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The relative deficiency of endothelium-derived nitric oxide Physical activity, medicine, and relaxation therapy also can
further potentiates this proliferative stage of plaque help relieve stress. You may want to consider participating in
maturation. a stress management program.
• •
• CANCER
• Tryosine, one of the main precursors of • Mutated genes that cause cancer are called
catecholamines, is created from phenylalanine by oncogenes.
hydroxylation via the enzyme phenylalanine
• Any agent that causes cancer is called a carcinogen
hydroxylase. (Tyrosine also is ingested directly from
and is described as carcinogenic.
dietary protein).
• Some mutagens are carcinogenic.
• Tyrosine is oxidized into dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-
DOPA). •
Mutation: ionizing radiation
• This is followed by decarboxylation into the
neurotransmitter dopamine. • Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the
sun can lead to melanoma and other skin
• The basic synthetic pathway shared by all
malignancies.
cathecolamines involves the following series of
enzymatic steps: • Viral or Bacterial Infection
• Next is β-oxidation into norepinephrine by dopamine • Some cancers can be caused by infection with
beta hydroxylase. pathogens. Many cancers originate from a viral
infection; viruses are responsible for 15% of human
• Epinephrine then is synthesized from
cancers worldwide.
norepinephrine via methylation of the primary distal
amine of norepinephrine by phenylethanolamine N- • The main viruses associated with human cancers are
methyltransferase (PNMT). human papilloma virus, hepatitis B and hepatitis C
virus.
The enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) is fundamental
to the process through conversion of amino acid
phenylalanine into the amino acid tyrosine. This is the only
known role of PAH in the human body (Krapp and Wilson
2005).
• Hereditary used. For instance, the most common type of breast cancer is
called ductal carcinoma of the breast or mammary ductal
• Most forms of cancer are sporadic, meaning that carcinoma. Here, the adjective ductal refers to the
there is no inherited cause of the cancer. There are, appearance of the cancer under the microscope, resembling
however, a number of recognised syndromes where normal breast ducts.
there is an inherited predisposition to cancer, often
due to a defect in a gene that protects against tumor • Benign tumors (which are not cancers) are named
formation. using -oma as a suffix with the organ name as the
root. For instance, a benign tumor of the smooth
• Example: Down syndrome patients, who have an muscle of the uterus is called leiomyoma.
extra chromosome 21, are known to develop Unfortunately, some cancers also use the -oma
malignancies such as leukemia and testicular cancer, suffix, examples being melanoma and seminoma.
though the reasons for this difference are not well
understood. • Malignant or Benign?
• Carcinoma: Malignant tumors derived from • Substances and exposures that can lead to cancer
epithelial cells. This group represents the most are called carcinogens.
common cancers, including the common forms of
• Carcinogens do not cause cancer in every case, all
breast, prostate, lung and colon cancer.
the time. Substances labeled as carcinogens may
• Sarcoma: Malignant tumors derived from connective have different levels of cancer-causing potential.
tissue, or mesenchymal cells. Some may cause cancer only after prolonged, high
levels of exposure.
• Lymphoma and leukemia: Malignancies derived from
hematopoietic (blood-forming) cells •
Who determines how carcinogens are classified?
• Germ cell tumor: Tumors derived from totipotent
cells. • IARC
• Group 2A: Probably carcinogenic to humans -Surgery is a medical specialty that uses operative manual
and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate
• Group 2B: Possibly carcinogenic to humans
and/or treat a pathological condition such as disease or
• Group 3: Unclassifiable as to carcinogenicity in injury, to help improve bodily function or appearance, or
humans sometimes for some other reason.
• Radiotherapy