Chapter 1-3

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Republic of the Philippines

CENTRAL PHILIPPINES STATE UNIVERSITY
Graduate School
Kabankalan City, Negros Occidental
DIGESTIBILITY RATE BY EFFECTIVE MICROORGANISM (EM) TREATED

SUBSTRATE MATERIALS AT DIFFERENT EARTHWORM
STOCKING DENSITIES
ROCKY B. ACSON
A Thesis Proposal Presented to the Graduate School

of the Central Philippines State University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Degree Master of Arts in Educational Management
major in Vocational Productivity
APRIL 2017
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Today, the global scientific society is looking for a more
economically cheaper & environmentally safer alternative to the
destructive chemical fertilizers for safe and sustainable food
production for the human society (Sinha, 2009). In relation to
this, human, livestock and crops produce approximately 38 billion
metric tons of organic waste worldwide each year and accumulation
of wastes, particularly organic wastes, is becoming a serious
hazard responsible for deterioration of environment (Goyal et.
al, 2011). In this regard, recycling of organic waste is
feasible to produce useful organic manure for agricultural
application (Ansari, 2011).
Vermicomposting has been reported to be a viable, cost-
effective and rapid technique for the efficient utilization of
crop residues and byproducts, and organic wastes (Nedunchezhiyan
et al, 2011). Hence researches are being done to validate which
are the best organic substrates from among the diverse organic
wastes that can produce most nutritive vermicompost
substituting chemical fertilizers and the best methods of

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vermicomposting including the selection of composting worms that
can give rapid and good results (Sinha, 2009).
On the other hand, vermicomposting is a non- thermophilic
biodegradation of organic matter through the joint action of
earthworms and microorganisms (Nedunchezhiyan et. al, 2010).
Microorganisms are mainly responsible for the biochemical
degradation of the organic matter during composting and/or
fermentation process and, in the latter, earthworms play a very
important role in both microbial activity and diversity (Mupondi
et. al, 2010).
Therefore, this proposed study aims to explore the technical
viability of using Effective Microorganisms (EM) in combination
with earthworms in reducing the time of composting and improving
compost quality.
Objectives of the Study
1. To determine which of the EM treated substrate materials
for earthworm will have a higher digestibility rating.

2. To determine which of the different earthworm stocking
densities used will have a significant effect on the
digestibility rating of the different EM treated
substrate materials.
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3. To ascertain the interaction between the different EM
treated substrate materials and different stocking
densities on the digestibility rating of earthworm
beddings.
Importance of the Study
The result of this research served as a guide to farmers and
entrepreneurs who want to engage in vermicomposting business.
This were providing them additional knowledge on the potentials
of Effective Microorganisms in enhancing decomposition and in
improving compost quality. Furthermore, this will encourage
future researchers to explore and undergo research studies on the
importance of promoting highly sustainable recycling methods of
organic wastes and agricultural crop residues.
This was also contributing to the promotion of organic
farming as well as encourage the use of economically cheaper and
environmentally safer organic-based natural fertilizers in
improving crop performance and production of crops free from
chemical residues and safe for human and animal consumption.
Scope and Delimitation

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This study on Digestibility Rate of EM Treated Substrate
Materials at Different Earthworm Stocking Densities was
conducted on January 2012 to March 2013 at the Agrimechanic shed
of NSCA-Cauayan Campus, now Central Philippines State University
Brgy. Poblacion, Cauayan Negros Occidental. The total research
area was being nine (9) meters in length and five (5) meters in
width. This study was focus on the digestibility rate of EM
treated substrate materials at different earthworm stocking
densities based on the following parameters: weight of casting,
weight of undigested substrate materials, digestibility rate, and
population of earthworm.
This study used Factorial Experiment, laid out in Randomized
Complete Block Design. Two factors that will be considered are;
a) EM treated substrate materials b) Stocking densities of
earthworm (Eudrillus euginae).
Definition of Terms
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Actinomycetes. These are also called radial bacteria and
they reproduce from the center point into a radial pattern, as
the name is represented by family of Streptomyces which produces
antibiotics such as streptomycin.
Amino acid. A compound belonging to a class that contains
an amino group that serves as building blocks of protein.
Breeders. These are mature earthworms capable of producing
juveniles 12-20 pieces per month.
Composting. It is a decomposition process in which the
substrate is progressively broken down by a succession of
populations of living organisms. The breakdown products of one
population serve as the substrate for the succeeding population.
The succession is initiated by way of the breakdown of the
complex molecules in the raw substrate to simpler forms by
microbes indigenous to the substrates.
Decomposition. The process of breaking down organic
material, such as dead plant or animal tissue, into smaller
molecules that are available for use by the organisms of an
ecosystem. Decomposition is carried on by bacteria, fungi,
protists, worms, and certain other organisms.

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Earthworms. These are tube-shaped invertebrate animals with
a long, segmented body and no legs that aerate the soil with
their burrowing action and enrich the soil with their waste
products (called castings). Earthworms are mainly classified as
epigeic (surface dwellers), endogeic (shallow burrowing) or
anecic (deep borruwing).
EM. It stands for Effective Microorganisms, a mixed
culture microbial inoculants composed of several species of
beneficial bacteria, yeasts and fungi that exist homeostatically
in aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
Eudrilus eugeniae. An earthworm species commonly known as
African Night Crawler. This species is reported to be fast
growing; ferocious eater of organic food and does not need much
soil as substratum.
Fermentation. It is the process of decomposing the organic
materials initially for three (3 weeks) so that its resulting
temperature shall be reduced in preparation for the introduction
of the earthworms.
Filamentous Fungi. In the world of EM, they are hardworking
creatures like yeast, producing various biologically active
agents such as amino acids and polysaccharides.

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Juveniles. Young earthworms of 4 6 weeks of age.
Lactic acid bacteria. These bacteria are differentiated by
their powerful sterilizing properties. They suppress harmful
micro-organisms and encourage quick breakdown of organic
substances.
Mesophilic. Organisms growing or thriving best in an
intermediate environment (as in one of moderate temperature)
Organic matter. Fraction of the soil composed of anything
that once lived. It includes plant and animal remains in various
stages of decomposition, cells and tissues of soil organisms, and
substances from plant roots and soil microbes.
Photosynthetic bacteria. These bacteria play the leading
role in the activity of EM. They synthesize useful substances
from the secretions of roots, organic matter and/or harmful gases
(e.g. hydrogen sulphide) by using sunlight and the heat of soil
as sources of energy.
Polysaccharide. A complex carbohydrate such as starch or
cellulose made up of sugar molecules linked into a branched or
chain structure.
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Psychrophiles. These are organisms that thrive in low
temperature environment.
Putrefaction. Anaerobic rotting of organic matter and the
by-products that produce bad odors which include ammonia,
hydrogen sulfide, and solids.
Splitting. The act of separating breeder worms from the
juveniles after harvesting of castings.
Stocking. The introduction of worm into the substrate
materials. It may assume the term worm inoculation as well.
Substrate materials. This is about farm wastes and crop
residues to be acted upon by microorganisms and earthworms during
the composting process.
Thermophilic. Organisms that thrive in a high temperature
or warm environment.
Vermicasts. These are fecal matters of earthworms enclosed
by its saliva. It contains the three (3) major plant food (NPK)
including considerable amount of essential plant nutrients. They
are free of weed seeds and free from harmful fungi and bacteria.
It is also called vermicompost.

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Vermicomposting. A technology involving the joint action of
earthworms and microorganisms as natural bioreactors for
effective recycling of organic wastes.
Yeast. A small single-celled fungus that ferments sugars and
other carbohydrates and reproduces by budding.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

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The chapter presents relevant information taken from various
sources such as books, electronic articles, research findings,
flyers, and others. They are arranged according to the specific
variables of the study
The Recycling Issue
Recycling is the separation and collection of wastes, their
subsequent transformation or re-manufacture into usable or
marketable products or materials and the purchase of products
from recyclable materials (PCCARD), 2007). In this context, the
need to recover and reuse simply the remaining valuable
properties and/or elements contained in the waste materials is
obvious at present. This is not done in the country alone. Many
affluent and developing countries had in fact engaged in
recycling activities not for agriculture use but in industrial
purposes likewise (Microsoft Encarta, 2004).
The percentage of garbage in the United States that is
recycled into new products is projected to increase from around
17 percent in 1990 to as much as 30 percent by 1995, and 35
percent by 2000, according to Franklin Associates.(Yr. Edition
Mr Tingson) Some individual categories are already much bigger.

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The US aluminum industry, for instance, estimates that 65 percent
of all aluminum cans are recycled. Green glass which is imported
to the US in the form of wine and beer bottles is also another
proof of the claim.
In general, the expansion of recycling programs has far
outstripped the development of markets to buy the collected
materials. However, there are ways around such imbalances.
Green glass can be ground up and used as aggregate in asphalt.
In 1990, New York Citys municipal asphalt plant used 38, 000
tons of crushed glass. And newsprint can be made into cellulose
insulation. It has even been used as animal bedding, although
environmentalists point out that such a use is not true
recycling, where a material is returned to the market time after
time; animal bedding can be used only once before being thrown
away. The long-term solution to the newsprint glut is to
increase the paper industrys capacity to recycle paper, and that
will happen.
In the face of opposition from residents and
environmentalists to all types of landfills and incinerators,
some local officials turn to an approach for warding off a future
garbage crisis that gets near-universal approval, at least in
principle: recycling. From the local standpoint, recycling

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programs reduced the need for new landfills and incinerators
because they cut the amount of garbage that requires disposal.
From a wider point of view, recycling conserves natural
resources, such as trees and metal-bearing ores, and saves
energy. For instance, making a new aluminum can out of recycled
aluminum require only 5 percent of the energy that is expended to
refine aluminum from bauxite ore.
In 1988 only about 600 recycling collection programs existed
in the United States. By the end of 1991 there were about 3, 500
picking up recyclables from 15 million households. About 40
percent of these programs, mostly in the Northeast, California,
and Minnesota, were mandatory, meaning that residents faced fines
if they did not separate recyclables from ordinary garbage.
Most of these arrangements follow a similar pattern. Each
household regularly sorts its recyclables and places them in a
plastic bin, which is put out for collection once a week. A
truck with separate compartments for each type of recyclable
newspapers, glass bottles, aluminum cans, and so on takes the
items to a processing site; there they are bundled for shipment
to factories or mills, to be converted into new newsprint,
bottles and cans, or other goods.

