The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Chapter 45
Condition Assessment

The assessment of accumulated damage, or condi-

tion assessment, has a long history in the boiler in-
dustry. Whenever a component was found to contain
damage or had failed, engineers asked what caused
the damage and whether other components would fail.
These questions typically pertained to tubing and
headers, which caused the majority of downtime. As
boiler cycling became more common, the need for more
routine condition assessment increased to avoid com-
ponent failure and unscheduled outages.
Condition assessment includes the use of tools or
methods in the evaluation of specific components and
then the interpretation of the results to identify 1) the
components remaining life and 2) areas requiring
immediate attention.
A boiler components damage assessment, typically
compared to its design life, is based on accumulated
damage, and can be performed in three phases. In
Phase 1 of the assessment, design and overall operat-
ing records are reviewed and interviews are held with
operating personnel. In Phase 2, nondestructive ex-
aminations, stress analysis, verification of dimensions,
and operating parameters are undertaken. If required,
the more complex Phase 3 includes finite element
analysis, operational testing and evaluation, and
material properties measurement.1 (See Fig. 1.)

Condition assessment examination

methods
The major boiler components must be examined by
nondestructive and destructive tests.
Nondestructive examinations
Most nondestructive examination (NDE) methods
for fossil fuel-fired plants have been in use for many
years, although new methods are being developed for
major components. Nondestructive testing does not
damage the component.
The NDE methods used in evaluating electric util-
ity power stations and industrial process plants include:
visual, magnetic particle, liquid penetrant, ultrasonic,
eddy current, radiography, nuclear fluorescence, elec-
Fig. 1 Three phases (levels) of boiler damage assessment (courtesy
of the Electric Power Research Institute).1
tromagnetic acoustics, acoustic emissions, metallo-
graphic replication, strain measurement and tempera-
ture measurement.
Visual Whether the inspected component is subject
to mechanical wear, chemical attack, or damage from
thermal stress, visual examination can detect and iden-
tify some of the damage. Visual inspection is enhanced

