Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1
Some basic protection terminologies
a. Main protection
b. Back-up protection
c. Unit protection
d. Non-unit protection
e. System earthing
-- Solidly earthed system
-- Resistively earthly system
f. Fault levels
g. Intertripping
h. Zones of protection
2
A main protection is defined as a
protection system which is normally
expected to operate in response to a
fault in the protected zone.
A B
P1
P1 is the main protection which is designed to respond
promptly to fault occurring in the protected zone
3
A back-up protection is defined as a
protection system intended to
supplement the main protection if the
latter becomes ineffective, or to deal
with faults in those parts of the power
system that are not readily included in
the operation zone of the main
protection .
A B
Boundary of the
protection zone
defined by the
CTs at the two
ends
5
Non-unit protection is a protection
system which has no clearly defined
zone of operation and which achieves
selectivity only by time grading.
Example : Over-current earth-fault protection
F1
F2
O/C E/F
The O/C E/F protection will operate for both
faults occurring at F1 and F2. The zone of
protection is not clearly defined
6
Why is system earthing required for a
power generation, transmission and
distribution network ?
VB VY
10
Intertripping means the action of
initiating tripping of remote end(s) in
order to fully isolate a fault.
Example : On detecting the transformer fault at
Zone-substation B, the protection will immediately
trip the circuit breaker at B and also intertrip to A and
C in order to fully isolate the fault.
A B
C
11
Ideally, the zones of protection should
overlap across the circuit breaker as
shown.
12
However, for practical reasons, this ideal
is not always achieved -- accommodation
for CTs being in some cases available only
on one side of the circuit breaker as
shown.
In this case, the fault
at F will cause the
busbar protection to
operate and open the
circuit breaker but
the fault will continue
to be fed through the feeder. To clear this
blind spot fault, the busbar protection
will initiate a timer to trip the remote end
after a pre-determined time delay in order
to clear the fault. 13
Busbar protection zone
Transformer
protection zone
15
Some basic protection principles
P1 P2
O/C
Ip
Is 23
Likewise for the Y-phase :
N/1
Y
O/C
24
Lastly for the B-phase :
N/1
O/C
25
Thus, the connections of the CTs and
relays the over-current protection for the
three phases are as follows :
R N/1
Y N/1
N/1
B
O/C
O/C O/C
26
But how about the connections of CTs
and relay(s) for achieving earth-fault
protection ?
27
Thus the connections for CTs and the
relay for achieving earth-fault protection
are as follows :
N/1
N/1
N/1
E/F
28
Hence, the connections of CTs and relays
for achieving over-current and earth-
fault protection are as follows :
N/1
R
Y
N/1
B N/1
O/C
O/C O/C
E/F
29
With this, we achieve the protection for
the following types of faults :
i) R-E, Y-E, B-E ii) R-Y, Y-B, B-R
iii) R-Y-E, Y-B-E, B-R-E iv) R-Y-B v) R-Y-B-E
N/1
R
Y
N/1
N/1
B
O/C
O/C O/C
E/F
30
Having gone through the relay
operation(s) for each and every of the
above-mentioned types of faults, you
can easily find out that one of the three
O/C relays is redundant !
R N/1
Y N/1
N/1
B
O/C
O/C O/C
E/F
31
Because of this, it is a common trade
practice to do without the Y-phase O/C
relay. The O/C E/F protection therefore
becomes : i) R-E, Y-E, B-E
ii) R-Y, Y-B, B-R
iii) R-Y-E, Y-B-E, B-R-E
N/1 iii) R-Y-B
R v) R-Y-B-E
Y
N/1
B N/1
O/C O/C
E/F
32
33
O/C E/F protection with such an
arrangement (i.e. 2 x O/C elements plus
1 x E/F element) is extensively used by
power companies worldwide for :
a. Main protection for distribution
circuits ;
b. Back-up protection for other types
of main protection for generation,
transmission and distribution
circuits.
It is also widely adopted as a main
protection for customers HV* and LV
installations.
* HV is defined as an AC voltage exceeding 1000 V
34
High-set over-current
and earth-fault
protection
In order to achieve the
fastest relay operating
time when the fault
current is excessively
high, a high-set O/C
element may be added
to the relay and the
IDMT characteristic
becomes as shown
(see the red portion of
the curve).
35
Current differential protection for
overhead lines and underground cables
IL /N
Diff
IL /N Irelay = 0
Irelay = 0 ;
The protection remains stable when normal
load current flows through the circuit.