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In the Philippines, PCARRD (2007) cited that generation of
solid wastes per capita is estimated at 0.2 0.6 kg/day. Thus,
a family of six can generate an estimated total of 2.4 kg of
solid wastes daily, while the whole population of 8M produces
about 32, 000 tons of solid wastes. The average composition of
solid wastes in the country is shown in the table.
Table 1. Average composition of solid wastes in the

Philippines, % by weight.
Components %
Yard and field waste 33.5
Fines and inert 12.9
Wood 11.5
Food Waste 11.0
Paper and Cardboard 10.2
Plastic and Petroleum Products 9.8
Textiles 4.1
Metals 3.3
Glass 1.9
Leather and rubber 1.8
TOTAL 100.0
Source: EMB-DNR, 1998; PCARRD, 2007.
As indicated in the table, 33.5% of the total solid wastes
in the country was attributed on yard and field wastes as
reported by DENR in 1998. In the succeeding years food and yard
wastes accounted for almost 45% of the total amount of municipal
solid waste generated in 2000 (PCARRD), 2007). The Philippines
is practically an agricultural country and it produces rice as
its dominant staple food. Rice produced rice straws by about 50%
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of its dry weight (Pandey et al., 2009). Approximately 24M tons
of rice straws are generated as waste yearly, assuming a grain
straw ratio of 0.5 and 12M tons of palay. In addition to this,
assuming that a 40t/ha of fresh stovers of corn are produced from
2.5M hectare of area harvested, approximately 100M tons of it are
generated annually. With a kernel/ear ratio of 0.77 at 4.5M tons
of corn produced, approximately 1.3M tons of corncobs are
produced yearly (PCARRD, 2007)
Precisely, farmers do not incorporate rice straw in the crop
field because of its slow degradation rate, disease infestation,
unstable nutrients, and reduced yield caused by a short-term
negative effect of nitrogen immobilization. They usually dispose
it through open field burning. Because of this reality, the
management of organic waste become a major concern worldwide, as
unscientific disposal of waste can adversely affect the
environment by causing offensive odor, ground water contamination
and soil pollution (Garget et al, 2006) As conformed by United
Nations Environment Program (UNEP)(2009), rapid increase in the
volume and types of waste agricultural biomass, as a result of
intensive agriculture in the wake of population growth and
improved living standards, is becoming a burgeoning problem as
rotting waste agricultural biomass emits methane and leachate

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(liquid waste), and open burning by the farmers to clear the land
and generate CO2 and other local pollutants.
Agricultural and industrial wastes including rice bran, rice
husk, rice straw, sugarcane trash, bagasse, molasses, press mud,
etc. have a huge potential for recycling nutrient elements
(Prakash, 2007). Recycling of organic wastes by the process of
composting in agriculture brings in the much needed organic
matter to the soils and improves the overall soil fertility and
soil productivity (Tandon, 1995; Chukwuka and Omotayo, 2008;
Ansari, 2011).
Recycling in the Philippines has the following goals:
preserves raw materials and natural resources, reduces the amount
of waste that requires disposal, reduces energy use and
associated pollution, provides business and job opportunities,
reduce greenhouse gas emissions and reduces pollution associated
with use of virgin materials (PCCARDD, 2007).
Processing and Using Recycled Garbage
A new approach to garbage disposal that has gained in the
past two or three years is garbage composting. Most household
garbage is organic and will decompose under the right conditions
into a soil-like material called humus, which can be used to

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enrich soil. Plant wastes such as leaves, grass clippings, and
other green garbage can readily be composted into humus for
homeowners and/or parks. By late 1991, moreover, 13 states had
passed some type of ban on disposing of yard waste in landfills.
Processing indoor garbage by composting is less common. A few
communities have opted to build composting facilities, where
garbage is either laid out in long piles, called windrows, or
places in specially designed vessels, to reduce odors and speed
up composting (Microsoft Encarta, 2004)
The basic machinery for processing solid wastes into compost
materials are the shredder, cleaner, breaker, horizontal mixer,
pelletizer, dryer, and grader. The shredder cuts the wastes into
small pieces for faster degradation during composting using
either windrow or mechanical composting systems with the aid of
suitable microorganisms. The compost is harvested after 21 days
or less and ground into small particles using the breaker mill.
The cleaner is used to remove impurities like stones, sand, and
steel. A horizontal mixer is used to blend the compost with
other ingredients and enhance the nutritional components of the
organic fertilizer. Pelletizing the compost follows if these are
not intended for distribution in powder form. The pellets are

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dried to 15% moisture content for longer storage and are graded
prior to bagging (PCARRD), 2007).
Composting/Compost
Composting can serve as a key component of municipal solid
waste recycling activities, considering that food and yard wastes
accounted for almost 45% of the total amount of municipal solid
waste generated in 2000 (PCARRD, 2007). Approximately 45-55% of
the waste stream is organic matter, composting can play a
significant role in diverting waste from landfills thereby
conserving landfill space and reducing the production of leachate
and methane gas. In addition, an effective composting program
can produce a high quality soil amendment with variety of end
uses (http://www.echochem.com/t compostfaq2.html). It is a
process appropriate for the disposal of waste and is generally
beneficial from ecological and economic point of view (Taiwo,
2011).
A natural process of 'rotting' or decomposition of organic
matter by microorganisms under controlled conditions (Adegunloye
et. al, 2009)(not a sentence, Dr Teves). In the process, various
organisms, including bacteria and fungi, break down organic
matter into simpler substances. Raw organic materials such as

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crop residues, animal wastes, food garbage, some municipal WASTES
AND suitable industrial wastes, enhance their suitability for
application to the soil as a fertilizing resource, after having
undergone fermentation (http://agritech.tnau.acin/orgfarm
composting.html). It is further described as the bioconversion
of organic matter in a much faster rate by heterotrophic
microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and protozoa) into
humus-like material called compost (www.environmental-
expert.com/Files/0/articles/9047/vermicompostingarticle for the
biofertilizerpeople.pdf)(Taiwo, 2011).
Not as a complicated process, the effectiveness of the
composting process is dependent upon the environmental conditions
present within the composting system i.e. oxygen, carbon,
nitrogen, temperature, moisture, material disturbance, organic
matter and the size and activity of microbial populations. If
any of these elements are lacking, or if they are not provided in
the proper proportion, the microorganisms will not flourish and
will not provide adequate heat. At optimum performance,
composting will convert organic matter into stable compost that
is odor and pathogen free, and a poor breeding substrate for
flies and other insects. In addition, it will significantly
reduce the volume and weight of organic waste as the composting

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process converts much of the biodegradable component to gaseous
carbon dioxide. It is a continuous basis in the natural
environment (http://www.echochem.com/tcompostfaq2.html).
Another explanation is advanced by Eyheraguibel et al (2008)
and the African Journal of Biotechnology (2009). They said that
compost, a nutrient-rich, organic fertilizer and soil
conditioner, is a product of humification of organic matter. This
process is aided by a combination of living organisms including
bacteria, fungi and worms which transform and enhance
lignocellulosic waste into humic-like substances. It is a dark,
crumbly, earthy-smelling material that results from the
decomposition of organic materials. Compost does double duty
when added to soil. It supplies nutrients to plants and improves
the structure of any type of soil by holding soil particles
together in larger aggregates. Compost also improves water
retention because it will hold almost twice its own weight of
water. Compost is relatively stable but continues to change when
mixed with soil. Humus is the stable, end result of organic
matter decomposition that provides an environment for a complex
nutrient transfer system within the soil. Like air, it is
essential to life on earth. By incorporating compost into our
soil, we are helping to replenish the humus we have lost through

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farming and other human activities (Home & Garden Mimeo # HG 35
(6/2005).
On the other hand, the fundamental challenge at present is
in the manner the compost pile must be prepared and aerated
properly. Using conventional composting methods, piles must be
turned frequently, or they risk becoming anaerobic and
putrefying. If this happens, foul smelling gasses such as
ammonia and mercaptans (Thiols are liquids with penetrating
unpleasant smells, also called mercaptan) are produced, and
harmful bacteria proliferate. This makes for angry neighbors,
numerous flies, and a potentially disease inducing finished
product. The problem with continually turning the piles to
prevent putrefaction is two-fold. One, it is very labor intensive
and therefore expensive. Two, even frequent turning is not 100%
efficient and anaerobic pockets inevitably begin to putrefy in
the piles (http://www.nymusa.com/pro em app 1.htm)
(http://www.benefits-ofrecycling.com/types of composting.html).
However, composting is considered an economical and sustainable
option for organic waste management as it is comparatively easy,
provided it is managed properly to produce a good quality
product. It is a technique which facilitates mass reduction of
waste resulting in its stabilization (Nair et al, 2006).