Steam 41 / Condition Assessment 45-1

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
by lighting, magnification, mirrors, and optical equip-
ment such as borescopes, fiberscopes and binoculars.
Magnetic particle Magnetic particle testing (MT)
and wet fluorescent magnetic particle testing (WFMT)
detect surface and near surface flaws. Because a mag-
netic field must be imparted to the test piece, these tests
are only applicable to ferromagnetic materials.2 The
choice between these techniques generally depends on
the geometry of the component and the required sen-
sitivity. For typical power plant applications, one of two
methods is used: 1) the component is indirectly mag-
netized using an electromagnetic yoke with alternat-
ing current (AC), or 2) the part is directly magnetized
by prods driven by AC or direct current (DC).
In magnetic particle testing, any discontinuity dis-
rupts the lines of magnetic force passing through the
test area creating a leakage field. Iron particles ap-
plied to the area accumulate along the lines of mag-
netic force. Any leakage field created by a discontinu-
ity is easily identified by the pattern of the iron par-
ticles. Dry magnetic particle testing is performed us-
ing a dry medium composed of colored iron particles
that are dusted onto the magnetized area. In areas
where a dry medium is ineffective, such as in testing
overhead components or the inside surfaces of pres-
sure vessels, the wet fluorescent method is more ef-
fective. With this method, fluorescent ferromagnetic
particles are suspended in a liquid medium such as
kerosene. The liquid-borne particles adhere to the test
area. Because the particles are fluorescent, they are
highly visible when viewed under an ultraviolet light.
Liquid penetrant Liquid penetrant testing (PT) de-
tects surface cracking in a component. PT is not de-
pendent on the magnetic properties of the material
and is less dependent on component geometry.2 It is
used by The Babcock & Wilcox Company (B&W) in
limited access areas such as tube stub welds on high
temperature headers which are generally closely
spaced. PT detects surface flaws by capillary action of
the liquid dye penetrant and is only effective where
the discontinuity is open to the component surface.
Following proper surface cleaning the liquid dye is
applied. The penetrant is left on the test area for about
ten minutes to allow it to penetrate the discontinuity.
A cleaner is used to remove excess penetrant and the
area is allowed to dry. A developer is then sprayed onto
the surface. Any dye that has been drawn into the sur-
face at a crack bleeds into the developer by reverse
capillary action and becomes highly visible.
Ultrasonic Ultrasonic testing (UT) is the fastest de-
veloping technology for nondestructive testing of pres-
sure components. Numerous specialized UT methods
have been developed. A piezoelectric transducer is
placed in contact with the test material, causing dis-
turbances in the interatomic spacings and inducing an
elastic sound wave that moves through the material.3
The ultrasonic wave is reflected by any discontinuity
it encounters as it passes through the material. The
reflected wave is received back at the transducer and
is displayed on an oscilloscope.
Ultrasonic thickness testing Ultrasonic thickness test-
ing (UTT) is the most basic ultrasonic technology. A
common cause of pressure part failure is the loss of
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material due to oxidation, corrosion or erosion. UTT
is relatively fast and is used extensively for measur-
ing wall thicknesses of tubes or piping.
The surface of the component must first be thor-
oughly cleaned. Because ultrasonic waves do not pass
through air, a couplant such as glycerine, a water
soluble gel, is brushed onto the surface. The trans-
ducer is then positioned onto the component surface
within the couplant. A high frequency (2 to 5 MHz)
signal is transmitted by the transducer and passes
through the metal. UTT is performed using a longi-
tudinal wave which travels perpendicular to the con-
tacted surface. Because the travel time for the reflected
wave varies with distance, the metal thickness is de-
termined by the signal displacement, as shown on the
oscilloscope screen (Fig. 2).
Ultrasonic oxide measurement In the mid 1980s, B&W
developed an ultrasonic technique specifically to
evaluate high temperature tubing found in superheat-
ers and reheaters. This NDE method, called the Non-
destructive Oxide Thickness Inspection Service
(NOTIS), measures the oxide layer on the internal
surfaces of high temperature tubes. The test is gen-
erally applicable to low alloy steels because these ma-
terials are commonly used in outlet sections of the su-
perheater and reheater.
Low alloy steels grow an oxide layer on their inter-
nal surfaces when exposed to high temperatures for
long time periods (Fig. 3). The NOTIS test is not ap-
plicable to stainless steels because they do not develop
a measurable oxide layer.
The technique used for NOTIS testing is similar to
UTT; the major difference between the two is the fre-
quency range of the ultrasonic signal. A much higher
frequency is necessary to differentiate the interface
between the oxide layer and inside diameter (ID) sur-
face of the tube. Using data obtained from this NOTIS
testing, tube remaining creep life can also be calcu-
lated as discussed later in Analysis techniques. NOTIS
and UTT are methods in which the transducer is
placed in contact with the tube using a couplant gel.
Because of the high sensitivity of the NOTIS method,
it is less tolerant of rough tube surfaces or poor sur-
face preparation.
Ultrasonic measurement of internal tube damage Sev-
eral ultrasonic methods have been investigated for
detecting damage within boiler tubes. All techniques
Fig. 2 Typical ultrasonic signal response.4
Steam 41 / Condition Assessment
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 3 Steam-side oxide scale on ID surface.
use contact UT where a transducer is placed on the
outside diameter (OD) or tube surface using a
couplant, and an ultrasonic signal is transmitted
through the material. The techniques can be catego-
rized by type of signal evaluation: backscatter, the
evaluation of UT wave scatter when reflected by dam-
aged material; attenuation, the evaluation of UT signal
loss associated with transmission through damaged
material; and velocity, the measurement and compari-
son of UT wave velocity through the tube material.4
When a longitudinal wave passes through a tube,
part of the signal is not reflected to the receiver if it
encounters damaged material. The damaged areas
reflect part of the wave at various angles, backscat-
tering the reflected signal. The loss of wave amplitude
that is received back at the transducer is then used to
evaluate the degree of damage.
Damage in the tube can also be assessed by evalu-
ating the loss of signal amplitude (attenuation) as a
shear wave is transmitted through the tube wall. The
technique uses a fixture with two transducers
mounted at angles to each other. One unit transmits
a shear wave into the tube and the second transducer,
the receiver, picks up the signal as the wave is reflected
from the tube ID. A drop in signal amplitude indicates
damage in the tube wall.
This technology is the basis of the B&W patented Fur-
nace wall Hydrogen damage Nondestructive Examina-
tion Service (FHyNES)test method (Fig. 4). The ve-
locity test method uses either longitudinal or shear
ultrasonic waves. As a wave passes through a chordal
section of tube with hydrogen damage, there is a
measurable decrease in velocity. Because the signal
is not reflected from the tube inside surface, ultrasonic
velocity measurement is not affected by damage to the
inside of the tube and therefore specifically detects
hydrogen damage.
Steam 41 / Condition Assessment
Immersion ultrasonic testing In immersion ultrasonic
testing, the part is placed in a water bath which acts
as the couplant. B&W uses a form of immersion UT
for tube wall thickness measurements. In two-drum
industrial power boilers, process recovery boilers and
some utility power generation boilers, most of the tubes
in the convective bank between the drums are inac-
cessible for conventional contact UTT measurements.
For these applications, an ultrasonic test probe was
developed which is inserted into the tubes from the
steam drum; it measures the wall thickness from in-
side the tubes. As the probe is withdrawn in measured
increments, the transducers measure the tube wall
thicknesses. A limitation of this technique is that the
ID surface of the tubes must be relatively clean.
Shear wave ultrasonic testing This is a contact ultra-
sonic technique in which a shear wave is directed at
an angle into the test material. Angles of 45 and 60
deg (0.79 and 1.05 rad) are typically used for defect
detection and weld assessment. The entire weld must
be inspected for a quality examination.
Time of flight defraction (TOFD) TOFD is an ultrasonic
technique that relies on the diffraction of ultrasonic
energies from defects in the component being
tested. The primary application is weld inspection on
piping, pressure vessels, and tanks. TOFD is an au-
tomated inspection that uses a pitch-catch arrange-
ment with two probes, one on each side of the weld.
The weld material is saturated with angled longitu-
dinal waves to inspect for discontinuities. Because the
time separation of the diffracted waves is directly re-
lated to flaw size (height), TOFD can detect both the
flaw and allow estimation of the flaw size.
Eddy current Measuring the effects of induced eddy
currents on the primary or driving electromagnetic
field is the basis of eddy current testing. The electro-
magnetic induction needed for eddy current testing
is created by using an alternating current. This de-
velops the electromagnetic field necessary to produce
eddy currents in a test piece.
Eddy current testing is applicable to any materials
that conduct electricity and can be performed on mag-
netic and nonmagnetic materials. The test is therefore
Fig. 4 Shear wave technique for detecting hydrogen damage.
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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
applicable to all metals encountered in power station
condition assessment work.
Parameters affecting eddy current testing include
the resistivity, conductivity, and magnetic permeabil-
ity of the test material; the frequency of the current
producing the eddy currents; and the geometry and
thickness of the component being tested.
Radiography Radiography testing (RT) is the most
common NDE method used during field erection of a
boiler. Radiography is also valuable in condition as-
sessments of piping. As x-rays and gamma rays pass
through a material, some of the rays are absorbed.
Absorption depends upon material thickness and den-
sity. When the rays passing through an object are
exposed to a special film, an image of the object is pro-
duced due to the partial absorption of the rays.
In practical terms, a radioactive source is placed on
one side of a component such as a pipe, at a weld, and
a film is placed on the opposite side. If x-rays are di-
rected through the weld and there is a void within the
weld, more rays pass through this void and reach the
film, producing a darker image at that point. By exam-
ining the radiographic films, the weld integrity can be
determined. During the field erection of a boiler and
power station, thousands of tube and pipe welds are
made and radiographed. (See also Chapters 38 and 39.)
The major disadvantage of radiography is the harm-
ful effect of excessive exposure to the radioactive rays.
RT is also limited in its ability to provide the orienta-
tion and depth of an indication.
Nuclear fluorescence The primary use of this test-
ing in condition assessment is the verification of al-
loy materials in high temperature piping systems.
When certain elements are exposed to an external
source of x-rays they fluoresce (emit) additional x-rays
that vary in energy level. This fluorescence is charac-
teristic of the key alloys common to high temperature
piping and headers. Chromium and molybdenum are
the key elements measured. The nuclear alloy ana-
lyzer is a portable instrument that contains a low level
source of x-rays. A point on the surface of the pipe is
exposed to x-rays emitted from the analyzer. As the
source x-rays interact with the atoms of the metal, the
alloys emit x-rays back to the analyzer. Within the
detector system of the analyzer, the fluoresced x-rays
are separated into discrete energy regions. By mea-
suring the x-ray intensity in each energy region, the
elemental composition is also determined.
Electromagnetic acoustics Electromagnetic acous-
tics combine two nondestructive testing sciences, ul-
trasonics (UT) and electromagnetic induction. This
technology uses an electromagnetic acoustic trans-
ducer (EMAT) to generate high frequency sound waves
in materials, similar to conventional ultrasonics. Con-
ventional UT transducers used for field testing con-
vert electrical impulses to mechanical pulses by use
of piezoelectric crystals. These crystals must be
coupled to the test piece through a fluid couplant. For
electrically conductive materials, ultrasonic waves can
be produced by electromagnetic acoustic wave genera-
tion.5 In contrast to conventional contact UT where a
mechanical pulse is coupled to the material, the acous-
tic wave is produced by the interaction of two mag-
45-4
netic sources. The first magnetic source modulates a
time-dependent magnetic field by electromagnetic in-
duction as in eddy current testing. A second constant
magnetic field provided by an AC or DC driven elec-
tromagnet or a permanent magnet is positioned near
the first field. The interaction of these two fields gen-
erates a force, called the Lorentz force, in the direc-
tion perpendicular to the two other fields. This Lorentz
force interacts with the material to produce a shock
wave analogous to an ultrasonic pulse, eliminating the
need for a couplant.
Fig. 5 shows the basic principles of EMAT operation.
A strong magnetic field (B) is produced at the surface
of the test piece by either a permanent magnet or elec-
tromagnet. Eddy currents (J) are induced in the test
material surface. An alternating eddy flow in the pres-
ence of the magnetic field generates a Lorentz force
(F) that produces an ultrasonic wave in the material.
For boiler tubes that are electromagnetically conduc-
tive (including alloys such as SA-213T22), the EMAT
technology is ideal.
B&W, working with the Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI), developed a nondestructive rapid
scan system to inspect boiler tubes using EMAT tech-
nology. This EMAT based system is known as the Fast-
Scanning Thickness Gage (FST-GAGE ) and was
developed specifically to scan boiler tubes and provide
a continuous measurement of tube wall thickness.
(See Fig. 6.) The system conducts tests at exceptional
speeds, allowing scanning of thousands of feet (m) of
boiler tubing in a single shift. To perform an inspec-
tion, the FST-GAGE system is manually scanned
along individual boiler tubes. System sampling rates
greater than 65 samples per second supports rapid
scanning of tubes. During a scan, the system provides
an immediate display of both tube wall thickness and
signal amplitude. At the conclusion of each tube scan,
a complete record of the inspection is electronically
stored and is traceable to each boiler tube and position.
As with conventional UT, the FST-GAGE system can
assess internal tube damage by evaluating the loss of
signal amplitude (attenuation) as a shear wave is trans-
mitted through the tube wall. By monitoring and indi-
cating signal amplitude, the system can also be used to
detect tube damage such as hydrogen damage, similar
to B&Ws patented FHyNES technique. The FST-GAGE
has also demonstrated the ability to detect internal tube
pitting, caustic gouging, and under-deposit corrosion.
Magnet
J (Eddy
Currents)
Conducting F (Lorentz
Force)
Material
B (Magnetic
Force)
Ultrasonic
Wave
Eddy Current Coil
Fig. 5 Basic principles of EMAT operation.
Steam 41 / Condition Assessment
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
To Scan
Fig. 6 B&Ws Fast-Scanning Thickness Gage (FST-GAGE) EMAT
based system can provide continuous measurement of tube wall
thickness.
As with any NDE method, surface preparation is
important for effective testing with EMATs. However,
EMAT is not as sensitive to scale as conventional UT
since it produces the ultrasonic wave within the ma-
terial. Some scales, such as magnetite oxide of uniform
thickness, have no detrimental effect on the signal
generation of the EMAT probe. When the plant burns
a clean fuel such as natural gas, testing may be con-
ducted without any special surface cleaning. To pro-
tect the coil from damage, surface preparation will
