)
In vivo TL SHA EXT 95% ET EX AID R 300 mg/kg bw/d 4 week Oral NS Bavarva and Nar-
asimhacharya (2007)
In vitro AE SUN (1 week) MAC (48 h) 98% ME EX -AI A 2.15 mg/ml NA NA NS Okoli et al. (2011)
AE SUN (1 week) MAC (48 h) 99% ME EX -GI A 0.2 mg/ml NA NA NS
Plumbaginaceae
591
592
Plumbago zeylanica L.
In vivo RO SHA COP at rt (48 h) Plumbagin (CH EX) SID R 15, 30 mg/kg bw 28 d Oral 400 mg/kg (14 d) Sunil et al. (2012)
In vivo RO AIR PER at rt 70% ET EX SID R 100, 200 mg/kg 42 d Oral NS Zarmouh et al. (2010)
In vivo RO AIR at 2527 C Stirred at 4 C ET EX R 400 mg/kg bw 30 d Intraperitoneal NS Olagunju et al. (2000)
(24 h) injection
Poaceae
Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss
In vitro NS DRI NS NS 3T3- 50 g/ml NA NA NA Babish et al. (2010)
L1
adi-
po-
cytes

A
Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.)
Roberty [syn. Vetiveria zi-
zanioides (L.) Nash]
In vivo RO SHA SOX ET EX AID R 100, 250, 500, 750 28 d Oral NS Karan et al. (2013)
mg/kg
Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.
Clinical NS NS NS NA T1DM NS 30, 60, Oral NS Urooj et al. (2006)
P, 120 min
NOR P
In vitro SE NS MAC in dark at NA -GI A NS NA NA NA Kunyanga et al. (2012)
25 C (8 h)
SE NS NA NA -GI A NS NA NA NA
SE RAW EXT (30 min) ME EX -Gi A NS NA NA NA
In vitro SE RAW, kept at 25 C (2 NA 50% ET EX -GI A NS NA NA NA Kunyanga et al. (2011)
d)
SE MAC in WA at 25 C NA NS -Gi A NS NA NA NA
in dark (8 h) , COO at
90 95 C (120 min),
DRI at 50 C (6 h)
SE MAC in WA at 25 C NA NS -Gi A NS NA NA NA
in dark (8 h) , COO at
90 95 C (120 min),
DRI at 50 C (6 h)
Paspalum scrobiculatum L.
In vivo SE NS SOX ET EX AID R 500 mg/kg 15 d NS 5000 mg/kg bw (14 d) Jain et al. (2010)
Primulaceae
Embelia ribes Burm.f.
In vivo FR DRI SOX (72 h) 70% ET EX High 100, 200 mg/kg 21 d Oral NS Bhandari et al. (2013),
FD Chaudhari et al.
and (2013)
low
dose
STZ R
In vivo FR DRI SOX (72 h) ET EX SID R 200 mg/kg 40 d Oral NS Bhandari and Ansari
(2009)
In vivo FR DRI SOX ET EX SID R 100, 200 mg/kg 6 week Oral NS Bhandari et al.
(2008a)
In vivo FR DRI SOX (72 h) AQ EX SID R 100, 200 mg/kg 40 d Oral NS Bhandari and Ansari
(2008b)
In vivo FR DRI SOX (72 h) 90% ET EX SID R 100, 200 mg/kg 40 d Oral NS Bhandari et al. (2007)
In vivo FR DRI SOX (72 h) 90% ET EX SID R 200 mg/kg 20 d Oral NS Bhandari et al. (2002)
Rhamnaceae
Ziziphus jujuba Mill.
In vivo NS NS NS AQ EX SID R 25, 100 mg/kg 21 d Oral NS Hemmati et al., (2015)
NS NS NS HY EX SID R 25, 100 mg/kg 21 d Oral NS
Santalaceae
Santalum album L.
In vivo NS NS Steam PE FRA SID R 10 l/kg bw twice a 60 d Oral NS Kulkarni et al. (2012)
distillation d
Sapindaceae
Cardiospermum halicacabum
L.
In vivo LE SHA at rt (32 C) MAC (72 h) ET EX SID R 200 mg 45 d Oral NS Veeramani et al.
(2008)
In vivo LE SHA at rt (32 C) MAC (72 h) ET EX SID R 200 mg/kg bw 45 d Oral NS Veeramani et al.
(2012)
Sapotaceae
Madhuca longifolia (J.Koenig
ex L.) J.F.Macbr.