36
Current differential protection for
overhead lines and underground cables
In-zone fault
current = IF1 + IF2
N/1 N/1
IF1 IF2
Irelay 0
Diff IF2 /N
IF1 /N
37
Current differential protection for
overhead lines and underground cables
IOUT /N
Diff
Out-zone fault
IOUT/N Irelay = 0 current = IOUT
Irelay = 0 ;
The protection remains stable when an out-zone
fault occurs external to the circuit.
38
The above illustrates the principle of
current differential protection for lines
and cables. It is a typical example of
unit protection in which the zone of
protection is clearly defined by the CTs
at the two ends.
The same principle can be applied to
protect a transformer but the CT ratios
at two ends have
to be carefully
chosen since the
voltage levels at
two ends are not
the same.
39
Can we apply this simple principle to
protect overhead lines or underground
cables ?
N/1 Load current = IL N/1
IL /N
Diff
IL /N Irelay = 0
Iy
1
Diff
Ib
n=6
Summation transformer
A N/1 N/1 B
I
49
For this 40MVA 132kV/11kV transformer,
Vp = 132kV,
Vs = 11kV
Vp/Vs = 132/11
= 12
50
ii. Transformer HV and LV Winding
Connections
There are many possible winding
arrangements for 3-phase
transformers. For example star-star,
star-delta, delta-star etc.
Whenever star-delta or delta-star is
adopted, a phase shift of 300 will exist
between the transformer primary and
secondary lines currents. This must be
corrected by appropriate connection of
the CT secondaries.
Lets illustrate this in the following
slides.
51
HV/LV = k
HV Yy0 LV
IR Ir
IY Iy
IB Ib
IR Ir
IY Iy
IB Ib
53
However, this current differential protection arrangement only
works during steady state conditions and at a certain transformer
tap position. Thus, more refinements are required to cater for
initial energisation of transformer and also other tap positions.
HV/LV = k
N/1 HV LV Nk/1
IR Yy0 Ir
IY Iy
IB Ib
54
HV/LV = k
HV LV
Yd11 Ir Ir - Iy
IR
Iy Iy - Ib
IY
Ib - Ir
IB
IY Iy Iy - Ib
IB Ib - Ir
Ib
56
However, this current differential protection arrangement only
works during steady state conditions and at a certain transformer
tap position. Thus, more refinements are required to cater for
initial energisation of transformer and also other tap positions.
HV/LV = k
IR HV LV Ir Nk/1 Ir - Iy
Yd11
IY Iy Iy - Ib
IB Ib - Ir
Ib
N/0.577
57
iii. Transformer tap range
A transformers normally has a tapping
range enabling its transformation
ratio (k) to be varied within a pre-
determined range. This must be
accounted for in the design of the
current differential protection system
for the transformer.
If the CTs for the differential
protection are chosen to balance only
for a certain transformation ratio, a
variation on the transformer ratio will
create an unbalance which is
proportional to the ratio change. 58
iii. Transformer tap range (cont.)
The current differential protection is
therefore equipped with a load bias
of an amount which exceeds in effect
the maximum transformation ratio
deviation.
This load bias stabilises the
differential protection from operation.
In fact, the greater the load bias (i.e.
the more the transformation ratio
deviation), the greater will be the
stabilising effect.
We shall illustrate this by referring to
the same transformer which we
discussed earlier on. 59
Main a. 132/11kV 40MVA transformer
primary b. Nominal transformation ratio :
winding 132kV step down to 11kV (i.e. 12 to 1)
c. On-load tap changing range :
Secondary +25% to -5% in 18 steps
winding
Thus, the maximum transformation ratio
= 132 : (11x0.95) = 132 : 10.45
= 12.63 : 1 5.25% deviation from 12
And, the minimum transformer ratio
132kV 11kV = 132 to (11x1.25) = 132 : 13.75
= 9.6 : 1 20% deviation from 12
Hence, a load bias setting of not less than
20% should be chosen. Taking into
account the tolerance for CT error and
add some reasonable safety margin, a
load bias setting of 30% is recommended
for this transformer current differential
protection. The refined protection
arrangement for this transformer is
shown in the next slide.
60
N Rated transformer primary side current
174.9A. Lets choose N = 200A
N/0.577= 132/11 = k = 12 Nk/1
200/0.577 = (200 x 12)/1
132kV 40MVA 11kV I = 2400/1
IR r Ir - Iy
Yd11
IY Iy Iy - Ib
IB Ib - Ir
Ib
B B
B B
B B
B = Bias circuit
Diff Diff Diff
(load bias
= 30%)
61
iv. Transformer energisation inrush
current
A transformers is normally energised
from the HV side.