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Some communities are implementing large scale composting
programs in an effort to conserve landfill capacity. The key to
a successful recycling program is to ensure that the recovered
material is actually re-used or re-manufactures, and that the
products are bought and used by consumers. Recycling programs
will become more effective as markets for products made from
recycled material increase. The national government has developed
several initiatives in order to bolster the use of recycled
products (PCARRD, 2007).
The design and set-up of a centralized composting site must
consider the type and volume of organic waste, waste collection
methods, storage factors, and the end use for the finished
compost. Quality organic waste and good operating procedures
ensure the production of high-quality compost. Among the most
common centralized composting process technologies/facilities
are: windrows, static aerated pile, and in vessel (PCARRD),
2007).
Application of composts increased the soil organic matter
(SOM) i.e. soil carbon to more sustainable levels, above 3-5 %
and improve fertility. In loamy soil, compost applied @16
tons/acre (35 t/ha) SOM increased from 1.1 % to 2.5 %. Organic
carbon in soil plays a central and fundamental role in soil

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structure, quality and fertility. SOM acts as glue to bind
soil particles into aggregates thus improving soil structure,
infiltration, air porosity, water and nutrient holding capacity.
Soil erosion and compaction are exacerbated when soils are
depleted in organic matter. Soil quality and fertility reduces
over time as carbon is continually removed from farm soil through
grain harvesting, cutting of hay and stubble fed to cattle and
also through oxidation as greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. Soil
carbon in farms is not being replaced in natural way. Application
of composts replenishes the SOM adds the lost soil carbon and
helps to sustain the soil quality and fertility and maximize
production over time. As the SOM decomposes over time it results
in the development of more stable carbon compound called humus.
Humus enhances mineral breakdown and in turn nutrient
availability to plants. Highly mature and stable composts (e.g.
vermicompost) contain long lasting form of carbon called
humates or humic and fulvic acids which are very important
for soil health and fertility (Compost Australia, 2011).
Generally, compost can be considered more as a soil
conditioner than as a fertilizer substitute because it improves
plant productivity primarily by improving physical and biological
soil properties and increasing soil organic matter, rather than

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by directly supplying significant amounts of plant-available
nutrients. By increasing soil organic matter content, which fuels
microbial activity and nutrient cycling, compost applications
will increase overall soil fertility. Over subsequent growing
seasons, the nitrogen applied in compost will become plant-
available (Emily Marriott et. al, 2011). Significantly, compost
is a rich source of organic matter and it improves the physico-
chemical and biological properties of the soil
(http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/orgfarm/orgfarm composting.html)
Vermicomposting
At recent years, disposal of organic wastes from various
sources like domestic, agriculture and industries has caused
serious environmental hazards and economic problems. It has been
demonstrated that earthworms can process household garbage, city
refuse, sewage sludge and waste from paper, wood and food
industries (Ansari and Ismael, 2011).
There are various physical, chemical, microbiological and
conventional methods of waste disposal but they are perceived
time consuming and need very high cost and input (Goyal et. al,
2011). Thus, in recent years, vermicomposting and composting have

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turned out to be promising way out for safe disposal of organic
waste (Sharma et. al, 2010). It is a technique of biodegradation
or stabilization of organic waste (natural/anthropogenic) by
using earthworms and microbes (Hand et al., 1988; Garg et al.,
2006; Suthar, 2007; Mainoo et al., 2009). As a mesophilic process
and is the process of ingestion, digestion, and absorption of
organic waste carried out by earthworms followed by excretion of
castings through the worms metabolic system, during which their
biological activities enhance the levels of plant-nutrients of
organic waste [R. M. Venkatesh and T. Eevera, 2008].
With the aid of aerobic microorganisms (i.e. bacteria and
fungi), earthworms digest processed organic materials under
favorable temperature and moisture conditions. The materials
that passed through the digestive tract of earthworm come out in
a texturized, sanitized and deodorized form of castings known as
vermicompost (Guerrero, 1983). The technology can help reduce the
amount of biodegradable wastes in community/municipal dumpsites.
The production of vermicompost will also contribute to the
promotion of organic farming and in restoring the fertility of
acidic soils resulting from organic matter depletion and overuse
of chemical fertilizers. It has the added advantages of being
more convenient, practical and economical than other similar

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composting systems. (http://cptech.dost.gov.ph/etc-0015-
SW000.php)
Vermi-composting technology amounts to converting trash
into treasure or getting wealth from waste or gold from
garbage (.Sinha, Rajiv et al., 2009). Vermicomposting is a
simple biotechnological process of composting in which certain
species of earthworms are used to convert wastes into better end
product (Garg et al., 2005). Vermicomposting has been reported to
be a viable, cost effective and rapid technique for the efficient
utilization of crop residues and byproducts, and organic wastes
(Garg et al., 2006; Suthar, 2009). It provides two useful
products; the earthworm biomass and the vermicompost (Sen and
Chandra, 2007).
The Vermicomposting process is faster than composting,
because the material passes through the earthworm gut. The
resulting earthworm castings (worm manure) are rich in microbial
activity and plant growth regulators, and fortified with pest
repellence attributes as well (Garg et al., 2005). Earthworms
consume various organic wastes and reduce the volume by 60%
(Nagavallemma et al., 2004). The average body weight of earth
worms is 0.5-0.6 g and they eat wastes equivalent to their body

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weight. It produces cast equivalent to about 50% of the waste it
consumes in a day (Garg and Kaushik, 2005;
www.ccsenet.org/jsdJournal of Sustainable Development Vol. 3, N0.
3; September, 2010)
In the revised Vermicomposting Primer prepared by Pineda
(2011), it emphasized that the Vermicomposting Technology was
introduced in the Philippines by Dr. Raphael Guerrero III through
the national program on Kitchen Garden technologies in the year
1983. One of the objectives of such technology was to motivate
the farmers especially in the rural areas to be more productive
by maximizing their respective backyards with readily available
vegetables and fresh water fish like Nile tilapia (Tilapia
nilotica Linn.).
Vermicomposting is making use of the different strains of
earthworm. For this technology, it uses the African Night
Crawlers (Eudrilius Eugeniae L.) which originated from Germany
and was only introduced in the Philippines by Dr. Raphael
Guerrero III for the generation of this unique technology, So
far, the worms are considered one of the appropriate alternative
organisms available for efficient and effective low-cost
recycling of farm wastes.

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The earthworm normally is grooved in the white ventral body
portion and the color of the remaining parts is black or lighter.
It moves slow and is preferring dark moist habitat all the time.
The maximum adult length is about 30 60 centimeters while its
weight is 1.50 grams on the average.
The creature is practically easy to rear. As a matter of
fact, the very reason why it attracted the attention of the
researchers is that it consumes all biodegradable wastes that are
given to them in short period of rearing. Fifty breeder worms
can convert one square meter of fermented substrate (20-kilogram
animal manure and sawdust) into an almost equal quantity for only
a month of rearing.
These animals which can last for 15 years are certainly
harmless and if reared properly can produce vermicasts as low-
cost organic fertilizer for the backyard of every household
elsewhere. It is the best alternative plant food and considered
as the safest organic fertilizer compared with popular
conventional harmful synthetic fertilizer materials available
abundantly in the market which almost subjected majority of the
consumers into maximum health risks.

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Simple Basic Steps in Vermicomposting Technology

(Pineda, 2011)
1. Survey the area for abundant source of animal manures
and/or organic farm wastes (sawdust, fermented rice straws,
shredded weeds, etc.) except chicken dung. Collect as many
of these materials and preferably sundry them for at least
three (3) days for handling convenience. For fresh cut
weeds, shredding or cutting them into finer structure makes
fermentation easier and worm inoculation earlier.
Note: Never attempt to incorporate fresh chicken dung in
the substrate as bedding material for earthworm. It
contains a high amount of uric acid and found very toxic to
worms.
2. Crush dried animal manure by the use of plank or bare feet.
3. If animal manure is the only organic waste available aside
from sawdust, mix three (3) parts of it by volume and one
(1) part sawdust thoroughly. When assorted organic
materials are available, mix them thoroughly and mix them
with saw dust at the same proportion/ratio as mentioned.
Make enough volume of the mixture according to desired
quantity following the mixing ratio.