normally be required for boilers firing oil or solid fu-
els. Some gas-fired units may require surface clean-
ing if external buildup or corrosion is present. Grit
blasting or water blasting are effective methods of
cleaning larger areas. Smooth metal is the preferred
surface to ensure rapid testing.
EMAT technology continues to be applied where its
unique properties have advantages over conventional
UT techniques. B&W and EPRI are developing a sys-
tem for the detection of cracking in boiler tubes asso-
ciated with corrosion fatigue. Waterside corrosion fa-
tigue is a serious boiler tube failure mechanism. The
failures usually occur close to attachments such as
buckstay welds, windbox attachment welds, or mem-
brane welds. The combination of thermal fatigue
stresses and corrosion leads to ID-initiated cracking
that is oriented along the tube axis. The EMAT sys-
tem under development for corrosion fatigue has
unique characteristics that enhance its ability to scan
past welds and attachments and scan the full circum-
ference of the boiler tube. The EMAT equipment uses
a tone burst EMAT signal allowing the use of horizon-
tally polarized shear wave (SH waves) to detect crack-
ing adjacent to external tube attachment welds.
B&W has developed an EMAT application to inspect
horizontal banks (i.e., economizer, reheater) of tubing
within the boiler. Horizontal bank tubing may expe-
rience tube failures caused by out of service corrosion
pitting forming aligned voids in the tube ID. The pur-
pose of this EMAT test is to detect the internal aligned
Steam 41 / Condition Assessment
pitting at the lower portion of the horizontal tube in-
ternal surface. The test is accomplished by scanning
along the outside of the horizontal tube at either the
3 or 9 oclock positions with an EMAT transducer gen-
erating a Lamb wave (ultrasonic waves that travel at
right angles to the tube surface) which is focused at
the 6 oclock position on the tube.
B&W has also developed a surface wave EMAT
application to show surface indications including axi-
ally oriented cracks in boiler tubes. Conventional sur-
face nondestructive test methods were unsatisfactory
because they lacked adequate sensitivity and had slow
production rates for testing on large areas. A tone burst
EMAT technique was developed that uses a bidirec-
tional focused surface wave EMAT that follows the tube
surface circumferentially until the signal is reflected
back from a longitudinally orientated OD crack.
Acoustics Acoustics refers to the use of transmitted
sound waves for nondestructive testing. It is differ-
entiated from ultrasonics and electromagnetic acous-
tics in that it features low frequency, audible sound.
B&W uses acoustic technology in testing tubular air
heaters. Because the sound waves are low frequency,
they can only be transmitted through air. A pulse of
sound is sent into the air heater tube. As the wave
travels along the tube, it is reflected by holes, block-
age or partial obstructions. By evaluating the reflected
wave on an oscilloscope, the type of flaw and its loca-
tion along the tube can be determined.
Acoustic emissions Acoustic emissions (AE) detect
subsurface crack growth in pressure vessels. When a
structure such as a pipe is pressurized and heated,
the metal experiences mechanical and thermal
stresses. Due to the stress concentration at a defect
such as a crack, a small overall stress in the pipe can
produce localized yield and fracture stresses result-
ing in plastic deformation. These localized yields re-
lease bursts of energy or stress wave emissions that
are commonly called acoustic emissions. AE testing
uses acoustic transducers that are positioned along the
vessel being monitored. AE signals are received at
various transducers on the vessel. By measuring the
time required for the signal to reach each of the trans-
ducers, the data can be interpreted to identify the lo-
cation of the defect.
Metallographic replication Metallographic replica-
tion is an in situ test method that enables an image of
the metal grain structure to be nondestructively lifted
from a component. Replication is important in evalu-
ating high temperature headers and piping because
it allows the structure to be examined for creep dam-
age. Prior to the use of replication techniques, it was
necessary to remove samples of the material for labo-
ratory analysis. The replication process involves three
steps: grinding, polishing and etching, and replicat-
ing. In the first step, the surface is rough ground then
flapper wheel ground with finer grit paper. In the sec-
ond step, the surface is polished using increasingly
finer grades of diamond paste while intermittently
applying a mixture of nitric acid and methanol in so-
lution. The acid solution preferentially attacks the
grain boundaries of the metal. In the final step, the
replica, which is a plastic tape, is prepared by coating
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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
one face of the tape with acetone for softening. The
tape is then firmly pressed onto the prepared surface.
Following a suitable drying time, the tape is removed and
mounted onto a glass slide for microscopic examination.
Strain measurement Strain measurements are ob-
tained nondestructively by using strain gauges.
Gauges used for piping measurements are character-
ized by an electrical resistance that varies as a func-
tion of the applied mechanical strain.6 For high tem-
perature components, the gauge is made of an alloy,
such as platinum-tungsten, which can be used at tem-
peratures up to 1200F (649C). The gauge is welded to
the surface of the pipe and the strain is measured as
the pipe ramps through a temperature-pressure cycle
to operating temperature. Strain gauges used for lower
temperature applications such as for analysis of hanger
support rods are made of conventional copper-nickel al-
loy (constantan). These low temperature gauges are
made of thin foil bonded to a flexible backing and are
attached to the test surface by a special adhesive.
Temperature measurement Most temperature mea-
surements can be obtained with sheathed thermo-
couples (TC). In special applications where tempera-
ture gradients are needed such as detailed stress
analysis of header ligaments, special embedded TCs
are used. The embedded unit is constructed by drill-
ing a small hole into the header. A sheathed TC wire is
then inserted and peened in place. (See Chapter 40.)
Destructive examinations
B&W tries to minimize the use of sample analysis
because it is generally more expensive to perform destruc-
tive testing. However, for certain components, complete
evaluation can only be done by removing and analyz-
ing test samples. Destructive testing is described for two
types of specimens, tube samples and boat samples.
Tube samples Tubes are the most common destruc-
tively tested components. Tube samples are generally
removed from water- and steam-cooled circuits. A rela-
tively large number of samples may be removed for
visual inspections, from which a smaller number are
selected for complete laboratory analysis. A tube
analysis usually includes the following: 1) as-received
sample photo documentation, 2) complete visual in-
spection under magnification, 3) dimensional evalu-
ation of a ring section removed from the sample, 4)
material verification by spectrographic analysis, 5) op-
tical metallography, and 6) material hardness mea-
surement. On waterwall tubes removed from the
boiler furnace, the analysis includes a measurement
of the internal deposit loading [g/ft2 (g/m2)] and el-
emental composition of the deposit. On steam-cooled
superheater and reheater tubes, the thickness of the
high temperature oxide layer is also provided.
Specialized tests are performed as required to pro-
vide more in-depth information. Failure analysis is a
common example. When failures occur in which the
root cause is not readily known from standard tests,
fractography is performed. Fractography involves
examination of the fracture surface using a scanning
electron microscope.
Boat samples Boat samples are wedge shaped slices
removed from larger components such as headers,
45-6
piping and drums. The shape of the cut allows the
material to be replaced by welding. Because the repairs
usually require post weld heat treating, the use of boat
samples is expensive. In most instances, replication is
adequate for metallographic examination of these com-
ponents and boat sample removal is not required.
Condition assessment of boiler
components and auxiliaries
In Phase 1 of a condition assessment program, in-
terviews of plant personnel and review of historical
maintenance records help identify problem compo-
nents. These components are targeted for a closer on-
site examination during Phase 2 of the program. Non-
destructive and destructive examination methods can
then be used to evaluate the remaining life of the boiler
components and its major auxiliaries.
Boiler drums
Steam drum The steam drum is the most expensive
boiler component and must be included in any com-
prehensive condition assessment program. There are
two types of steam drums, the all-welded design used
predominantly in electric utilities where the operat-
ing pressures exceed 1800 psi (12.4 MPa), and drums
with rolled tubes. The steam drum operates at satu-
ration temperature [less than 700F (371C)]. Because
of this relatively low operating temperature, the drum
is made of carbon steel and is not subject to signifi-
cant creep. Creep is defined as increasing strain at a
constant stress over time.
Regardless of drum type, damage is primarily due
to internal metal loss. The causes of metal loss include:
corrosion and oxidation, which can occur during ex-
tended outages; acid attack; oxygen pitting; and
chelant attack discussed in Chapter 42. Damage can
also occur from mechanical and thermal stresses on
the drum that concentrate at nozzle and attachment
welds. These stresses, most often associated with boil-
ers that are on/off cycled, can result in crack develop-
ment. Cyclic operation can lead to drum distortion
(humping) and can result in concentrated stresses at
the major support welds, seam welds, and girth welds.
The feedwater penetration area has the greatest ther-
mal differential because incoming feedwater can be
several hundred degrees below drum temperature.
A problem unique to steam drums with rolled tube
seats is tube seat weepage (slight seeping of water
through the rolled joint). If the leak is not stopped, the
joint, with its high residual stresses from the tube roll-
ing operation, can experience caustic embrittlement.
(See Chapter 42.) In addition, the act of eliminating
the tube seat leak by repeated tube rolling can over-
stress the drum shell between tube seats and lead to
ligament cracking.
Condition assessment of the steam drum can in-
clude visual and fiber optic scope examination, MT,
PT, WFMT, UT and replication.
Lower drum The lower or mud drum is most often
found in industrial boilers. (See Chapter 27.) Part of
the boilers water circuit, the lower drum is not sub-
Steam 41 / Condition Assessment
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
ject to large thermal differentials or mechanical
stresses. However, as in steam drums with rolled tubes,
seat weepage and excessive stresses from tube rolling
can occur. In most cases, visual inspection, including
fiber optic probe examination of selected tube penetra-
tions, is sufficient. Kraft recovery boiler lower drums
are subject to corrosion of the tube-drum interface on
the OD. This area of the drum is inaccessible, there-
fore inspections are conducted from the ID using UTT
and EMATs to check for cracking and wall thinning.
The downcomers carry water from the steam drum
to the mud drum and the various wall circuits. Two
areas on the downcomers that should be inspected are
termination welds for cracks and horizontal runs of
piping for internal corrosion pitting and thinning.
Boiler tubing
Steam-cooled Steam-cooled tubing is found in the
superheater and reheat superheater. Both compo-
nents have tubes subjected to the effects of metal
creep. Creep is a function of temperature, stress and
operating time. The creep life of the superheater tubes
is reduced by higher than expected operating tem-
perature, thermal cycling, and by other damage
mechanisms, such as erosion and corrosion, causing
tube wall thinning and increased stresses. Excessive
stresses associated with thermal expansion and me-
chanical loading can also occur, leading to tube cracks
and leaks independent of the predicted creep life.
As discussed in Chapters 19, 21, 29 and 45, super-
heater tubing can also experience erosion, corrosion,
and interacting combinations of both.
Condition assessment of the superheater tubes in-
cludes visual inspection, NOTIS, UTT and tube
sample analysis. Problems due to erosion, corrosion,
expansion, or excessive temperature can generally be
located by visual examination.
Water-cooled Water-cooled tubes include those of
the economizer, boiler (generating) bank and furnace.
The convection pass side wall and screen tubes may
also be water-cooled as discussed in Chapter 19. These
tubes operate at or below saturation temperature and
are not subject to significant creep. Modern boilers in
electric utilities and many industrial plants operate
at high pressures. Because these boilers are not tol-
erant of waterside deposits, they must be chemically
cleaned periodically, which results in some tube ma-
terial loss. As discussed in Chapter 42, proper water
chemistry control will limit tube inside surface mate-
rial loss due to ongoing operations and cleaning.
With the exception of creep deformation, the factors
that reduce steam-cooled tube life can also act upon
water-cooled tubes. Erosion is most likely to occur on
tube outside surfaces in the boiler or economizer bank
from sootblowing or ash particle impingement. Cor-
rosion of the water-cooled tubes is most common on
internal tube surfaces and results from excessive
waterside deposits. Deposit accumulations promote
corrosion, caustic gouging or hydrogen damage.
Risers The riser tubes are generally found in the
penthouse or over the roof of the boiler. They carry
the saturated steam-water mixture exiting the upper
waterwall headers to the steam drum. Condition as-
Steam 41 / Condition Assessment
sessment includes UTT measurements on nondrainable
sections and on the extrados (outside surface) of bends.
When access is available it is advantageous to perform
internal visual inspection with a fiber optic or video probe.
Headers
Headers and their associated problems can be
grouped according to operating temperature. High
temperature steam-carrying headers are a major con-
cern because they have a finite creep life and their
replacement cost is high. Lower temperature water-
and steam-cooled headers are not susceptible to creep
but may be damaged by corrosion, erosion, or severe
thermal stresses.
High temperature The high temperature headers
are the superheater and reheater outlets that oper-
ate at a bulk temperature of 900F (482C) or higher.
Headers operating at high temperature experience
creep under normal conditions. The mechanics of creep
crack initiation and crack growth are further dis-
cussed in the data analysis section of this chapter. Fig.
7 illustrates the locations where cracking is most likely
to occur on high temperature headers. In addition to
material degradation resulting from creep, high tem-
perature headers can experience thermal and me-
chanical fatigue. Creep stresses in combination with
thermal fatigue stress lead to failure much sooner
than those resulting from creep alone.
There are three factors influencing creep fatigue in
superheater high temperature headers: combustion,
steam flow and boiler load. Heat distribution within
the boiler is not uniform: burner inputs can vary, air
distribution is not uniform, and slagging and fouling
can occur. The net effect of these combustion param-
eters is variations in heat input to individual super-
heater and reheater tubes. When combined with
steam flow differences between tubes within a bank,
significant variations in steam temperature entering
the header can occur. (See Fig. 8.) Changes in boiler
load further aggravate the temperature difference
between the individual tube legs and the bulk header.
As boiler load increases, the firing rate must increase
to maintain pressure. During this transient, the boiler
is temporarily over fired to compensate for the increas-
ing steam flow and decreasing pressure. During load
decreases, the firing rate decreases slightly faster than
steam flow in the superheater with a resulting de-
crease in tube outlet temperature relative to that of
the bulk header (Fig. 9). As a consequence of these
Fig. 7 Header locations susceptible to cracking.
45-7
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Fig. 9 Superheater tube leg temperatures vary with load.