During the
energisation of
a transformer,
magnetising
inrush current
(of the order of
up to several
times the rated
current) will be
produced (see the next two slides).
62
63
64
iv. Transformer energisation inrush
current (cont.)
It should be pointed out that the
inrush current only appears on the HV
side of the transformer (i.e. it has no
equivalent on the LV side).
Thus, the whole of
the inrush current
will appear as
unbalance to the
transformer current
differential protection
and is not distinguishable from
internal fault current.
65
Can we use the inrush current to stabilise the current
differential protection during transformer energisation ?
132/11 = k = 12 Nk/1
= (200 x 12)/1
IR 132kV 40MVA 11kV I = 2400/1 Ir - Iy
r
Yd11
IY Iy Iy - Ib
IB Ib - Ir
N/0.577= Ib
200/0.577
B B
B B
B B
B = Bias circuit
Diff Diff Diff
(load bias
= 30%)
66
Can we use the inrush current (which is
present only during transformer
energisation) to stabilise the current
differential protection ?
Before we address this, lets analyse the
waveforms of the inrush currents.
Fourier analysis of the inrush currents
reveals that the currents are rich in
harmonic contents. Further review
shows that second harmonic is always
present in substantial proportion in the
inrush currents. As such, second
harmonic currents can be extracted and
fed to the bias circuit to stabilise the
differential protection during transformer
energisation. 67
68
Load bias plus second harmonic bias (from inrush
current) are used to stabilise the protection
from operation during transformer energisation
132/11 = k = 12 Nk/1
= (200 x 12)/1
IR 132kV 40MVA 11kV I = 2400/1 Ir - Iy
r
Yd11
IY Iy Iy - Ib
IB Ib - Ir
N/0.577= Ib
200/0.577
B B
B B
B B
B = Bias circuit
(load + 2nd Diff Diff Diff
harmonic
bias)
69
This finalised current differential protection system is often
called duo-bias transformer current differential protection.
132/11 = k = 12 Nk/1
= (200 x 12)/1
IR 132kV 40MVA 11kV I = 2400/1 Ir - Iy
r
Yd11
IY Iy Iy - Ib
IB Ib - Ir
N/0.577= Ib
200/0.577
B B
B B
B B
B = Bias circuit
(load + 2nd Diff Diff Diff
harmonic
bias)
70
Current differential protection for busbars
Kirchoffs Law : Summation of currents
at a point is always zero
I1
I2
Ii
I3
I5
I4
I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 Ii
71
Diff
Diff A
Diff B
1. Each busbar has its own current different busbar protection zone.
2. The two busbar protection zones should overlap in order to
eliminate protection blind spot.
73
1. Each busbar has
its own current Diff
different busbar
protection zone. Diff
2. The four busbar
protection zones
should overlap in
order to
eliminate
protection blind
spot.
Diff
Diff
74
Distance protection for overhead lines
and cables
We learn from our previous discussions
that under normal operating conditions,
the voltage on a line/cable will be the
rated voltage while the current will be
the normal load current.
However, when a fault occurs on the
line/cable, the voltage will dip while the
fault current will increase significantly,
depending on the fault impedance.
75
Voltage waveforms
on healthy circuits
Fault current
Voltage waveforms
on faulted circuit
IL = load current
VL = rated voltage
ZF
IF >> IL
VF << VL
Fault
77
Distance protection for overhead lines
and cables
The basic principle
involves the
comparison of the
fault current seen
by the relay with
the voltage at the
relaying point ; by
comparing these
two quantities it is
possible to
measure the
impedance of the
line up to the point
of fault. 78
Distance protection for overhead lines
and cables
The electro-mechanical distance relay
used for illustrating the distance
protection principle is no longer used
nowadays. Instead, modern distance
relays utilise digital comparison
techniques for comparing the voltage
signals from VTs and the current signals
from CTs.
The relay characteristic is a circle called
mho circle. Usually three zones of
protection are employed to achieve local
and remote back-ups on top of the main
protection for the line/cable. 79
Zone 1 : Instantaneous operation (~ 20mS). Normally
covers 80% of the protected line.
Zone 2 : Time-delayed by 0.4 seconds in operation.
Covers 100% of the protected line plus 25%
of the next line. Thus providing back-up
protection for the remote busbar.