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Sawdust is used to avoid hardening of the bedding materials
during rearing. Never use rice hulls to substitute
sawdust. Rice hull are not prescribed because it will
injure the worm as it move against it.
4. Moist the mixture by pouring in water until the moisture
level is approximately 50 to 80 percent.
5. Place the moistened mixture in a shed to avoid sunlight and
rain. Cover it with canvass or any material available and
allow it to ferment (decompose) for three (3) weeks. Turn
the heap once a week and check the moisture content as well
6. Check the temperature of the fermenting substrate materials.
The appropriate worm stocking temperature must be at the
range from 24 320C. Check it by burying a hand deep into
the center of the pile. If temperature can be resisted by
at least five (5) minutes, then the pile (substrate) is
ready.
7. Look for any container available which shall be filled with
fermented substrates in preparation for worm inoculation or
stocking. An old cracked basin or old used tires cut in
halves may be used for the purpose. An old plastic sack can
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be utilized for the purpose as well. Only half of it shall
be filled.
A wooden box with 50cm wide, 100cm long and 15cm thick
dimension maybe made for the same intention. This box
dimension can accommodate about 20 kilogram substrate
materials and 50 breeder worms.
If an old plastic sack is used, fill it with the substrate
half-full only. Do not fill it with substrate entirely.
Worms will not convert the bottom part into vermicompost.
Only the top portion.
8. For every square meter areas of the beds, stock breeder
worms of 50. Stock them by spreading them over the surface
of the substrate or by burying them into the center and
cover them after. Check water of the bed/container all the
time. Get a handful of the substrate and squeeze it between
the palms until water shall drip. If two or three drops of
water shall come out then the substrate is at the optimum
moisture level and does not need to be watered using a
sprinkler. If water content is low, obviously water must be
introduced.
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Never make the beds over wet during watering. The worms
shall not survive in it in 24 hours. They will crawl away
if the bed is too wet.
9. Cover the bed with old newspapers or the like after worm
stocking to protect the worms from predators like frogs,
snakes, crickets and chickens. The worms love darkness and
therefore it will induce them to feed on more.
10. After a month from stocking, harvest the fine castings
by sieving it through a mesh wire with the size of 3/16 of
an inch. For convenience, do not water the bed at least a
week before the date of harvesting the castings.
11. Separate the breeders from the juveniles. This activity
is called splitting.
12. With the succeeding fermented substrate materials ready,
stock breeders following step 8. Stock the juveniles
separately at another bed at the rate of one (1) to two (2)
kilograms per square meter area. Follow the same sequence
of rearing until splitting.

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13. With the harvested castings available, it can be applied
directly into the garden/field immediately following the
recommended amount. Normally, a farm is applied with two
(2) tons organic fertilizer per hectare more or less.
14. If vermicompost is to be stored longer, dry the product
under sunlight at least four (4) hours before storing.
Note: If worms are more than enough, it can be blanched,
dried and crushed. Vermimeal can be used to substitute
fishmeal in feed ration preparation for domestic animals and
livestock. It is comparable to Peruvian fishmeal in terms
of crude protein content approximately 65%.
Species of Earthworm
Earthworms are found in wide range of soils representing 60-
80% of the total soil biomass. Significantly, the worms lead to
total improvement in the quality of soil and land where they
inhabit and also enhance total plant growth and crop productivity
(Yvan et al, 2009) Earthworms restore and improve soil fertility
and boost crop productivity by the use of their excreta -
vermicast. They excrete beneficial soil microbes, and secrete
polysaccharides, proteins and other nitrogenous compounds into

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the soil. They promote soil fragmentation and aeration, and bring
about soil turning and dispersion in farmlands. Worm activity
can increase air-soil volume from 8 - 30%. One acre of land can
contain up to 3 million earthworms, the activities of which can
bring up to 8 - 10 tons of top soil to the surface every year.
Presence of worms improves water penetration in compacted soils
by 50% (Kangmin and Peizhen, 2010).
There are several species of earthworms like Eudrilus
eugeniae, Eisenia foetida, Perionyx excavatus and Lumbricus
rubellus (Garg et al., 2006; Suthar, 2007, 2009; Mainoo et al.,
2009) which are mostly used for vermicomposting. However, E.
foetida is the most common and favorable species of earthworms
for vermicomposting of vegetables waste as they have high
tolerance to environmental variables like pH, temperature and
moisture content (Kaviraj and Sharma, 2003; Garg et al., 2006;
Suthar, 2007, 2009).
In the tropical and subtropical conditions Eudrilus
eugeniae and Perionyx excavatus are the best vermicomposting
earthworms for organic solid waste management (Ismail, 2005;
Ansari, 2007). Eudrilus eugineae is a voracious feeders of
organic wastes, and their presence has been found to reduce the
time required for composting (Prabha et al. 2007; Guerrero 1983).

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In nature, epigeic earthworms live in fresh organic matter
of forest litter, in litter mounds, in herbivore dungs, and in
anthropogenic environments such as manure heaps, vegetal debris
and vermicomposting beds common in agricultural landscapes. These
habitats are hotspots of heterotrophic activity, where epigeic
earthworms intensively interact with microorganisms and other
soil fauna within the decomposer community, strongly affecting
decomposition processes (Swift et al., 1979; Monroy et al., 2006;
Sampedro and Domnguez, 2008).
Role of Microorganisms and Earthworm in Organic Matter
Decomposition
Vermicomposting is a non-thermophilic biodegradation of
organic material through the joint action of earthworms and
microorganisms (Suthar, 2009). Microorganisms are mainly
responsible for the biochemical degradation of the organic matter
during composting and/or fermentation process and, in the latter,
earthworms play a very important role in both microbial activity
and diversity (Laczano, 2008)
The biochemical decomposition of organic matter is primarily
accomplished by microorganisms, but earthworms are crucial

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drivers of the process as they are involved in the stimulation of
microbial populations through ingestion and fragmentation of
fresh organic matter, which results in a greater surface area
available for microbial colonization, thereby drastically
altering biological activity (Domnguez et al.,2010). Earthworms
also modify microbial biomass and activity through stimulation,
digestion and dispersion in casts (Aira and Domnguez, 2009;
Monroy et al., 2009) and closely interact with other biological
components of the vermicomposting system, thus affecting the
structure of microflora and microfauna communities (Lores et al.,
2006; Aira et al., 2007a; Monroy et al., 2009).
Earthworms are the most important of the large physical
decomposers in a compost pile. Earthworms ingest organic matter
and digest it with the help of tiny stones in their gizzards.
Their intestinal juices are rich in hormones, enzymes, and other
fermenting substances that continue the breakdown process. The
worms leave dark, fertile castings behind. A worm can produce its
weight in castings each day. These castings are rich in plant
nutrients such as nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus
that might otherwise be unavailable to plants. Earthworms thrive
on compost and contribute greatly to its quality. The presence of

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earthworms in either compost or soil is evidence of good
microbial activity (The Science of Composting 2011).
Microorganisms are the main agents of biochemical
decomposition, whereas earthworms are involved in the indirect
stimulation of microbial populations through comminuting of
organic matter, e.g. by increasing the surface area available for
attack by microbes. Earthworms also modify the microbial
populations through digestion, stimulation and dispersion in
casts (Edwards, 2004).
After ingesting microbes into earthworms gut, the population
of microbes proliferate to several times in its excreta
(vermicast) (Pramanik 2007).As composts are rich in microbial
activity, earthworms further stimulate extensive multiplication
of useful microbes in billions and trillions in the soil (Jack,
2010).Earthworms can modify soil microbial community structure
depending on the type of organic matter present in soil (Jack,
2010). Soil organic matter (SOM) is also the food source of
beneficial soil microbes and helps in improving microbial
population and diversity. Microbes are responsible for
transforming, releasing and cycling of nutrients and essential
elements. Microbes are also essential for converting nutrients

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into their plant available forms and also for facilitating
nutrients uptake by plants. Soil microbes also create the glue
that sticks soil particles together, creating soil crumbs and
pore spaces that make good soil structure decreasing soil
hardness. It is therefore advantageous to use beneficial
microbial inoculants whose population is rapidly increased for
rapid composting and also better compost quality (Pramanik 2007).
The impact of earthworms on the decomposition of organic
waste during the vermicomposting process is initially due to gut
associated processes (GAPs), i.e., modifications that the
decaying organic matter and the microorganisms undergo in the
intestinal tract (Aira et al., 2009; Monroy et al., 2009). Some
of this material will be digested, but earthworms also excrete
large amounts of casts that contain different nutrient and
microbial populations than those contained in the material prior
to ingestion (Knapp et al., 2009). The resultant earthworm casts
are mixed with material not ingested by the earthworms, which can
enable the better exploitation of resources, either because of
the appearance of microbial species in the fresh substrate or the
pool of readily assimilable compounds in the casts (Brown and
Doube, 2004). Upon completion of the GAPs, the ingested materials
undergo cast-associated processes that are more closely

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associated with aging processes, during which the effects of
earthworms are mainly indirect and derived from the GAPs (Aira et
al., 2007b). Therefore, the vermicomposting process includes two
different phases regarding the activity of earthworms: (i) an
active phase during which earthworms process the organic waste,
thereby modifying its physical state and microbial composition
(Lores et al., 2006), and (ii) a maturation-like phase marked by
the displacement of the earthworms towards fresher layers of
undigested waste, during which the microbes take over the
decomposition of the waste processed by the earthworms (Aira et
al., 2007b). The duration of the maturation phase is not fixed,
and depends on the composition of organic waste and the
efficiency with which the active phase of the process takes
place, which in turn is determined by the species and density of
earthworms (Domnguez et al., 2010), and the rate at which the
residue is applied (Aira and Domnguez, 2008).
Guts of earthworms are factories and storehouse of
beneficial soil microbes. Apparently, it is both the earthworms
and its microbes that plays combined role in growth promotion and
improved agricultural production. Worms and microbes secrete
growth promoting plant hormones gibberilins, auxins and
cytokinins which help mineralise the nutrients and make them

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bio-available to plant roots. Microbes also help in plant
protection from diseases (Compant et al., 2005). Plant growth
promoting bacteria (PGPB) directly stimulates growth by nitrogen
(N) fixation, solubilization of nutrients, production of growth
hormones such as 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC)
deaminase and indirectly by antagonising pathogenic fungi by
production of siderophores, chitinase, -1,3-glucanase,
antibiotics, fluorescent pigments and cyanide. There is also
substantial body of evidence to demonstrate that microbes,
including bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, yeasts and algae, also
produce plant growth regulators (PGRs) such as auxins,
gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene and ascorbic acids in
appreciable quantities and as their population is significantly
boosted by earthworms large quantities of PGRs are available in
vermicompost (Sinha et al., 2009 a and b; Sinha and Valani,
2011).
Study indicates that vermicomposting leads to greater
reduction of pathogens after 3 months upon storage. Whereas, the
samples which are subjected to only thermophilic composting,
retains higher levels of pathogens even after 3 months.
Earthworms selectively kills all the harmful microbes including
Salmonella and Escherichia coli either by devouring upon them or