This test is considered the most effective. Ideally, the

Fig. 8 Steam temperature variation in a header. evaluation should correspond to the hottest location
along the header.
Low temperature The low temperature headers are
temperature gradients, the header experiences local- those operating at temperatures below which creep is
ized stresses much greater than those associated with a consideration. These include waterwall headers,
steam pressure and can result in large ligament cracks economizer inlet and outlet headers, and superheater
as shown in Fig. 10. inlet and intermediate headers. Any damage to the
In addition to the effects of temperature variations, low temperature headers is generally caused by cor-
the external stresses associated with header expan- rosion or erosion.
sion and piping loads must be evaluated. Header ex- Waterwall headers, found in most electric utility
pansion can cause damage on cycling units resulting and industrial power generation boilers, are generally
in fatigue cracks at support attachments, torque located outside the hostile environment of the combus-
plates, and tube stub to header welds. Steam piping
flexibility can cause excessive loads to be transmitted
to the header outlet nozzle. These stresses result in
externally initiated cracks at the outlet nozzle to
header saddle weld.
Condition assessment of high temperature headers
should include a combination of NDE techniques that
are targeted at the welds where cracks are most likely
to develop. Creep of the header causes it to swell; the
diameter should be measured at several locations on
the header and the outlet nozzle. All major header
welds, including the outlet nozzle, torque plates, sup-
port lugs, support plates and circumferential girth
welds, should be examined by MT or PT. A percent-
age of the stub to header welds should be examined
by PT. Each section of the header should be examined
by eddy current or acid etching to locate the seam if it
is not readily apparent. The seam weld is examined
for surface indications by MT or PT, and ultrasonic
shear wave testing is performed to locate subsurface
flaws. To examine the header for creep damage, met-
allographic replication is performed. The last test that
should be performed on any high temperature header
is internal examination of at least two tube bore holes. Fig. 10 Large ligament cracks on header ID.

45-8 Steam 41 / Condition Assessment

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
tion zone. One exception is the economizer inlet
header; this may be in the gas stream and is subject
to unique problems associated with cycling. Boilers
that are held overnight in a hot standby condition
without firing can experience severe damage to the
economizer inlet header in a very short time. This
damage is typically caused by thermal shock.
The magnitude of the thermal shock is a function
of the temperature differential between the feedwater
and the inlet header. It is also a function of water flow,
which is usually large because the feedwater piping/
valve train is sized for rated boiler capacity. The ther-
mal shock is worst near the header feedwater inlet and
rapidly decreases as flow passes into the header and
tubes. The primary concern with other low tempera-
ture headers is internal and external corrosion dur-
ing out of service periods. Lower waterwall headers
on stoker-fired boilers that burn coal or refuse may
experience erosion along the side walls adjacent to the
stoker grates.
Attemperators
The attemperator, or desuperheater, is located in
the piping of the superheater and is used for steam
temperature control. (See Chapter 19.) The spray at-
temperator is the most common type used. (See Fig.
11.) In the spray unit, high quality water is sprayed
directly into the superheated steam flow where it va-
porizes to cool the steam. The attemperator is typi-
cally located in the piping between the primary su-
perheater outlet header and the secondary super-
heater inlet header. Steam exiting the primary header
at temperatures of 800 to 900F (427 to 482C) enters
the attemperator, where relatively cool water [approxi-
mately 300F (149C)] is sprayed into the steam and re-
duces the temperature to the inlet of the secondary
superheater. Because of the large temperature differ-
ence between the steam and spray water, parts of the
attemperator experience thermal shock each time it
is used. Over a period of years this can lead to ther-
mal fatigue and eventual failure (Fig. 12).
Condition assessment of the attemperator requires
removal of the spray nozzle assembly. The thermal
stresses occurring in the attemperator are most dam-
aging at welds, which act as stress concentrators. The
spray head and welds on the nozzle assembly are ex-
amined visually and by PT to ensure there are no
cracks. With the spray head removed, the liner can
be examined with a video or fiber optic probe. For
larger attemperators, it may be necessary to remove
Fig. 11 Typical attemperator assembly.
Steam 41 / Condition Assessment
Fig. 12 Failed attemperator spray head.
radiograph plugs before and after the attemperator
to better view the critical liner welds.
High temperature piping
Damage mechanisms Damage to high temperature
piping systems operating at more than 800F (427C)
arises from creep, cycle fatigue, creep fatigue, and
erosion-corrosion.
Most modern high temperature piping systems are
designed for temperatures ranging from 950 to 1050F
(510 to 566C), or higher. The American Society of Me-
chanical Engineers (ASME) allowable material
stresses at these temperatures may produce creep
rupture in approximately 30 to 40 years. Systems
designed from 1950 through 1965, that used 1-1/4 Cr-
1/2 Mo alloy steel, may be underdesigned by todays
standards because the ASME Code has evolved, low-
ering the allowable high temperature stress for this
material.
Fatigue damage to a piping system is caused by
repeated cyclic loading, which can be the result of
mechanical loads, thermal expansion and contraction,
and vibration. Most piping systems are designed with
some degree of fatigue resistance. This built-in flex-
ibility comes from hangers and supports.
Creep and fatigue can occur together and interact
to cause more damage than each mechanism by itself;
it is not fully understood which mechanism is the pri-
mary cause. This combination of conditions is by far
the most prominent because most power piping sys-
tems are highly dynamic.
Erosion-corrosion is not as prominent as the creep
fatigue failure mechanisms. It is defined as wall thin-
ning that is flow induced and occurs on the fluid side
of the piping system. Factors that contribute to ero-
sion-corrosion include bulk fluid velocity, material
composition and fluid percent moisture.
Overall evaluation program When evaluating high
temperature piping, condition assessment is usually
necessary if the following conditions exist: piping op-
erates above 1000F (538C); was manufactured of
SA335-P11 or P22 material, or manufactured of long
seam welded material; has had hanger problems; was
manufactured with specific weld joint types; has a
history of steam leaks; or operates above design con-
ditions. Once a priority list is developed, the evalua-
45-9
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

tion can begin. This evaluation program should be as

complete as economically possible. Table 1
Detailed evaluation program Typical Piping System Tests
Phase I To determine where physical testing is re- Test Area Test Type Optional*
quired, the following preliminary steps are part of a
Phase I evaluation: plant personnel interviews, plant Circumferential welds A, B, D, E, F, G, H C, I, J
history review, walkdowns, stress analysis, and life Longitudinal welds A, B, D, E, F, G, H C, I, J
fraction analysis. Wye blocks A, B, E, F, G, H C, D, I, J
Plant personnel interviews are conducted to gather Hanger shear lugs A, B C, F, G, J
Hanger bracket and
information that is not readily available from plant supports A, B C, F, G, J
records. Significant history may only be found in rec- Branch connections A, B, D, E, F, G, H C, I, J
ollections of experienced personnel. RT plugs A, B C, F, G, I
Operating history reviews complement personnel Misc. taps and drains A, B C, I
interviews. They can provide problem histories and Elbows/bend A, E, F B, C, G
design or operating solutions.
Piping system walkdowns serve three major func- A - Visual F - Replication
tions: to evaluate pipe supports and hangers, to find B - Magnetic particle G - Material ID
C - Liquid penetrant H - Dimensional
major bending or warpage, and to verify changes. D - Ultrasonic shear I - Radiography
Pipe hangers and supports should be carefully ex- E - Ultrasonic thickness J - Metallography
amined. This can be done by creating a baseline in-
spection record of all supports. * Optional tests should be used to gather more detailed
While the data are being taken on the piping information.
walkdown, the general appearance should also be
noted. In particular, inspections may reveal the fol-
lowing damages: necked-down rods or yokes, spring the pipe has deformed, it has undoubtedly gone
coil fractures, deterioration of the hanger can, and through a severe thermal shock. The high strain be-
deterioration of tiebacks into building steel. tween the upper and lower sections of pipe can cause
Many times a walkdown reveals that a modification permanent deformation.
was performed. If the entire system was not reviewed Two final common failure areas are the boiler outlet
during the modification, other problems may result. headers and turbine stop (throttle) valves. These areas
Stress analysis of the piping system can now be should always be considered in any piping evaluation.
performed. Typically, a computer program is used to
perform the stress calculations based on design and Low temperature piping
any abnormal conditions found during the walkdown. Low temperature piping operating at less than 800F
Once a piping system is modeled, the analysis allows (427C) is not damaged by creep. These systems typi-
the engineer to pinpoint high stress locations. The cally fail due to fatigue, erosion or corrosion. The
objective is to limit the nondestructive examination evaluation methods are the same as those for high
work to these high stress areas. temperature piping; however, a finite life is not pre-
Life fraction analysis (LFA) of a pipe is done if the dicted. Low temperature pipes, if maintained, last
primary failure mode is creep due to operating tem- much longer than their high temperature counter-
peratures above 900F (482C). The LFA is based on the parts. Typical systems are reheat inlet steam lines,
units operating history and stress levels are calcu- extraction lines, feedwater lines and general service
lated using design conditions and minimum wall water lines.
thicknesses. This analysis is discussed at length later. Typical failures Many high temperature failure
Phase II Phase II of the evaluation includes all modes occur in low temperature pipes. Cold reheat
physical testing of the piping system. The majority of lines experience thermal shock because the reheat
the testing should be nondestructive; however, some temperature control is typically an in-line attempera-
destructive testing may be required. The results from tor. The attemperator spray can shock the line if the
Phase I testing provide test location priority. Specific liner is damaged or the nozzle is broken. Economizer
test recommendations are shown in Table 1. discharge lines that run from the economizer outlet
The test data generated from the inspections must header to the boiler drum can be damaged during
be evaluated to determine the remaining component startup sequences. If the economizer is steaming and
life. This is known as the Phase III evaluation and is flow is initiated as a water slug, the line can experi-
covered under Analysis techniques. ence severe shocks. This can cause line distortion and
Typical failures The most typical steam pipe fail- cracking at the end connections and support brack-
ure is cracking of attachment welds (support welds or ets. Other low temperature piping can be damaged by
shear lugs). These cracks are caused by thermal fa- oxygen pitting caused by inadequate water treatment.
tigue, improper support, or improper welding. Erosion due to flow cavitation around intrusion points
Radiograph plugs often have cracked seal welds. can cause severe wall thinning. If solid particles are
Although the plug threads are the pressure bearing entrained in the fluid, erosion of pipe elbows results.
surfaces, they can become disengaged over time due General corrosion of the inside pipe surface can be caused
to corrosion, creep swelling or oxidation. by extended outage periods. Proper line draining is rec-
Steam pipe warping is another serious problem. If ommended unless protective materials are in place.

