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A. FOREBRAIN
Also known as the PROSENCEPHALON
The forebrain is split into 2 divisions, namely the telencephalon and diencephalon
Highest form of mental activity is found in the prefrontal lobe
CEREBRUM
Largest part of the brain
LONGITUDINAL FISSURE: divides cerebrum into left and right hemispheres
CORPUS CALLOSUM: connection between the left and right hemispheres
HEMISPHERES
Most conspicuous features on the surface of each hemisphere:
o GYRI: numerous folds which greatly increase the surface area of the cortex
o SULCI: intervening grooves
Left hemisphere controls right side of the body
o Math, analytic, and speech
Wernickes area: parietal lobe; comprehension/where words are heard and processed
Broncas area: frontal lobe; speech/where words are formulated
Right hemisphere controls left side of body
o Music, art, and abstract ideas
TELENCEPHALON
Contains the left and right cerebral hemisphere
A major component of the telencephalon is the cerebral cortex, which is further divided into four lobes
a. Frontal voluntary motor functions, motivation, aggression, mood, and olfactory perception
b. Parietal principal center for receiving and consciously perceiving most sensory information (touch, pain,
temperature, and balance)
CENTRAL SULCUS: or FISSURE OF ROLANDO; separates the frontal and parietal lobes
c. Occipital visual input; not distinctly separate from other lobes
d. Temporal olfactory and auditory sensations, memory
Psychic cortex: anterior and inferior portions of the temporal lobe that are associated with
functions such as abstract thought and judgement
LATERAL FISSURE: separates the temporal lobes from the rest of the cerebrum
o LATERAL SULCUS: or SYLVIAN FISSURE; separates the frontal and parietal lobes
superiorly from the temporal lobe inferiorly
INSULA/FIFTH LOBE: found deep within the lateral fissure; for visceral sensation
DIENCEPHALON
The part of the brain between the brainstem and the cerebrum, therefore this is also known as the
INTERBRAIN
Contains the THALAMUS, HYPOTHALAMUS, and EPITHALAMUS
a. Thalamus
- Largest part of the diencephalon
- Consists of a cluster of nuclei and is shaped like a yo-yo
- INTERTHALAMIC ADHESION: is found in the center of the yo-yo and connects these 2 lateral
parts
- Influences mood and registers and unlocalized, uncomfortable perception of pain
b. Hypothalamus
- Most inferior part of the diencephalon
- Contains several small nuclei maintains homeostasis
- Involved in the control of body temperature, hunger, thirst, and the secretion of hormones from the
pituitary gland
- Sensations (sexual pleasure, rage, fear, relaxation after a meal) and emotional responses are
related to hypothalamic functions
- INFUNDIBULUM: a funnel-shaped stalk that extends from the floor of the hypothalamus to the
pituitary gland
- MAMILLARY BODIES: form externally visible swellings on the posterior portion of the
hypothalamus and are involved in emotional responses to odors and in memory
c. Epithalamus
- Small area superior and posterior to the thalamus
- Consists of a few small nuclei
- Involved in the emotion and visceral response to odor, and the pineal gland
- PINEAL GLAND: endocrine gland that may influence the onset of puberty and may play a role in
controlling some long-term cycles that are influenced by the light-dark cycle
B. MIDBRAIN
Also known as the MESENCEPHALON
Smallest region of the brainstem
Contains involved in coordinating eye movements and controlling pupil diameter and lens shape
The rest of the midbrain consists of ascending tracts from the spinal cord to the cerebrum and descending tracts
from the cerebrum to the spinal cord or cerebellum
Is divided into anterior and posterior parts
CEREBRAL PEDUNCLES
Anterior part
CORPORA QUADRIGEMINA
also known as COLLICULI four mounds (quadri- = four)
a. 2 SUPERIOR COLLICULI: vision
b. 2 INFERIOR COLLICULI: auditory
SUBSTANTIA NIGRA: a black nuclear mass which is part of the basal nuclei and is involved in regulating
general body movements
C. HINDBRAIN
Also known as the RHOMBENCEPHALON
Contains the cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata
Assists in the regulation of autonomic functions, maintaining balance and equilibrium, movement coordination,
and the relay of sensory information
CEREBELLUM
little brain
Second largest part of the brain
Responsible for movement and balance
CEREBELLAR PEDUNCLES: large connections that attach cerebellum to the brainstem; provides routes
of communication between cerebellum and other parts of the CNS
o The gyri of the cerebellum is much smaller compared that of the cerebrum