In vivo BA DRI EXT ME EX NOR 100, 200 mg/kg 30 - 120 Oral 2000 mg/kg bw (24 h) Dahake et al. (2010)
R min
BA DRI EXT ME EX GL R 100, 200 mg/kg 12 d Oral 2000 mg/kg bw (24 h)
BA DRI EXT ME EX SID R 100, 200 mg/kg NS Oral 2000 mg/kg bw (24 h)
Solanaceae
Datura metel L.
In vivo SE DRI NA NA NOR 25, 50, 75 mg/kg 8h Oral NS Murthy et al. (2004)
R, AID
R
Violaceae
Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.)
F.Muell.
In vivo WP DRI SOX ET EX SID R 250, 500 mg/kg/d 21 d Oral 5g/kg bw (24 h) Patel et al. (2011)
Zingiberaceae
Alpinia calcarata (Haw.)
Roscoe
In vivo RH NS Placed in shaker ET EX SID R 200 mg/kg 30 d Oral 200 mg/kg (30 d) Rajasekar et al. (2014)
(16 h)
In vivo RH AIR, SHA (12 - 15 d) SOX (4 h) ET EX AID R 100, 200, 300 mg/ 21 d Oral NS Raj et al. (2011)
kg/d
In vitro RH NS Placed in shaker ET EX RHE NS NA NA NA Rajasekar et al. (2014)
(16 h)
RH NS Placed in shaker ET EX -GI A 50, 500 l/ml NA NA NA
(16 h)
Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd.
In vitro AE DRI SOX ME EX SID R 200, 400 mg/kg 21 d Oral 1600 mg/kg (7 d) Verma et al. (2015)
In vivo RH DRI SOX AL EX SID R 200 mg/kg bw 40 d Oral 2000 mg/kg bw (40 d) Kaushik et al. (2013)
In vivo RH DRI NS ET EX AID R 200 mg/kg 2 week Oral NS Chudiwal et al. (2008)
RH DRI NS ET EX GID R 200 mg/kg 2 week Oral NS
In vivo RH DRI SOX ME EX AID 3, 4 g/kg 6h Oral NS Akhtar et al. (2002)
RAB
RH DRI MAC (1 d) AQ EX AID 4 g/kg 6h Oral NS
RAB
Curcuma aromatica Salisb.
In vitro RH DRI at 48 C EXT at rt DI EX -AI A 8.97 l/ml NA NA NA Nampoothiri et al.
(2015)
593
TL: tender leaf, TW: twig, UF: unripe fruit, WO: wood, WP: whole plant
Pretreatment of plant part
AIR: air dried, COO: cooked, DRI: dried, FRE: fresh, OIL: oil fried, RAW: raw, rt: room temperature, SHA: shade dried, SOA: soaked, SPR:
sprouted, SUN: sundried
Active compound/fraction/extract
AC: acetone, AL: alcohol, AQ: aqueous, BU: butanol, CH: chloroform, DI: dichloromethane, EA: ethyl acetate, ET: ethanol, EH: ether, EX:
extract, FRA: fraction, HE: hexane, HY: hydroalcohol, ME: methanol, NB: n-butanol, PE: petroleum ether, TO: toluene, WA: water
Extraction method
BOI: boiled, CHE: continuous hot extraction, COP: cold percolation, DIS: dissolved, EXT: extracted, HCP: hot continuous percolation, MAC:
maceration, MIX: mixed, ON: overnight, PER: percolation, REF: reux, rt: room temperature, SOX: Soxhlet extraction, SOA: Soaked, STI:
stirred, SUS: suspended, temp: temperature
Model
A assay, ADI: Adenosine deaminase inhibition, AID: Alloxan induced diabetic, AMY: Amylum loaded, AXN: Alloxan, BSA: Bovine serum
albumin glycosylation inhibition, C: cell, CID: Chlorpromazine induced diabetic, D: diabetic, DIO: diet induced obese, FD: fat diet, FF:
Fructose fed, GD: Glucose diffusion, GID: Glucose induced diabetic, GL: Glucose loaded, GLU: Glucose, I: induced, M: mouse, MAL: Maltase,
NG: normoglycemic, NOR: normal, P: person, R: rat, RAB: rabbit, RHE: rat hemidiaphragm, SI: Sucrase inhibition, SID: Streptozotocin
induced diabetic , SNID:, Streptozotocin Nicotinamide induced diabetic, STZ: Streptozotocin, SUC: Sucrase, T1DM: Type 1 DM, T2DM: Type
2 DM, -AI: -amylase inhibition, -GI: -glucosidase inhibition, -GI: -glucosidase inhibition
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Jurnal Antidiabetes