45-10 Steam 41 / Condition Assessment

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Tubular air heaters
Tubular air heaters are large heat exchangers that
transfer heat from the boiler flue gas to the incoming
combustion air, as discussed in Chapter 20. On large
utility boilers, tubular air heaters can contain up to
90,000 tubes with lengths of 50 ft (15.2 m) each. These
2 in. (50.8 mm) OD tubes are densely grouped with
spacings of 3 to 6 in. (76.2 to 152.4 mm) centers in two
directions. Flue gas flow direction is typically oppo-
site that of the combustion air to maximize thermal
efficiency. Unfortunately, this promotes corrosion on
the gas side cold end.
Condensate formation promotes acid corrosion from
the flue gas which causes wall thinning. If left un-
checked for several years the tubes eventually corrode
through, causing air leakage from the air to gas side.
Because access to air heater tubes is limited, eddy
current and acoustic technologies are used to test for
blockage, holes and wall thinning. Eddy current tech-
nology is used to measure wall thicknesses of thin
[< 0.065 in. (< 1.65 mm)] nonferrous heat exchanger
tubing. Holes and partial and complete blockage are
located using acoustic technology. When an audible
sound is introduced into a tube it travels the length of
the tube and exits the open end. If a hole exists in the
tube, however, it changes the signal pitch in the same
manner as a flutist changes a note pitch. In a like
manner, partial or total tube blockage yields a pitch
change. B&W uses The Acoustic Ranger inspection
probe for this test. (See Fig. 13.)
Boiler settings
The boiler components that are not part of the
steam-water pressure boundary are general mainte-
nance items that do not have a significant impact on
remaining life of the unit. The nonpressure compo-
nents include the penthouse, boiler casing, brickwork
and refractories, and flues and ducts. Deterioration
of these components results from mechanical and ther-
mal fatigue, overheat, erosion and corrosion. In all
cases, condition assessment is done by performing a
detailed visual inspection. For flues, ducts and casing,
it is of value to inspect the in-service boiler to detect
hot spots, air leaks and flue gas leaks that can indi-
cate a failed seal.
Fig. 13 Acoustic Ranger schematic.
Steam 41 / Condition Assessment
The structural members of the boiler must be re-
viewed during a condition assessment inspection.
Normally these members, along with the support rods
above the boiler and auxiliaries, last the life of the
boiler. However, because nonuniform expansion can
lead to boiler load movement, the support system
should be examined during the boiler outage inspec-
tions. Particular attention should be given to header
and drum supports that could be damaged if the ves-
sel is distorted.
Analysis techniques
Once the testing is complete and the data are com-
piled, the next step in condition assessment is to de-
cide whether to repair, replace or re-inspect certain
components. For high temperature components with
finite lives, this decision is aided by computers that
predict failures by modeling analyses.
Component end of life is defined as the point at
which failures occur frequently, the costs of inspection
and repair exceed replacement cost, or personnel are
at risk. Therefore, remaining life can be considered
as the interval between the present time (tp) with ac-
cumulated damage and the time at end of life (te). This
can be written as:
R.L. = te tp (1)
For waterwall tubing that is eroding at a linear rate,
the remaining life is as follows:
R.L. =
(tc tr )
(2)
e.r.
where
R.L. = remaining life
tc = current wall thickness, in. (mm)
tr = preset replacement wall thickness, in. (mm)
e.r. = erosion rate, in./yr (mm/yr)
Remaining life of headers is calculated using mod-
eling software due to the complexity of crack growth.
Steam-cooled tubes
Steam-carrying superheater and reheater tubes
operating at temperatures above 900F (482C) are
subject to failure by creep rupture. The creep life of a
tube can be estimated from tabulated data, provided
the applied (hoop) stress and the operating tempera-
ture are known.
When a tube is put in service, the metal contacting
the steam begins to form a layer of oxide scale known
as magnetite (Fe3O4). As the life progresses, the ID
oxide layer grows at a rate that is dependent on tem-
perature. This scale acts as a heat transfer barrier and
causes an increase in the tube metal temperature as
discussed in Chapter 4. The metal temperature, there-
fore, also gradually increases with time.
Internal oxide thickness measurements are neces-
sary for estimating a tubes operating temperature and
remaining creep life as well as for assessing the over-
all condition of the superheater. In the past, these
45-11
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

measurements have been obtained by removing tube From the LMP equation, the expected time to fail-
samples for laboratory examination. To avoid destruc- ure (tf ) can be calculated:
tive tests, B&W developed the NOTIS NDE technique
discussed earlier. LMP = (T + 460 ) ( 20 + log tf )
Life prediction methodology The prediction of tube (5)
creep life begins with creep rupture data taken in tf = 150, 000 h
short-term laboratory studies. Creep specimens, simi-
lar to cylindrical tensile specimens, are machined from If this tube has operated for 100,000 hours at these
various tube steels. Each specimen is heated to a tem- parameters, the creep life fraction expended is:
perature (T ) and is pulled uniaxially at a stress (S )
until failure occurs; at this point, a time to failure (t) 100, 000
fexpended = t / tf = = 0.6667 (6)
is measured. A matrix of stress and temperature val- 150, 000
ues has been tested.
The Larson-Miller parameter (LMP) is a function The creep life fraction remaining is:
relating T, S, and t. This parameter is defined as:
fremaining = 1 texpended = 1 0.6667 = 0.3334
LMP = (T + 460 ) ( 20 + log t ) tremaining = fremaining tf
where tremaining = 0.3334 150, 000 (7)
T = constant temperature applied to the creep tremaining = 50, 000 h
specimen, F
t = time at temperature T, h
Example Part II
Every tube in service has an associated LMP num- Assume that, after operating at 1050F (566C) for
ber that increases with time. These LMP data can be 100,000 hours, tube temperature increases to 1065F
related to stress, as is illustrated in Fig. 14. This rela- (574C).
tionship between stress and LMP can then be used to Using the same effective LMP, the LMP equation
predict a time to creep rupture for a superheater or is used to calculate tf at 1065F (574C) as follows:
reheater tube. Knowing two of the three factors affect-
ing creep rupture, i.e., hours in service and hoop stress, LMP = (T + 460 ) ( 20 + log tf )
the third factor, temperature history, can be estimated.
(8)
There are numerous mathematical models relating tf = 85, 000 h
steam-side oxide thickness, time, and mean metal tem-
perature for low chromium-molybdenum alloys. The Therefore, a new tube operating at 1065F would
following relationship is most widely used to calculate have an expected life of 85,000 hours. However, from
oxide thickness (x) in mils: Part I, this tube has used up two-thirds of its life at
1050F and has a remaining life fraction of 0.33.
log x = 0.00022 (T + 460 ) ( 20 + log t ) 7.25 (3)
Although this formula works well with 1-1/4 Cr-Mo
alloys, it must be modified for use with higher chro-
mium alloys and carbon steels.
Creep life fraction analysis The life fraction is de-
fined as the ratio of the time a tube withstands a given
stress and temperature (t) to the time for creep rup-
ture conditions (tf).
Robinsons Rule of life fractions states that if the
applied stress and temperature conditions are varied,
the sum of the life fractions (or damage) associated
with each set of conditions equals 1 at failure. It may
also be written as follows:

(t / t )
f 1
+ (t / tf ) 2 + + (t / tf ) n = 1 (4)
where subscripts 1 through n indicate unique stress
temperature conditions.
Example Part I
Assume a tube operates at a hoop stress of 5 ksi
(34,474 kPa) and a temperature of 1050F (566C). What
is the predicted time to failure? Using these param-
eters and the stress-LMP curve presented in Fig. 14,
the effective LMP at failure is 38,015. Fig. 14 Stress versus Larsen-Miller parameter (LMP).