Zone 3 : Time delayed by 1 second in operation. Covers
100% of the protected line plus 125% of the
next line. Thus providing local back-up for the
local busbar plus remote back-up for remote
busbars.
Relaying point
Relay
characteristic
angle
80
The 3-zone distance protection scheme is a non-unit
protection. It is called a plain distance scheme.
Time When distance relays are applied to both ends of a line/
cable, a unit protection scheme can be formed with the aid
of a communication link (e.g. a pilot pair, an optical fibre
or microwave link)
Relaying point
Distance
Zone 1 (20mS) Zone 2
(0.4 seconds) Zone 3
(1 seconds)
81
Distance Protection : Operating times
Z1A , Z2A , Z3A , Z1B , Z2B , Z3B = ~20mS
Acceleration Scheme Send, Receive = ~20mS
T2 = 0.4 second
T3 = 1 second
A Z2A
Z1A (80%) B
F1 Z (80%) F2 F3
1B
Z2B
Z1A Z1B
Trip A Trip B
Z2A Z2B
T2 T2
Z3A Z3B
T3 T3
Z1A Signalling link : Could be a Z1B
Send pilot pair, optical fibre or Send
microwave link
Z2A Z2B
Receive Receive
82
Plain distance scheme
Fault End A End B Overall Fault
Position Clearance Time
F1 Z1A = 20mS Z1B = 20mS 20mS
F3 Z2A + T2 = 0.4 second Z1B & Z2B cannot see End A & End B
the fault should not trip to
clear the out-zone
fault
F3 Z2A + T2 = 0.4 second Z1B & Z1B cannot see End A & End B
the fault should not trip to
clear the out-zone
fault
83
The acceleration distance scheme works
very satisfactorily for overhead lines and
cables with reasonably large line/cable
impedance (i.e. 80% line/cable
impedance > minimum Zone 1 setting of
the distance relay, which is typically
around 0.25 secondary ohm).
The acceleration distance protection
scheme is extensively adopted by power
supply companies worldwide. It is ideal
for protecting long overhead line or
cable circuits. Apart from furnishing fast
unit protection for the overhead lines/
cables, its Zone 2 and Zone 3 also
provide local and remote back-ups. 84
In metropolitan cities like Hong Kong
and Singapore, the lines and cables for
power delivery networks are usually
quite short. Thus, some of these lines/
cables are with impedance smaller than
the minimum Zone 1 setting.
F1 Z (125%) F2
1B
Z2B
Z2A Z2B
Trip A Trip B
T2 T2
Z3A Z3
B
T3 T3
Z1A Signalling link : Could be a Z1B
pilot pair, optical fibre or
Send microwave link Send
Z1A Z1B
Receive Receive
86
Under-frequency load-shedding for
22kV/11kV distribution feeders
Lets consider the case when X G1
generators are running
synchronously on bar (i.e. all
running at the same speed NS) G2
GX
87
Generator rotor
Emechanical Eelectrical
NS
Ns = 120f/p rev. per minute
where f = rated frequency,
p = no. of poles
For each of the X generators,
88
For all the X generators, we have :
Total mechanical input to X generators
= Total electrical output + Total kinetic energy
from X generators stored in X generators
89
What will happen when G1
one of the generators
fails, or partially fails, G2
say due to some
mechanical problem ? G3
GX
90
Since :
91
In order to restore the system frequency to rated
frequency, disconnecting non-essential 11kV and/or
22kV loads in a pre-determined manner* at zone-
substations is required when the mechanical input
cannot meet the electrical demand.
This process is known as under-frequency load-
shedding in power industry.
132/11kV
Z/Tx
22kV/11kV Feeders
22kV/11kV Feeders
94
Trip supply, which is usually 110V DC, is
for :
i. Providing supply for powering the
protection, control and alarm systems
at a substation;
ii. Providing DC supply to the trip coil(s)
of a circuit breaker for tripping the
breaker for isolating a fault.
Thus, trip supply is indispensable for
ensuring reliability of protection system.
Its healthiness has to be continuously
supervised. A typical trip supply
supervision scheme is shown overleaf.
95
Essential
AC supply
Charger
DC+ AC/DC DC-
Circuit wirings
97
Trip circuit supervision scheme (cont)
98
Trip circuit supervision scheme (cont)
DC-
DC+
Protection
relay
52a C.B.
trip coil
99
A typical trip supply and trip
circuit supervision scheme
100