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by secretion of anti-pathogenic ceolomic fluids in the medium
in which they inhabit. Several studies have found that
earthworms effectively bio-accumulate or biodegrade several
organic and inorganic chemicals including heavy metals,
organochlorine pesticide and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs) residues in the medium in which it inhabits (Sinha and
Valani, 2011).
Vermicompost Importance and Significance to Agriculture
Relevant information about the usage and significant
contributions of the material in agriculture are presented in the
succeeding paragraphs. Pertinent topics anout v ermicompost as
soil conditioner (Physical, biological, chemical), natural bio-
active nutrient-rich and sustainable organic fertilizer, an
element to environmental protection, host of microorganisms, and
as germination enhancer or plant growth regulator.
The Kitchen-Garden Technology otherwise known as the KSS
Technology in 1983 compelled Dr. Raphael Guerrero III to oofer
the vermicomposting Technology in the country thereby introducing
the African Night Crawlers (Eudrilius eugenae) earthworm species
as the principal frontline valuable living creatures. Though
quite far by 28 years from its initiation until the present, the
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same claim is made. According to Guerrero III (2006),
vermicompost is an excellent enhancer and bioactive fertilizer
for organic farming. It can help protect the environment as well
by reducing disposal of organic wastes and promote sustainable
soil fertilizer. Furthermore, vermicompost is a high nutrient-
rich natural fertilizer and soil conditioner. In addition to
worms, a healthy vermicompost system host many other organisms,
such as insects, molds, and bacteria
(http://wikepedia.Org/wiki/vermicompost). It is 5-7 times more
powerful than all the conventionally produced composts. Moreover,
its use in farm soil eventually leads to generation of huge
population of earthworms from their cocoons in the
vermicompost. Earthworms are great soil and environmental
managers and add further to the agronomic, social, economic and
environmental values of organic farming (Sinha et al., 2011b).
The claim made by Guerrero (2006 has been validated further
by Sherman (2006) saying that vermicompost is better than
ordinary compost with its higher level of plant available
nutrients, beneficial microbial activity, seed germination and
plant growth stimulation ability to suppress plant disease and
pest. Vermicompost has low in carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N)

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compared to the ordinary compost. By the same context,
Agriculture Magazine (2005) also added by saying that it
a(vermicompost) is a pure humus (organic matter) in its regular
form and is more effective than other organic fertilizers, as
proven in various field tests. It can be used just like any
other organic fertilizer commercially available for ornamental
plants and field crops as top dressing or for basal application.
The amount of it to be applied depends on the kind and the soil
condition where plants are to be planted. As Antonio (2007)
recommended, putting vermicompost in the farm benefits both the
plant and the soil because it promotes better root growth and
nutrient absorption and improves soil aeration, texture and tilth
thereby reducing soil compaction. He further cited that it also
improves water retention capacity of the soil because of its high
organic matter content, improves nutrient status of the soil and
increases the number of beneficial organisms.
Observation made by Dugenio, (2005), showed that plants
grown for their leaves respond very well to the high levels of
vermicompost while fruit crops require lesser amount. He further
indicated that it contains auxin necessary for the formation of
roots, buds, fruits and leaves. As a matter of fact, not only as

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being highly nutritive material, it is scientifically proving to
be a miracle plant growth promoter and protector as well. It is
rich in NPK, micronutrients, beneficial soil microbes and also
contains plant growth hormones and enzymes secreted by earthworms
(Sinha and Valani, 2011). As Fernandez (1986) put it, plants
applied with vermicompost at the rate of 1 to 3 tons/ha. resulted
to better yield on pole sitao. Plants grow faster and produced
greater yield if applied with it as organic fertilizer (Serna,
1981).
Sinha and Valani (2011) reported likewise extraordinarily
good growth of potted cereal, vegetable crops, and flowering
plants (Forgate abd Babb, 1972) on vermicompost as compared to
conventional composts and chemical fertilizers. He also reported
good yields in farmed wheat crops grown on vermicompost
(comparable with chemical fertilizers) which progressively
increased upon successive applications of same amount of
vermicompost over the years. Interestingly, lesser amount of
vermicompost was needed to maintain the same productivity of the
previous years as the natural fertility of the soil was build
up over successive application of vermicompost over the years. He
also found that there is an optimal value of vermicompost for

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good crop productivity, below which the productivity is reduced
and above which there is no significant increase in productivity.
This optimal value may vary from crop to crop. Application of
vermicompost significantly reduces the demand for irrigation by
nearly 30-40%. According to Olsson (2006) as being scientifically
produce with recent knowledge in biotechnologies, biofertilizers
(composts) are much more nutritive and productive than those
produced traditionally by farmers in earlier days.
Vermicompost contains humus excreted by worms which makes
it markedly different from other organic fertilizers. It takes
several years for soil or any organic matter to decompose to form
humus while earthworms secrete humus in its excreta. Without
humus plants cannot grow and survive. The humic and fulvic acids
in humus are essential to plants in four basic ways: 1). Enables
plant to extract nutrients from soil; 2). Help dissolve
unresolved minerals to make organic matter ready for plants to
use; 3).Stimulates root growth; and 4). Helps plants overcome
stress. Presence of humus in soil even helps chemical fertilizers
to work better (Kangmin and Peizhen, 2010).
Vermicomposts are high in available nutrients, microbial
activity and humic substances, which have been linked to

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increased plant growth (Arancon et al. 2006). As a good additive
to the soil, it helps to increase soil structure while adding
nutrients. Organic matter added to soil help to give the soil
better structure (binding of soil particles together). Structure
increases the aeration of soil, which facilitates oxygen reaching
plant roots. This helps plants (crops) to have better growth
rates. Organic matter also increases the cation exchange
capacity of soil (CEC). This helps to hold cations in the soil
where they are available for plant uptake. Soils that have low
CEC values lose many nutrients through the leaching
process.http://forest.mtu.edu/pcforestry/resources/studentproject
s/nutrients.htm
As an explanation to being the best suggested amendment to
improve soil physical property, Nelson and Rangarajan (2011) said
that vermicompost has very high porosity, aeration,
drainage and water holding capacity. They have a vast surface
area, providing strong absorbability and retention of nutrients.
They appear to retain more nutrients for longer period of time.
Study showed that soil amended with vermicompost had
significantly greater soil bulk density and hence porous and
lighter and never compacted. Significantly, vermicompost works as

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a soil conditioner and its continued application over the years
lead to total improvement in the quality of soil and farmland,
even the degraded and sodic soils. Compost Australia (2011)
reported that vermicompost also increase the rate of water
infiltration and reduces evaporation, which means that less
salt accumulates at the surface and the top soil is less saline.
High soil salinity can also increase susceptibility to disease
and nullify the natural disease suppressive effects of composts.
Addition of vermicompost to soils increases water holding
capacity, maintain evaporation losses to a minimum and works as a
good absorbent of atmospheric moisture due to the presence of
colloidal materials the earthworm mucus. The worm vermicast
works as micro-dams storing hygroscopic and gravitational
water. The water stable aggregates of polysaccharide gums
produced by the bacteria inhabiting the intestine of earthworms
increases the general entry of water into the soil and
infiltration due to construction of cemented macro-pores
(Munnoli and Bhosle,2011).
Compost Maintains optimal pH value of soil. Most compost
have a neutralizing value of 5% calcium carbonate equivalent in
the dry matter (3 % in fresh compost) compared with 50 % for

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ground limestone. The neutralizing value of 30 tonnes of fresh
compost is roughly equivalent to 2 tonnes of limestone. With
repeated application at this rate, soil would either maintain or
slightly increase in pH over time. In loamy soil, compost applied
@16 tonnes /acre (35 t/ha) pH raised from 6.8 to 7.1(Compost
Australia, 2011).
Plant Disease Suppression/Repellant/Resistance
All composts have been found to suppress high levels of
soil-borne disease. Vermicompost is much more efficient. Ayres
(2007) reported that mean root disease was reduced from 82% to
18% in tomato and from 98% to 26% in capsicum in soils amended
with compost. Naturally-occurring microbes (bacteria and fungi)
can suppress organisms that cause diseases. Important plant
diseases suppressed by composts are wilt caused by Fusarium
spp.; damping off caused by Fusarium, Pythium, Rhizoctonia and
Sclerotium spp.; stem and root rot caused by Fusarium,
Rhizoctonia, Pythium, Phytopthora, Sclerotium and Aphanomyces
spp. Woody materials in composts that degrade slowly can provide
long lasting disease suppression for more than 3 years as they
release nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus slowly into the soil.
Nitrogen (N) is a key nutrient in disease suppression and