45-12 Steam 41 / Condition Assessment

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Robinsons Rule can be applied to determine the
higher temperature service life after the tube is ex-
posed to 100,000 hours at 1050F.
Recall Robinsons Rule the sum of the life frac-
tions is equal to 1:
(t / t )
f 1050
+ (t / tf ) 1065 = 1
100, 000 / 150, 000 + t / 85, 000 = 1
t = 28, 000 h
Note that in this example, the total tube life would
be 100,000 + 28,000, or 128,000 hours.
Analysis procedure The following analysis procedure
is used with tube wall oxide thickness measurements
from the NOTIS system.
1. The life of the tube, past and future, is broken into
time intervals, each of length t:
An oxide growth rate is determined knowing the
present oxide thickness and the time in service and
assuming the initial oxide thickness was zero.
Once a mathematical function describing oxide
thickness with respect to time and temperature
is defined, the thickness in each analysis interval
can be calculated. The tube metal temperature in
each interval, taking into account the insulating
property of the oxide, is also calculated.
A linear wall thinning rate is determined for the
tube, knowing the present wall thickness as mea-
sured by NOTIS, the original wall thickness, and
the service time of the tube. Once a function de-
scribing wall thickness with respect to time is
defined, the wall thickness in each analysis inter-
val can be calculated. The hoop stress is calculated
using the ASME Boiler Code Section I tube for-
mula in each interval.
2. The creep life fraction used up in each interval is
determined:
Given the stress, the LMP value may be found
from the creep rupture database. Given the operat-
ing temperature and the LMP, the time a new tube
would last at these conditions (tf) is determined. The
interval creep life fraction used up is then t/ tf.
3. Because the life fractions, summed over the analy-
sis intervals, are equal to 1, the remaining life is
obtained by subtracting the tube service time from
this total life.
Accuracy of creep life prediction analysis Life fraction
analysis is the most accurate and widely accepted
method for estimating tube life. Although this method
is straightforward and well documented, it is not precise.
Result inaccuracies are due to inherent material
property variations. Additionally, during service, short
excursions to higher temperatures lower the remain-
ing life fraction.
Rather than attempting to determine the precise
time of a creep rupture, the evaluation places each
tube into a band of expected remaining lives. These
bands take into account the shortcomings of the life
fraction analysis, as well as the inaccuracy of the op-
erating parameters for the unit being assessed. In
effect, these bands are confidence limits.
Steam 41 / Condition Assessment
Capabilities and limitations At elevated temperatures,
the external and internal surfaces of boiler tubes
slowly oxidize. The external scale is normally removed,
whereas the internal scale usually remains intact.
Typically, the multilaminated scale that is formed on
the inner surface is characterized by an iron-rich in-
ner layer and an oxygen-rich outer layer. The latter
generally contains a large number of pores or voids.
(9) The ultrasonic response with the NOTIS system from
the inner/outer layer interface is small compared to
the signals associated with the metal/oxide and oxide/
air interfaces. Therefore, a tightly adhering porous
oxide does not affect the accuracy of the NOTIS sys-
tem. However, if the two oxide layers become dis-
banded due to exfoliation processes, the NOTIS op-
erator may only measure the oxide thickness to the
disbanded area and therefore indicate that the oxide
is exfoliating. Exfoliation is the flaking of scale par-
ticles off of the internal oxide layer.
Water-cooled tubes
Water-carrying tubes operate at or below satura-
tion temperature and are not subject to creep dam-
age. Therefore, these tubes have no defined design life
as do high temperature components. However, erosion,
corrosion, thermal expansion and mechanical stresses
act on water carrying tubes. This limits useful practi-
cal life.
Outside tube wall thinning Erosion and corrosion
are the most common causes of OD wall thinning. Ero-
sion typically occurs on the tube outside diameter in
the form of wall thickness loss. A tubes wall thickness
is designed to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code to withstand a given pressure, temperature, and
mechanical load. An example is as follows:
Given: Design pressure (P) = 2400 psi (16.5 MPa)
Design temperature (T) = 700F (371C)
Tube outside diameter (OD) = 3 in. (76.2 mm)
Tube material = SA210 A1
From the ASME Code the wall thickness formula is:
PD
t = + 0.005 D (10)
2S + P
where
t = minimum wall thickness
P = design pressure
D = outside diameter
S = allowable stress
By knowing the material and temperature, the al-
lowable stress can be found in the ASME Code. In this
case, the allowable stress is 14,400 psi (99,285 kPa).
Solving the equation gives t = 0.245 in. (6.22 mm).
In the case of industrial and utility boilers, the next
higher standard tube thickness would be supplied. In
the case of a chemical recovery boiler used in the pulp
and paper industry a much higher thickness would
be used. This allows for wall thickness reduction when
operated in a reducing atmosphere. (See Chapter 28.)
As a guide, the following are B&W recommenda-
tions for utility and industrial boiler tubes:
45-13
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

The final step is the development of results from

1. Water-cooled tubes should be repaired to original
Steps 1 and 2. These results are the remaining life or
wall thickness or replaced if reduced to 70% of
crack growth curves that are presented two ways. The
original.
first is a plot of crack versus time. This curve is expo-
2. Steam-cooled tubes should be repaired to original
nential because the crack grows faster as it becomes
wall thickness or replaced if reduced to 85% of
larger. The second curve is the inverse of the first,
original.
plotting size versus remaining life. Remaining life is
Inside tube wall corrosion Internal corrosion due to based on a critical predetermined through-wall crack
hydrogen damage, caustic gouging and under-deposit size. Once the crack reaches this value, the remain-
corrosion is more difficult to evaluate for remaining ing life is zero. From the previous equation, this can
life because it is not easily quantified. be written:
In addition to wall thickness, other factors, such as
the effect of water quality, microstructure and dam- ac da
aged area size, must also be considered. Internal cor-
R.L. = ai bC tm (12)
rosion data can be mapped similarly to that for ultra-
sonic wall thickness. where ac is the critical crack depth and ai is the initial
Internal deposits Internal deposits lead to tube fail- crack depth.
ures and provide initiation sites for hydrogen damage Leak before break analysis (LBBA) When evaluat-
and under-deposit corrosion as discussed in Chapter ing cracks that are growing at a stable rate, even
42. The type of corrosion depends upon the nature of though they are through-wall, a condition occurs
the deposit (dense or porous) and the composition of where fluid leaks through the crack but does not cause
the chemicals beneath the deposit. Chemical cleaning
of the boiler removes these deposits. The cleaning fre-
quency depends on the type of unit, operating pres-
sure, fuel, and water treatment program. The hours Step 1
of operation and data from tube samples also deter-
mine the cleaning frequency.
Tube samples should be taken from locations with
the heaviest deposits which are usually located in the
high heat input burner zone areas of the furnace.

Headers and piping

High temperature headers and piping typically fail
Crack Growth Creep
due to creep, fatigue, or a combination of the two. Al- Specimens Specimen
though a header is more complex in geometry, it is
essentially a pipe with tubes welded to it. Therefore,
many of the remaining life analyses are similar to
those for tubes. However, it must be noted that the
root cause of damage can be different in headers.
On thick walled sections, where thermal and stress da
gradients can occur, remaining life is based on crack Log
dt da Log =A n
=bC mt
initiation and propagation. Calculational methods, dt
statistics, dimensional measurements, metallographic
methods, and post service creep rupture testing are Log
Log Ct
considered mainly with crack initiation and the events Crack Growth Behavior Creep Deformation Behavior
preceding it. When dealing with thick sections, these
analytical techniques must be followed by crack
Step 2
growth analyses. Once a component is cracked, the
pre-crack evaluation methods do not apply.
Crack growth analysis (CGA) There are three steps
used in predicting crack propagation based on time de- Step 3
pendent fracture mechanics. (See also Chapter 8.) The
schematic shown in Fig. 15 illustrates the various steps.
Step 1 consists of identifying the creep growth and ai = Initial
deformation behavior of the material. Step 2 consists Ct = f( , A, n, a, t)
Life Crack Size
of the expressions for the crack tip driving force for
creep, Ct. The basic expression for Ct is:
ai
da Cracked Residual Life
= bC m
t (11) Component Curve
dt
where a is crack depth, t is time, and both b and m
are material constants. Fig. 15 Three-step methodology for crack growth analysis.