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 198 (2017) 531599

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Plants used to treat diabetes in Sri Lankan Siddha Medicine An

29. Kudineer (p. 30) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562

1.1. Plants, traditional medicines, and diabetes globally

1.2. Plants, traditional medicines, and diabetes in Sri Lanka

3. Background and methods

3.1. Diabetes mellitus

3.2.1. In vitro bioassays

3.2.2. In vivo models

3.2.3. Type 1 diabetes animal models

3.2.4. Type 2 diabetes animal models

3.3. Siddha/Tamil Medicine ( Siththa/Thamil Vaiththiyam)

3.4. Antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations sources

3.5. Characteristics of diabetes in Siddha Medicine

3.5.1. Causes of diabetes

3.5.2. Signs of diabetes

3.5.3. Types of diabetes

An odour of Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae) ower and sour taste, or

An odour of Curcuma longa L. rhizome (Zingiberaceae) and sour-bitter taste,

An odour of fruit juice and bitter taste,

An odour of cow urine and astringent taste and

An odour of Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre (Magnoliaceae) ower,

A strong odour and sour taste. (Sithamparthanuppillai, 1982).

3.5.4. Diabetes complications

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Siddha treatments for diabetes

4.2. Comparison of diabetes concepts in Biomedicine and Siddha Medicine

4.3. Antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations an overview

4.4. Animal parts used

4.5. Inorganic substances used

4.6. Amount of ingredients and dosages used

5. Pharmacological information on individual species

5.1. Pretreatment of plant part and extraction

5.2. Levels of evidence

5.2.2. Limited in vitro evidence and active compound identied

5.2.3. In vivo evidence and active compound identied

5.2.4. Clinical evidence and active compound identied

5.3. Toxic plants

Appendix A List of plants used in antidiabetic Sri Lankan Siddha preparations

Family and scientic name Tamil name Part Preparation Source

Table A.1 (continued )

Family and scientic name Tamil name Part Preparation Source

Table A.1 (continued )

Family and scientic name Tamil name Part Preparation Source

Ricinus communis L. (Aamankku) RO 46 PA

Table A.1 (continued )

Family and scientic name Tamil name Part Preparation Source

Ficus amplissima Sm. (Iththi) BA 14 PA

Table A.1 (continued )

Family and scientic name Tamil name Part Preparation Source

Table A.1 (continued )

Family and scientic name Tamil name Part Preparation Source

Paspalum scrobiculatum L. (Varahu) SE 2, 3 PA

Table A.1 (continued )

Family and scientic name Tamil name Part Preparation Source

Curcuma longa L. (Manjal) RH 13, 14, 28, 30 PA

1: Kaanthakkulihai; 2, 3: Thavidu; 4, 5, 6, 7: Pittu; 8: Elaathichchooranam; 9:

1. Pararasaseharam (Fifth Part) ( ( ) Pararaasaseharam (Ainthaam Paaham))

1. Kaanthakkulihai (p. 10)

Family Scientic/English name Processed botanical drug Amount

Acanthaceae Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine Whole plant 5g

Dosage: 1 tablet morning and night after meals