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nitrogen deficiencies in soil can make plants more susceptible to
diseases. There are several ways how the composts suppress crop
diseases. These are by competition, secretion of antibodies and
hormones, predation and parasitism, induction of systemic
defenses in plants against diseases and by boosting immune
systems (Hoitink, 2008).
There had been considerable reports and evidences in recent
years regarding the ability of earthworms and vermicompost to
protect plants against various pests and diseases either by
suppressing or repelling them or by inducing biological
resistance in plants to fight them or by killing them through
pesticidal action (Arancon et al., 2005; Compant et al., 2005;
Wang et al., 2007; Elmer, 2009 and Jack, 2010). Plants grown with
vermicompost which contain balanced nutrients and greater
microbial and faunal diversity compared to chemical fertilizers
are less susceptible to a number of arthropod pests and sustain
significantly lower pest populations. The mechanisms leading to
vermicompost-mediated plant defenses against insect pests has not
been deciphered but it may be due to the antagonistic microbes
found in vermicompost. (Hu et al., 2003). Another possibility is
the presence of fungivorous and bacterivorous nematodes or
insect-parasitic organism such as the entomopathogenic

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nematodes (EPN) in vermicompost. EPN are lethal parasites of
insects that are widely found in soils throughout the world.
Their ability actively to locate their insect hosts, specific
association with highly virulent bacteria, high reproductive
potential and mass production and harmless impacts on vertebrates
and plants make these nematodes highly suitable for the
development of friendly alternatives for the biological control
of insect pests instead of chemical control. A Bacillus like
bacterium appears to be associated with this nematode which does
the job. This nematode kills Galleria larvae within 5 days,
infects and kills two other insects Pieris rapae and Tenebrio
molitor quickly (Weimin et al., 2010). Study indicates that
vermicompost application significantly increase the
insectivorous and fungivorous nematodes while depress the
population of plant-parasitic nematodes in soils. The other
vermiproducts - vermiwash (liquid filtered through body of worms)
and vermicompost tea (vermicompost brewed in water) can be made
100 % effective bio-pesticides to replace the toxic chemical
pesticides.
Vermicomposts are consistently capable of conferring or
inducing plant resistance in economically important plants. It
has been shown to increase resistance in host plants against

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pests, pathogens, plant parasitic nematodes and a large number of
arthropods including jassids (Empoasca kerri), aphids (Myzus
persicae & Aphiscraccivora), spider mites (Tetranychus urticae),
mealy bugs (Planococcus citri) and caterpillars (Pieris rapae)
(Chaoui et al., 2002; Arancon et al., 2002, 2005 & 2007; Edwards
et al., 2010). Vermicompost amendments as low as 20 % have been
shown to decrease leaf consumption by caterpillars and population
growth of aphids on cabbage (Arancon et al., 2005). Yasmin (2011)
found that vermicompost was very effective in causing
Arabidopsis plants to become resistant to the generalist
herbivore Helicoverpa zea. Vermicompost causes plants to have
non-preference and toxic effects on insects. This resistance
adversely affects insect development and survival on plants grown
in vermicompost-amended soil. This resistance is possibly due to
the interactions between the diverse microbial communities in
vermicompost with plant roots, as is evident from the
sterilization assays of vermicompost.
It has been proven more that vermicompost can protect plants
against diseases. Hence, the use of pesticides on crops can be
reduced (M. Bavani and Phon, 2009). Most remarkable observation
was significantly less incidence of pests and disease attacks in
vermicompost applied crops. The vermiwash (liquid produced

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during vermicomposting) and vermicompost tea (solution of
vermicompost produced in water) are highly effective
biopesticides with 100% control of crop pest and diseases.
Vermicompost contains some antibiotics and actinomycetes which
help in increasing the power of biological resistance among the
crop plants against pest and diseases. Pesticide spray was
significantly reduced where earthworms and vermicompost were used
in agriculture (Sinha and Valani, 2011).
Edwards and Arancon (2004), Arancon et al. (2005 & 2007a)
and Yardim et al.(2006) have found that use of vermicompost
resulted in major suppression of all three types of insect pest
attacks whether sucking or chewing. Earthworms have also been
found to be directly involved in suppression of soil-borne plant
diseases (Elmer, 2009). Earthworms may also act as vector for
dispersal of disease-suppressive useful microbes in soils.
(Compant et al., 2005) In addition to stimulating the activities
of and / or dispersing disease-suppressive microbes, earthworms
may also directly decrease the viability of plant pathogens. The
tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) passed
through the gut of earthworms Eisenia fetida was significantly
reduced in its infectivity. Their proteins were completely
damaged. The polysaccharide in earthworms is also thought to

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perform anti-bacterial function on plant pathogen microbes
(Wang et al., 2007). Increasing the population of mixed species
of earthworms in soil can proliferate the population and
distribution of these bio-control microbial agents in farm soil
in billions and trillions. This may become the future safe and
non-chemical biological based strategies for crop disease
control and protection, completely eliminating the destructive
chemical based control. (Jack, 2010).
It has been observed that abundant use of nitrogen as in
chemical fertilizers attracts aphids more due to more free amino
acids. Crops fertilized organically are less or even not at all
affected by aphids. Organically grown plants have a more solid
collenchymatous thickening systems increasing the mechanical
strengths of cell walls and a decreased water contents in plant
tissues both favoring a protective effect against aphids. There
seems to be strong evidence that earthworm vermicasts repel hard-
bodied pests like aphids. Edwards and Arancon (2004) reports
statistically significant decrease in arthropods (aphids, buds,
mealy bug, spider mite) populations and subsequent reduction in
plant damage, in tomato, pepper and cabbage trials with 20% and
40% vermicompost additions. George Hahn (2011 a), doing
commercial vermicomposting in U.S., claims that his product

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repels many different insect pests and suppress pathogenic
bacteria, fungi and soil nematodes causing crop diseases. His
scientific explanation is that this is due to production of
enzymes chitinase by worms which breaks down the chitin in the
insects exoskeleton. Chitin degraders can also digest bacteria
and all other chitin based fungi. There are also cellulose
degraders enzymes in vermicompost that are able to digest
bacteria and cellulosic fungi e.g. Pythium and Phytopthora which
causes wide range of crop diseases. He asserts direct
relationship between efficacy of repellency and the number of
chitin degraders and the concentration of chitinase enzymes. At
25 million cfu/dwg of chitin degraders aphids were driven from
roses in 90 days; at 56 m cfu/dwg in 4 weeks and at 200 m +
cfu/dwg aphids were chased off in less than 1 week. Parasitic
nematodes were also suppressed. A 20 acre cauliflower infested
with centipedes saw elimination in 3 months. Some 30,000 pine
trees in the forest of San Bernardino, U.S. were being decimated
by the bark beetles. Upon treatment with chitin degraders and
chitinase rich vermicompost the mortality was reduced to less
than 1%. The neighbouring untreated pines are being lost at 80 +
% every year. In a Pecan research project in U.S., application of
chitinase rich vermicompost produced a 400 % increase in yield

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while also eliminating the pecan scab and pecan weevil. The
level of chitin degraders in vermicompost prepared from feeding
normal cattle dung and food wastes to the earthworms is generally
2-3 millions cfu/dwg which is below the 10 million cfu/dwg
threshold for effective action. If about 30 % chitin is added to
the feed material the level of chitin degraders can be
significantly increased to 200 million cfu/dwg in the
vermicompost. This can be achieved by adding shrimp or crab
shells, melted cow horns or even dead bugs to the worm beds.
Number of cellulose degraders in the vermicompost can be
increased by adding paper or saw dust in the feed materials
(American Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 2011).
Organic Farming Promotion/Healthy Food
The campaigns for preparing and using compost or
vermicompost for agriculture can promote soil fertility, quality
products and biodiversity. Organic farming enhances soil
fertility, minimize soil poisoning, protect agricultural lands
against many negative side effects of the use of agro-chemical
products. Organic farming also promotes food quality, good health
of people and good ecology. Method includes inter-cropping,
mulching, use of compost manure, crop rotation, using non-

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chemical pesticides, strictly limiting the use of synthetic
fertilizers and synthetic pesticides (Vaarst, 2010).Organic
farming systems with the aid of nutritive bio-fertilizer like
earthworms vermicompost can give very high food productivity
with significantly higher nutritional quality while also
improving the physical, chemical and biological properties of
soil. Organic foods have also been found to be protective to
human health even against colon cancer and breast cancer
(Olsson, 2006).
Nutritional Quality of Vermicompost
The nutritional quality of vermicompost is determined
primarily by the type of the substrate (raw materials) and
species of earthworms used for composting, along with microbial
inoculants, liming, aeration, humidity, pH and temperature. As
reported by Arancon and Edwards (2006), however, Vermicompost
contains most nutrients in plant-available forms such as
nitrates (N), phosphates (P), soluble potassium (K), and
magnesium (Mg) and exchangeable phosphorus (P) and calcium
(Ca). Vermicomposts have large particulate surface areas that
provide many micro-sites for microbial activities and for the
strong retention of nutrients.