45-14 Steam 41 / Condition Assessment


a catastrophic rupture. If the flaw is characterized by
depth a and length 2C, then the following expression
applies to leak before break:
ac da Ccr
R.L. = ai bC tm
= Ci
where Ccr and Ci are the critical crack and initial crack
half lengths respectively. Because all variables except
C i are known or determined, the equation can be
solved for Ci. B&W has developed a software code,
Failure Analysis Diagram (PCFAD), that models
many crack scenarios encountered in header and pip-
ing systems. The failure assessment procedure uses
a safety/failure plane diagram. The plane is defined
by the stress intensity factor/fracture toughness ratio
( Kr) as the ordinate and the applied stress/net section
plastic collapse stress ratio ( Sr ) as the abscissa. If an
assessment point lies within the curve (Fig. 16), the
structure is safe. The distance from a point to the curve
indicates the margin of safety. Chapter 8 provides
further discussion. These two approaches allow the
engineer to determine 1) how long a flaw will take to
reach a predetermined critical size (crack growth, PC
CREEP), and 2) whether the flaw will cause a leak or
catastrophic failure.
Life fraction analysis Life fraction analyses (LFA)
are performed on piping at temperatures above 900F
(482C) in which the primary failure mode is creep.
Stress levels are calculated using design conditions.
To determine the minimum creep rupture life, pub-
lished creep rupture data (LMP) are used. The calcu-
lation is similar to that for steam-cooled tubes, how-
ever piping is not influenced by gas stream heat flux
and, therefore, operates at a fairly consistent tempera-
ture. The life fraction expended (LFE) is expressed as:
t
LFE =
tm
By using Minors sum, an expression can be created
to represent the units history of operating at differ-
ent conditions:
ti
z
LFE =
i =1
tmi
where
z = number of different conditions
i = ith temperature and stress level
ti = time of operation at given conditions
tmi = minimum time to creep rupture (LMP)
When considering only creep rupture stress, a long
remaining life results. However, most piping systems
are also subjected to fatigue stress. Fatigue damage
can be calculated by using standard fatigue curves.
By combining the creep rupture and fatigue compo-
nents, the expression becomes:
ti
z x
LFE = + (16)
i =1
tmi
Steam 41 / Condition Assessment
The Babcock & Wilcox Company
dc
bC m
t
(13)
Fig. 16 Sample PCFAD failure plant diagram.
where
x = number of different stress modes
j = jth stress level
cj = number of cycles at stress level
Cj = number of cycles to failure at stress level
This simple approach requires detailed operating
history. In addition, it only provides a gross estimate
of expected life.
Stress calculation The calculation of stresses for
headers is complex because of tube stub geometry, tube
bank loading, differential tube temperatures, and
piping stresses on the outlet nozzle. Using specially
developed software codes, it is possible to perform a fi-
nite element analysis for the entire header. B&W has
performed finite element analysis on the tube stub liga-
ment region and found that this area contains very high
stresses, especially during temperature transients.
(14) The total stress (St) applied to the flaw is equal to
the sum of the primary stresses (axial or hoop) (Sp),
bending stresses (Sb) and pressure stresses on the
crack face (Sc):
St = S p + Sb + Sc (17)
The primary stress is determined by the orienta-
(15)
tion of the flaw. If the flaw is located axially along the
length of the component, then the hoop stress is pri-
mary. If it is located circumferentially, then the axial
stress is primary. Bending stresses are caused by dead
loads, hanger spacing, thermal differentials and re-
straints. The pressure stresses applied to the crack face
are only considered when the crack is open to the pres-
sure. When this is the case, the applied stress is equal
to the internal pressure.
BLESS Code analysis BLESS is an acronym for
Boiler Life Evaluation and Simulation System. The
complete BLESS code considers crack initiation and
growth in headers as well as crack growth in pipes.
The BLESS Code can also perform leak before break
analysis (LBBA) of axial cracks in pipes. The Code was
developed for EPRI by B&W as a subcontractor to
cj
General Atomics. The BLESS Code was derived from
j =1
Cj B&Ws previous software codes for failure analysis
45-15
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
(PCFAD) and crack growth analysis (PC CREEP).
Because stress calculations in headers and piping re-
quire difficult finite analysis due to complex geom-
etries, simplifying assumptions were made in the de-
velopment of the BLESS Code to allow for analysis.
The BLESS Code greatly facilitates the life assess-
ment of elevated temperature headers and piping by
eliminating the need for finite element thermal and
stress analysis and utilizing developments in nonlin-
ear creep-fatigue crack growth. The evaluation in-
cludes both crack initiation and crack growth. The
Code permits the evaluation of the effects of extremely
detailed thermal and mechanical load histories on
headers with very complicated geometric details. The
estimated remaining life is calculated by BLESS ei-
ther as a single value (when re-run in the determin-
istic mode) or a statistical distribution. This distribu-
tion is obtained when BLESS is run in the probabilis-
tic mode and defines the probability of failure as a
function of time. Such information can be useful in
making run/repair/replace and re-inspection decisions
for aging or cracked headers and piping.
Flaw characterization Flaws found in headers and
piping must be characterized prior to crack growth,
LBBA, or BLESS analysis. This characterization in-
volves accurately determining the flaws length and
depth. Through-wall depth is considered the most criti-
cal. The most common characterization methods include
standard NDE techniques such as MT, PT, RT and UT.
Destructive samples
Destructive sampling is frequently done when data
from nondestructive evaluations are inconclusive.
Material properties, damage and deposits can be
quantified. Tube samples and boat samples are dis-
cussed earlier under Destructive examinations.
Leak detection
Leaks in boilers, piping and feedwater heaters are
major contributors to power plant unavailability and
performance losses. In their early stages, leaks are
often undetected because they are inaudible and/or
concealed by insulation.
In the early 1980s, acoustic monitoring equipment
began to be used for leak detection. By using a piezo-
Table 2
Typical Acoustic Monitoring Signals8
Leak Detection
Boiler Tubes Feedwater Heaters
Acoustic path Gasborne Waterborne
Detection band 0.5 to 25 kHz 5 to 25 kHz
Background noise
frequency Below 2 kHz Below 8 kHz
Background noise
amplitude* 20 to 30 dB 40 to 60 dB
Total system gain 60 dB 50 to 60 dB
Number of sensors 12 to 18 1 to 2 per heater
* Reference 1 bar
45-16
electric pressure transducer to detect acoustic energy
emitted by a leak, the detection of smaller leaks be-
came possible. Leak noise is transmitted by air and by
the structure. Boiler tube leaks are best detected
through an airborne sensor because of the large boiler
structure volume. Feedwater heaters, headers and
piping leaks are best detected through a structural
sensor. Because these components are small and self-
contained, direct contact monitoring is used.
Leak noise is caused by a fluctuating pressure field
associated with turbulence in the fluid. Turbulence is
a condition of flow instability in which the inertial
effects are highly dominant over the viscous drag ef-
fects. Once turbulence is established, the acoustic
energy radiated from a leak increases strongly with
pressure and flow rates.
Acoustic leak detection technology has been dem-
onstrated through laboratory work, field testing and
operational experience. The sensitivity of the sensor
depends on three factors: sound radiated from the
leak, attenuation of sound between the leak and the
sensor, and background noise. Leak noise occurs in a
broad band, ranging from below 1 kHz to above 20 kHz.
Because of the low frequency background noise and
the greater attenuation of high frequencies, most air-
borne systems operate in the range of 1 to 25 kHz. This
is important because the acoustical signal diminishes
in amplitude as it travels away from the source. There-
fore, in designing a system, there is a tradeoff between
sensor spacing and minimum detectable leak.
Table 2 shows typical leak monitor signals for boiler
tubes, feedwater heaters, steam piping, and crack
detection acoustic emissions.7
Boiler leak detection The background noise in a
boiler is primarily due to combustion in the furnace.
Direct measurement of background noise is needed to
determine the spectral characteristics. In addition, the
background noise level must be stable. The magni-
tudes of background noise from different parts of the
boiler are similar; a large component is due to soot-
blower operation.
Using background noise and leak characterization
data, full scale tests have been run to optimize sensor
listening distances, sensor orientation, and signal pro-
cessing equipment. A typical 500 MW utility boiler can
Crack Detection
Steam Lines Steam Lines/Headers
Metalborne Metalborne Metalborne
100 to 400 kHz 200 to 500 kHz 100 to 500 kHz
Below 125 kHz Below 200 kHz Below 200 kHz
30 to 50 dB 40 to 60 dB 40 to 60 dB
40 to 60 dB 40 dB 60 to 80 dB
1 per heater Every 20 ft Every 10 to 20 ft
(6.1 m) (3 to 6.1 m)
Steam 41 / Condition Assessment
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

be monitored using 16 to 24 sensor channels. Fig. 17

shows a typical airborne sensor and waveguide ar-
rangement.
Waveguides are installed through the boiler enclo-
sure at various locations. A typical sensor has a de-
tection range of approximately 50 ft (15.2 m).
Header and piping leak detection Headers and pip-
ing are monitored with structural sensors similar to
those of feedwater heaters. The sensors are placed
approximately 15 to 20 ft (4.6 to 6.1 m) apart.
These sensors can also be used to detect crack
growth. When a crack grows, it emits acoustic energy
that can be detected. The processing of crack growth
signals from leak detection sensors requires different,
more powerful computing hardware than the systems
required for leak detection. With structural leak de-
tection sensors installed, and the proper fitting and
signal processing hardware, periodic monitoring for
crack growth can be performed.

Cycling effects and solutions

In assessing a boilers ability to withstand cycling,
those components most vulnerable to cycling are re-
viewed first. These components are discussed from two
standpoints: the operating methods which minimize
cyclic damage, and design modifications which permit
the component to better withstand cycling conditions. Fig. 17 Typical airborne noise sensors.

Cycle definition
Two types of cycling service are usually considered:
load cycling and on/off cycling. The on/off type has also
been called two shifting.
A cycle is considered to start at full load, full tem-
perature steady-state conditions. It goes through a
load change, then returns to the initial conditions. A
typical load cycle is then composed of three phases:
1) load reduction,
2) low load operation, and
3) reloading.
A typical on/off cycle has four phases:
1) load reduction,
2) idle,
3) restart, and
4) reload.
The phase that is often ignored, the idle period, can of-
fer the greatest potential for reducing cyclic damage.
Economizer thermal shock
On boilers that are on/off cycled, economizers often
show more cyclic damage than the other components.
The economizer receives water from the extraction feed-
water heater system, and the inner metal surfaces fol-
low the feedwater temperature with practically no time
delay. As a result, high rates of metal temperature
change can occur with resultingly high local stresses.
Fig. 18 shows economizer inlet temperatures dur-
ing an overnight shutdown cycle. The first two hours
are for load reduction, followed by eight hours of idle
or banked condition. Next, the boiler is fired in prepa-
ration for restart. The rates of temperature change
during the load decrease and increase are usually not
excessive, but would represent load cycling conditions
for the economizer.
During the banked period, there is some air leak-
age through the boiler with a resulting decay in boiler
pressure. As this happens, the drum water level de-
creases. At the same time, the leaking air passing
through the boiler is heated to near saturation tem-
perature, and that air then heats the economizer. An
economizer metal temperature can increase at 30 to
50F/h (17 to 28C/h) during this period and can ap-
proach saturation temperatures. When the drum level
drops, the operator usually refills the boiler so that it
is ready for firing. Because there is no extraction steam
available, the feedwater temperature is low. This slug
of cold water quickly chills the economizer, causing ther-
mal shock as indicated by the solid lines in Fig. 18. The
inlet header and tubes receive the greatest shock.
When the boiler is fired in preparation for turbine
restart, rollup, and synchronization, the economizer
heats up rapidly, often nearing saturation tempera-
ture. Feedwater is started when the initial load is
applied to the turbine. Because little extraction heat-
ing is available, feedwater temperature is low. A se-
vere shock occurs at this point, as the temperature can
increase 300F (167C) in a few minutes.
Typically, early damage consists of cracks initiat-
ing in the tube holes of the inlet header which are clos-
est to the feedwater inlet connection (Fig. 19).
Other damage has also been seen from this cyclic
service. Outlet headers have shown damage similar
to inlet headers. Furthermore, some tube bank sup-
port systems can not accommodate the high tempera-
ture differences between rows.