PONS
Immediately superior to the medulla oblongata
Contains ascending and descending nerve tracts as well as several nuclei
Serves as a functional bridge between the cerebrum and cerebellum (resembles an arched footbridge)
Controls the intensity of breathing
a. APNEUSTIC RESPIRATION inspiration
b. PNEUMOTAXIC RESPIRATION expiration
Swallowing, balancing, chewing, and salivation
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
Most inferior portion of the brainstem; continuous with the spinal cord
Most posterior part of the hindbrain
Extends from the foramen magnum to the pons
Contains discrete nuclei with specific functions (regulation of heart rate and blood vessel diameter, breathing,
swallowing, vomiting, coughing, sneezing, balance, and coordination)
PYRAMIDS: two prominent enlargements on the anterior surface extend the length of the medulla oblongata
o Consist of descending nerve tracts transmits action potentials from the brain to motor neurons of the
spinal cord
o Involved in the conscious control of skeletal muscles
Centers found in the medulla oblongata are play a role in vitality
a. VASOMOTOR CENTER: dilation of blood vessels/regulate blood vessel diameter
b. CARDIAC CENTER: regulates heart rate and strength of contraction
c. RESPIRATORY CENTER: rate of respiration (works with pons); also have centers for coughing,
sneezing, salivating, swallowing, gagging, and vomiting
BRAINSTEM
Connects spinal cord to the remainder of the brain
Contains several nuclei involved in vital body functions
Damage to small areas of the brainstem can cause death, but damage to large areas of the cerebrum and cerebellum
do not
Nuclei for all but the first two cranial nerves (olfactory and optic nerve) are located in the brainstem
A. MEDULLA OBLONGATA
B. PONS
C. MIDBRAIN
D. RETICULAR FORMATION
Scattered throughout the brainstem
Function: regulation of cyclical motor functions (respiration, walking, and chewing)
RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM: arouses and maintains consciousness and in regulating the sleep-wake
cycle
SENSORY FUNCTIONS
A. ASCENDING TRACTS
Pathways that transmit information via action potentials from the periphery to various parts of the brain
1 tract = 1 type of sensory input (pain, temperature, touch, position, or pressure)
o each tract contains axons from specific sensory receptors specialized to detect a particular type of
stimulus
Sensory tracts cross from one side of the body in the spinal cord or brainstem to the other side of the body
o Left brain receives sensory input from the right side of the body, and vice versa
SPINOTHALAMIC TRACT: transmits action potentials dealing with pain and temperature
o begins in the spinal cord and terminates in the thalamus
o spino-: indicates that the tract begins at the spinal cord
DORSAL COLUMN: transmits action potentials dealing with touch, position, and pressure
SPINOCEREBELLAR TRACTS: transmit information about the body position to the cerebellum
C. ASSOCIATION AREAS
Cortical areas immediately adjacent to the primary sensory areas
Involved in the process of recognition
MOTOR FUNCTIONS
A. MOTOR SYSTEM OF THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD
Responsible for posture, balance, movement of the body, and communication (facial and speech)
2 PRIMARY NUCLEI
1. CORPUS STRIATUM cerebrum
2. SUBSTANTIA NIGRA a group of darkly pigmented cells in the midbrain
FEEDBACK LOOPS
1. STIMULATORY CIRCUITS facilitate muscle activity, especially at the beginning of a voluntary movement
2. INHIBITORY CIRCUITS facilitate the actions of the stimulatory circuits by inhibiting muscle activity in
antagonist muscles
Inhibitory circuits inhibit random movements of the trunk and limbs
Also decrease muscle tone when the body, limbs, and head are at rest
E. CEREBELLUM
Attached by cerebellar peduncles to the brainstem
Gyri of cerebellum is smaller than cerebrum
Internally: gray nuclei and white nerve tracts
COMPARATOR: a sensing device that compares the data from two sources (motor cortex and peripheral
structures)
COLLATERAL BRANCHES: sent from the motor cortex to the cerebellum, giving information representing the
intended movement
PROPRIOCEPTIVE NEURONS: innervate joints, tendons, and muscles and provide information about the
position of the body parts
Initiation of voluntary movements: action potentials from the cerebral motor cortex descend into the spinal cord
Participates with the cerebrum in learning motor skills (i.e. playing the piano)
o Once the cerebrum and cerebellum learn these skills, the specialized movements can be accomplished
smoothly and automatically