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Vermicompost contains a higher percentage of macro and micro
nutrients than ordinary compost (Garg and Kaushik, 2005). It
contains 9.8-13.4% organic carbon, 0.51- 1.61% nitrogen, 0.19-
1.02% phosphorus and 0.15-0.73% potassium. Guerrero and Guerrero
(1999) also reported that vermicompost has 1.40% N, 2.53% P,
9.37% K, 0.04% Mg, 3.2% Ca, 1.5% Fe, 0.16%Mn, 0.02% Cu, 0.11% Zn,
and with 6.7 pH rating at 15%moisture content. On the other
hand, a substrate mixture of grasses and kakawate keaves
(Gliciredia sepium) contained 2. 74% N, 1.33% P, 3.54% k, 0.29%
Ca, 0.52% Mg, 0.43% Fe, 0.03% Mn, 0.05 Cu, and 0.01% Zn, with the
ph content of 7.2 (Villegas 1999). The nutrients present in the
vermicompost are in water soluble forms which are immediately
available for plant use (; Suthar, 2009).
Vermicompost is used in horticulture primarily as an organic
transplant media amendment partly due to its fine structure and
higher proportion of plant available N compared to other types of
compost made from the same starting materials (Leonard and
Rangarajan 2007). They are scientifically proving as miracle
plant growth promoters much superior to conventional composts
and chemical fertilizers.
It has been estimated that earthworms add 230 kg N/ ha/ year
in grasslands and 165 kg N/ha/year in woodland sites. Earthworms

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increase the nitrate production by stimulating bacterial activity
and through their own decomposition. There are reports that
concentrations of exchangeable cations such as Ca, Mg, Na, K,
available P and Mo in the worm casts are higher than those in the
surrounding soil. Vermicompost can not be described as being
nutritionally superior to other organic manures. Instead, it is a
unique way of manure production.
http://www.environmentalexpert.com/Files/0/articles/9047/Vermicom
posting_article_for_the_biofertilizer_people.pdf
Suitable Substrates of Earthworm
Organic matter is an integral component of soil which
comprises of plant and animal residues that are made up of
complex carbohydrates, starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin,
protein, fats, organic acids, oils resins etc. The importance of
organic matter in crop production is well known. Undoubtedly, the
amount of organic matter present in soil determines its natural
suitability for crop cultivation.
The farm wastes, animal wastes, garden wastes from homes and
parks, the sewage sludge from the municipal wastewater and water
treatment plants, the wastewater sludge from paper pulp and
cardboard industry, brewery and distillery, sericulture industry,

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vegetable oil factory, potato and corn chips manufacturing
industry, sugarcane industry, guar gum industry, aromatic oil
extraction industry, logging and carpentry industry offers
excellent feed material for vermi-composting by earthworms.
(Sinha, Rajiv K., Sunil Herat, Gokul Bharambe & Ashish
Brahambhatt, 2009).
Effective Microorganism (EM)
Identity
EM for Effective Microorganism was coined and developed by
Professor Teruo Higa(Horicultural Professor) 25 years ago, at the
University of the Ryukyus in Okinawa, Japan, as an alternative to
agricultural chemicals. EM is one of the most popular microbial
technologies being used world-wide and is now used in over 120
countries. EM products have been on the market since 1983. EM
is a powerful pro-biotic and antioxidant and when given to
livestock boosts their natural immunity, helping to keep them
healthy and productive. It consists of a wide variety of
effective, beneficial and non-pathogenic microorganisms produced
through a natural process and not chemically synthesized or

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genetically engineered. It comes in a liquid form and has broad
application (http://emsustains.co.uk/what_is_EM.html).
Accordingly, EM is a combination of useful, regenerative and
beneficial microorganisms that exist freely in nature. They have
not been manipulated in any way. They comprise many different
kinds of effective, disease-suppressing micro-organisms, each of
which has a specific task to perform. The micro-organisms in EM
are both naturally occurring and are harmless to humans, animals
and plants. These microorganisms enhance each others working.
The application of EM Technology increases the natural resistance
of soil, plants, water, humans and animals and more importantly,
considerably improves the quality and fertility of soil as well
as the growth and quality of crops. EM is extremely efficient at
cleaning up pollution, be it of chemical or organic origin. It
is not a drug or a fertilizer. It is not harmful, pathogenic,
genetically-engineered/modified (GMO), nor chemically-
synthesized. . (http://emsustains.co.uk/what_is_EM.htm
EM technology has now become a major science, assisting in
the creation of sustainable practices for agriculture, human
health and hygiene, animal husbandry, nature farming,

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environmental stewardship, disaster relief, construction,
industrial, community activities and more. As identified, EM
effective microorganisms or efficient microbes, are a cluster of
beneficial organisms which ferment organic matter in an anti-
oxidative way. The essential basic technology of EM is a
consortium of five or more species of microorganisms, from across
at least three classes of organisms, in a synergistic culture
(called a consortium) which produces lactic acid under anaerobic
fermentation and which also produces an environment (in the
liquid or plant matter under fermentation, etc.) which is highly
antioxidative and regenerative, or syntropic (aka anti-entropic)
and which contains numerous powerful antioxidants, largely
produced by phototrophic anaerobic bacteria known as purple non-
sulfur bacteria (PNSB). http://tribes.tribe.net/effectivemicro
Their waste simply translates to a healthy environment for
us in which EM becomes inactivated, therefore, a mutual existence
can be had. EM only creates the condition for best results, that
is, the users should nurture the condition and provide the
resources for EM to perform optimally. Microorganisms exist
naturally throughout the environment from rock crevices to our
internal organs. In our present day environment, putrefactive

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microorganisms, those types responsible for the rotting of
organic matter to maladies in organisms, dominate much of the
sphere of the microorganisms. EM has the potential, given the
conditions, to suppress the putrefactive microorganisms and
dominate this sphere and creates re-animated surroundings, that
is, organics are transformed through the process of fermentation
as opposed to putrefaction, and living organisms, as well as,
inorganic materials are enabled with the means to impede
deterioration. Deterioration is here meant the activity of active
oxygen or free-radicals through which organisms degenerate and
inorganic materials corrode, as in iron rusting. EM can thus,
also, be considered as an antioxidant
(http://emrojapan.com/about-em/microorganisms-in-em.html).
It is all natural blend of beneficial microorganisms that
do the work of cleansing and revitalization. This is a remarkable
discovery, which allows nature's little recyclers to restore the
health and balance of the ecosystems, without the negative side-
effects so often found in synthetic chemicals and suppressive
technologies. EM is safe and easy to use and is listed with the
Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI). The secret to EM's
widespread success is its capacity to remove harmful toxins and

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restore regenerative balance to its environment - whether it be
on the soil, plant, animal, or human levels
(http://www.emearth.com/).
EM technology the use of a liquid culture of Effective
Microorganisms can also be used for composting. EM is
sprinkled during build-up of the compost heap layer by layer.
This type of compost can and should be used very fast within
two weeks - to achieve the maximum benefit from the organisms
inoculated into the heap. The fact that lots of organic matter
may not yet be decomposed is desirable in this case, as the
propagation and metabolic activity of the organisms depends on
the availability of carbon from organic matter
(www.auroville.org,2011).
EM is a trademarked product made by several different
companies. It is basically a liquid culture of microorganisms
consisting of yeasts, anaerobic bacteria, and photosynthetic
bacteria. There are many claims for EM uses, from enhancement of
agricultural production to wastewater treatment and remediation
of toxins. What sets it apart from compost tea is that EM
bacteria are facultative anaerobes. Unlike the strictly aerobic
bacteria found in compost tea, facultative anaerobes can survive

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in both oxygenated and oxygen-lacking environments. This allows
EM to be bottled with a long shelf life, unlike compost tea,
which must be applied shortly after being brewed.
http://library.csuohio.edu/promos/bioremediation.pdf
Microorganisms in EM
When mentioning the word microorganism or bacteria, one may
imagine harmful germs. However the microorganisms used in EM
production (Lactic Acid Bacteria, Yeast, Phototrophic Bacteria)
exclude any pathogenic and genetically modified microorganisms
that are harmful to humans, animals and plants. EM consists only
of safe microorganisms that have been used, either intentionally
or unintentionally, since ancient times
(http://emrojapan.com/about-em/microorganisms-in-em.html).
Lactic Acid Bacteria
Lactic acid bacteria is, taxonomically, a generic term for
bacteria that convert large amounts of sugars into lactic acid
through lactic acid fermentation. Through the production of
lactic acid, lactic acid bacteria also inhibit the growth of
pathogenic microorganisms and other various microorganisms by
lowering the pH. Lactic acid bacteria are widely known in the
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production of fermented foods such as cheese and yogurt that can
be naturally preserved for a long period of time. Ever since
Louis Pasteur discovered lactic acid bacteria in 1857, it has
been noted for its beneficial effects on health and longevity.
Recent research indicates that besides regulating the intestines,
lactic acid bacteria also are known for being involved in
immunostimulatory activity; having antioncotic properties; their
antimutagenicity; lowering cholesterol; and for having a
hypotensive effect (http://emrojapan.com/about-em/microorganisms-
in-em.html). These bacteria are differentiated by their powerful
sterilizing properties. They suppress harmful micro-organisms and
encourage quick breakdown of organic substances. In addition,
they can suppress the reproduction of Fusarium, a harmful fungus
(http://emsustains.co.uk/what_is_EM.htm).
This family of bacteria makes yogurt and cheese. They
convert sugars into lactic acid. In doing so, they lower the pH
making conditions that inhibit growth of pathogenic microbes as
well as making it impossible for methane producing microorganisms
to survive. http://www.the-compost-gardener.com/em-
1.html#ixzz1fc3VvRoe
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Yeast
Known as a fermentation starter, yeast is a microorganism
necessary for the brewing of alcohol and the making of bread.
Yeast was discovered by the Dutch merchant Antony Van Leeuwenhoek
(1632-1723), who first discovered the world of microorganisms.
Taxonomically, yeast is a eukaryotic. It differs from fungus in
that it generally is unicellular throughout its life. Within the
microbial world it is a small group of microorganisms, yet it is
essential for human life. Yeast live in sugar-rich environments
such as in nectar and the surface of fruits. In EM1, yeast
produces many biologically active agents such as amino acids and
polysaccharides (http://emrojapan.com/about-em/microorganisms-in-
em.html).
Yeasts manufacture anti-microbial and useful substances for
plant growth. Their metabolites are food for other bacteria such
as the lactic acid and actinomycetes groups
(http://emsustains.co.uk/what_is_EM.html).
Yeast and some specific microorganisms are mainly
responsible for food fermentation and exist all around in air, in
water and on our body. Although such environment as fermentative

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microorganisms is superior in number from the perspective of our
food consumption, fermentative microorganisms oxidizing
microorganisms which decompose organic matter are, in fact, more
dominant in the air full of oxygen and oxidative decomposition
usually results in putrefaction. http://emrojapan.com/about-
em/em-in-ecosystem.html
Actinomycetes
These suppress harmful fungi and bacteria and can live
together with photosynthetic bacteria.
(http://emsustains.co.uk/what_is_EM.htm). Actinomycetes are
similar to fungus in the way they grow and spread, but its
distinguishing elements are that the types of materials they are
efficient at decomposing. The active nature in this microscopic
bacteria and the sheer number present (about 10 million per 1
gram of soil), make them highly effective at breaking down
materials like tree bark, newspaper, and other hard organic
material(http://www.benefitsofrecycling.com/typesofcomposting.htm
l).
Actinomycetes are higher-form bacteria similar to fungi and
molds, are responsible for the pleasant earthy smell of compost.