Steam 41 / Condition Assessment 45-17

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 18 Economizer temperatures during overnight shutdown cycles.
Solutions are available to reduce the frequency and
magnitude of thermal shocks. These have taken two forms
and address the out of service and restart conditions.
The first solution is called trickle feed cooling. Very
small quantities of feedwater are frequently intro-
duced during the shutdown and restart periods. This
prevents the inlet header from reheating and reduces
the cooling rate during feedwater introduction. Be-
cause feedwater introduction is controlled to limit
economizer temperature rise, some drum blowdown
may be necessary to prevent a high water level.
Fig. 19 Cracking in economizer inlet header occurs first in bore
holes nearest water inlet.
45-18
A second method of reducing thermal shock is to
permit the economizer to reheat during the idle pe-
riod and then to provide higher temperature feedwater
for restart. This can occur by pressurizing a high pres-
sure heater with steam from an auxiliary source or
from the drum of the unit. The quantity of steam re-
quired is low because it only heats the initial low flow
of feedwater.
Furnace subcooling
Several drum boilers that have been subjected to
on/off cycling have developed multiple cracks in lower
furnace wall tubes where the tubes are restrained from
diameter expansion or contraction. Typical cracking
areas have been at the lower windbox attachment where
filler bars or plates are welded to the tubes (Fig. 20).
Investigation of these failures indicated that, dur-
ing the shutdown or idle period, relatively cold (cooled
below saturation temperature) water settled in the
lowest circuits of the furnace bottom. When circula-
tion was started by initial firing or the circulating
pump, the cold water interface moved upward through
the walls, rapidly cooling the tubes. As the interface
moved, its temperature gradient decreased and the
rate of cooling decreased, therefore reducing damage
higher in the furnace. Experience indicates that if the
subcooling can be limited to 100F (56C), there is a low
probability of damage.
An out-of-service circulating pump system may be
used to limit the subcooling (Fig. 21). This is a low
capacity pump that draws from the bottom of the down-
comers and discharges water to the drum, therefore
Fig. 20 Lower windbox attachment cracking due to subcooling.
Steam 41 / Condition Assessment
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

and variable drum pressures, as shown in Fig. 23. In

Fig. 21 Out-of-service circulating pump system.
preventing the stratification temperatures of water
within the unit.
this example, for constant drum pressure, the maxi-
mum differential occurs at 50% load (hour 1) and is:
1000F 685F = 315F (538C 363C = 175C)
The minimum difference is at the end of the idle pe-
riod (hour 10) and is:
655F 570F = 85F (346C 299C = 47C)
This is a stress range proportional to:
315F 85F = 230F (157C 29C = 128C)
For variable drum pressure, the maximum differ-
ence occurs at 35% load and is:
1000F 540F = 460F (538C 282C = 256C)
The minimum temperature difference at the end of the
idle period is:
655F 400F = 255F (346C 204C = 142C)
producing a stress range proportional to:
460F 255F = 205F (238C 124C = 114C)
The variable drum pressure mode of operation is then
slightly less severe for the superheater and reheater
outlets and much less severe for the reheater inlet.
In considering operational changes, it should be
noted that the steam temperature characteristics
shown are the maximum available at a given load.

Tube leg flexibility

The enclosure walls of most boilers are water- or
steam-cooled. The water-cooled circuits carry boiling
water, and the steam-cooled circuits carry steam from
the drum. As a result, they operate near the satura-
tion temperature corresponding to the drum pressure.
Whether the boiler is being fired or shut down, con-
siderable heat absorption or loss is necessary to change
the temperature of the walls. As a result, they change
temperature more slowly than the other components.
The economizer, superheater and reheaters pen-
etrate these walls; the penetrations are designed to be
gas-tight. At the point of penetration the expansion
then follows saturation temperature. However, the
header that forms the inlet or outlet of the other cir-
cuits expands with the temperature of the steam or
water that it is handling. Fig. 22 shows the motions
of the header end and the outermost connecting leg
for a superheater or reheater outlet. Note that the
greatest deflection is when the header temperature is
at a maximum.
In the case of economizers and the reheater inlet,
the deflection is in the opposite direction because these
headers operate below saturation temperature. For
these components the greatest temperature difference,
and therefore the greatest deflection, is at low loads.
Regardless of the direction, the greatest tempera-
ture difference produces the maximum differential
expansion and the maximum bending stresses in the
connecting legs. The stress range and amplitude dic-
tate component fatigue life.
Consider the superheater outlet and the drum (pen-
etration point) temperature differences at constant Fig. 22 Superheater tube leg flexibility.

Steam 41 / Condition Assessment 45-19

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 23 Overnight shutdown temperatures.
Lower temperature differences of 50 to 75F (28 to 42C)
may be obtained in practice.
The first indications of cyclic damage are external
cracks on the tube to header welds or the stub to tube
welds of the outermost header legs. This damage is
relatively easy to inspect and repair. Successive dam-
age is also usually limited to closely adjacent legs be-
cause they have experienced similar stress levels. Most
sensitive are high temperature headers which are a
short distance from the penetration seal on wide units.
Drums
It is important to limit the rate of saturation tem-
perature change in a steam drum. When operating
in a variable drum pressure mode, considerable
overfiring or underfiring is necessary to quickly
change the drum pressure. These firing effects on
steam temperature control also prevent rapid drum
pressure changes.
Top to bottom drum temperature differences must
also be limited. Only small differences result when
pressure changes are made under load. The greatest
45-20
differences develop during pressure reduction, when
little or no steam is being taken from the drum.
If drum pressure is rapidly lost during the idle pe-
riod, top to bottom differentials develop and the drum
humps. Because most drums have two point supports,
the humping is unrestrained and causes little change
in the drum or support stress levels. However, the
drum acts as a stiff beam, and connected parts move
with it (Fig. 24). If those parts do not have sufficient
flexibility they can experience unacceptably high
stresses.
While most recent units were designed with flex-
ibility in the drum connections, there are some older
units where the front furnace wall tubes are routed
directly to the drum and are supported by the drum.
In such cases, it is difficult to add flexibility by rerout-
ing and the humping must be limited.
Developments
Symptoms of advanced creep and fatigue have been
found in some older superheater and reheater outlet
headers. Diametral swelling has been observed. In-
terior cracking around the header ID tube holes and
along the length has also been present. To better un-
derstand the failure mechanism, finite element stress
analyses have been performed. These analyses con-
sider steady-state temperature differences between
individual tubes and the bulk header and transient
temperature changes of both.
Advances in nondestructive examinations
Innovative techniques are being developed to re-
place or enhance existing NDE methods. Some are
becoming viable due to advancements in microproces-
sor technology. Others are relatively new and may
replace current methods. Advanced techniques in-
clude: 1) infrared scanning,8 2) automated Phased
Array UT, 3) pipe and wall scanners which automati-
cally cover large areas, and 4) through-insulation ra-
diography. EMAT technology is being refined and
studied for further applications in the NDE field.
Fig. 24 Drum humping.
Steam 41 / Condition Assessment
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

References
1. Condition Assessment Guidelines for Fossil Fuel Power
Plant Components, Report GS-6724, pp. l-l to 1-6, Elec-
tric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Palo Alto, Califor-
nia, March, 1990.
2. Guide for the Nondestructive Inspection of Welds,
American National Standards/American Welding Society
(ANSI/AWS) B1.10:1999, American Welding Society, Mi-
ami, Florida, 1999.
3. Bar-Cohen, Y., and Mal, A.K., Ultrasonic Inspection,
Metals Handbook, Ninth Ed., Vol. 17, Nondestructive
Evaluation and Quality Control, pp. 232-233, 254, ASM
International, Metals Park, Ohio, 1989.
4. Alcazar, D.G., et al., Ultrasonic Detection of Hydro-
gen Damage, Materials Evaluation, Vol. 47 (3), March, 1989.
5. Bar-Cohen, Y., and Mal, A.K., Ultrasonic Inspection,
Metals Handbook, Ninth Ed., Vol. 17, Nondestructive
Evaluation and Quality Control, pp. 255-256, ASM Inter-
national, Metals Park, Ohio, 1989.
6. Bar-Cohen, Y., and Mal, A.K., Strain Measurement for
Stress Analysis, Metals Handbook, Ninth Ed., Vol. 17,
Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, pp. 448-
449, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, 1989.
7. Acoustic Leak Detection, Technical Brief
TB.CCS.32.9.87, Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI),
Palo Alto, California, September, 1987.
8. Atlantic Electric Demonstrates Infrared Inspection of
Boiler Waterwalls, First Use, Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI), Palo Alto, California, December, 1989.

Steam 41 / Condition Assessment 45-21

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) technology is one method used to determine remaining life of boiler tubes.

45-22 Steam 41 / Condition Assessment