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Grayish in appearance, actinomycetes work in the moderate heat
zones of a compost pile. They decompose some of the more
resistant materials in the pile such as lignin, cellulose,
starches, and proteins. As they reduce materials, they liberate
carbon, nitrogen, and ammonia, making nutrients available for
higher plants. Actinomycetes occur in large clusters and become
most evident during the later stages of decomposition (The
Science of Composting 2011).
Phototrophic Bacteria
Phototrophic bacteria (also known as photosynthetic
bacteria) are an ancient type of bacteria in existence from
before the Earth had its present concentration of oxygen. As its
name indicates, these bacteria utilize solar energy to metabolize
organic and inorganic substances. (http://emrojapan.com/about-
em/microorganisms-in-em.html
Phototrophic bacteria exist in rice fields and lakes, and
everywhere on Earth. In practical terms, the potential of
phototrophic bacteria is particularly seen in the environmental
fields. Because it decomposes organic materials well, among these
applications is its use in wastewater treatment. Research has

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also reported on its effectiveness in applied use in agriculture,
aquaculture, and animal husbandry. Research is also underway in
its use in hydrogen production and its ability to decompose
persistent substances. (http://emrojapan.com/about-
em/microorganisms-in-em.html
Phototrophic bacteria are involved in various metabolic
systems, and play a major role in nitrogen cycling and carbon
cycling. Because this role allows the other microorganisms in EM
to co-exist, phototrophic bacteria are the essential element of
EM (http://emrojapan.com/about-em/microorganisms-in-em.html).
These bacteria play the leading role in the activity of EM.
They synthesize useful substances from the secretions of roots,
organic matter and/or harmful gases (e.g. hydrogen sulphide) by
using sunlight and the heat of soil as sources of energy. They
contribute to a better use of sunlight or, in other words, better
photosynthesis. The metabolites developed by these micro-
organisms are directly absorbed into plants. In addition, these
bacteria increase the number of other bacteria and act as
nitrogen binders (http://emsustains.co.uk/what_is_EM.htm).

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These bacteria are the ones that allow the other microbes in
the mix to coexist. They use light to metabolize organic and
inorganic substances. Drs Higa and Parr, in a paper called
Beneficial and Effective Microorganisms for a Sustainable
Agriculture, say the photosynthetic bacteria perform an
incomplete photosynthesis anaerobically. They are especially
beneficial as they can transform substances like hydrogen sulfide
into useful substrates. As well, in the process water molecules
are split yielding oxygen in the root zone. http://www.the-
compost-gardener.com/em-1.html#ixzz1fc4e5suq
Fungi
Fungi are natures recyclers. Fungi excrete enzymes to
digest decaying matter and many fungi can break down stable
compounds such as lignins and cellulose.
http://www.starhawk.org/permaculture/NOLA_bio_basics.html
Like bacteria and actinomycetes, fungi are also responsible
for organic matter decay in a compost pile. Fungi are primitive
plants that can be either single celled or many celled and
filamentous. They lack a photosynthetic pigment. Their main

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contribution to a compost pile is to break down cellulose and
lignin, after faster acting bacteria make inroads on them. They
prefer cooler temperatures (70 to 75 F) and easily digested food
sources. As a result, they also tend to take over during the
final stage of composting (The Science of Composting 2011).
Fungi that bring about fermentation these break down the
organic substances quickly. This suppresses smell and prevents
damage that could be caused by harmful insects
(http://emsustains.co.uk/what_is_EM.htm).
EM in Ecosystem
The density of microorganisms in the soil and the water is
much higher than in the air and the ecological condition in the
soil and the water hugely depends on what types of microorganisms
dominate there. For example, crops tend to be diseased and insect
pests can be swarming in the field where putrefactive bacteria
are dominant. On the contrary, crops grow wholesomely in the
field where fermentative microorganisms (effective
microorganisms) are dominant (http://emrojapan.com/about-em/em-
in-ecosystem.html).
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More than one hundred to one thousand of microorganisms live
in one gram of soil and, as a matter of fact, it's impossible for
EM to be superior in number. What actually happens with
application of EM is that EM stimulate native microorganisms,
most of which are opportunistic, and make them work in
cooperation with EM in a good way for environment. EM technology
is based on the idea of coexistence with native and originally-
dominant microorganisms, not exclusion of them(http
://emrojapan.com/about-em/em-in-ecosystem.html).
Microorganisms in their natural habitats are crucial to the
functioning of the worlds ecosystems and they are major
contributors to the biogeochemical cycles. Beneficial
microorganisms in the soil are involved in decomposition of
organic matter, in remediation of pollutants and in increased
nutrient availability leading to improved soil fertility and crop
productivity (Dileep and Dixit, 2005; Weyens et al., 2009; Sindhu
et al., 2011).
Significance of EM in Composting
For centuries, one of the most eternal problems facing
mankind has been the dilemma of how to dispose of our waste. The
answer may lie in the adopted widespread use of Effective

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Microorganisms (EM) to detoxify our landfills, decontaminate our
environment, and promote highly sustainable, closed-cycle
agricultural and organic waste treatment methods worldwide.
(http://www.livingsoil.co.uk/learning/mmw.htm) Thus, proper
management of the crop residues by utilizing microorganisms may
result into availability of good quality manure and biofuels as
well as protection of environment from pollution (Sharholy et
al., 2008; Ulusoy et al., 2009).
The addition of EM into the composting process can stop the
odor problems and establish beneficial microbial growth by
preventing the anaerobic pockets from putrefying. When carefully
managed, EM has the potential to reduce the frequency of turning
the piles, saving you time and money.
http://www.nymusa.com/pro_em_app_1.htm
Effective Microorganisms helps to speed up the natural
composting processwithout many of the negative side-effects of
foul odors and pests. Adding compost to the soil and then
mulching it will help to hold in moisture, requiring less
watering, keep weeds down, and provide a home for worms and
microbes. http://www.emearth.com/NewFiles/Compost.html
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Microorganisms drive the composting process, so creating an
optimal environment for microbial activity is crucial for
successful and efficient composting. Assembling an appropriate
mix of organic residues or feedstocks and maintaining adequate
moisture and oxygen levels are all necessary. As soon as
feedstocks are compiled, the composting process begins. As
microorganisms begin to decompose the organic materials, the
compost pile heats up and the active phase of composting begins.
During this phase of rapid decomposition, temperatures in the
pile increase to 130150F and may remain elevated for several
weeks. Maintaining adequate aeration during this phase of intense
microbial activity is especially important because aerobic
decomposition is most efficient and produces finished compost in
the shortest amount of time. As readily available organic matter
is consumed and decomposition slows, temperatures in the compost
pile decrease to around 100F and the curing phase begins. At
this stage, the compost can be stockpiled.
http://www.extension.org/pages/18567/making-and-using-compost-
for-organic-farming
Points on Rice Straw Composting

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According to USDA (2009) as cited by Pandey et al. (2009),
rice is the main staple crop in the world, where 661.811 million
tons of rice was produced from 155.711 million hectares of land
in 2008. Annually a large amount of straw is accumulated as a
byproduct from rice cultivation, as straw makes up about 50% of
the dry weight of the rice plant. Farmers do not incorporate rice
straw in the crop field because of its slow degradation rate,
disease infestation, unstable nutrients, and reduced yield caused
by the short-term negative effect of nitrogen immobilization.
They usually dispose of it through open field burning.
As a consequence, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, and sulphur dioxide are emitted into the
atmosphere. This process also emits harmful air pollutants such
as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated
dibenzofurans (PCDFs), which have toxic properties and are,
notably, potential carcinogens that can cause severe impacts on
human health (Gadde et al. 2009).
Thus, proper management and disposal of bulky rice straw is
a serious concern all over the world. Attention has been focused
on nonhazardous, environment friendly and sustainable techniques
for safe disposal of rice straw in a short period of time.
Microbial composting is an effective environmentally sound

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alternative for the recycling of rice straw into compost. It
promotes sustainable agriculture and environmental protection,
improving the soils physical, chemical, and biological
properties (Perez-Piqueres et al. 2006; Rasool et al. 2008;
Mylavarapu and Zinati 2009), which ultimately results in better
plant growth and yield. H. Kausar et al.,2010)
Composting of rice straw arise as a safe alternative option
which results in reusability of the nutrients contained in the
residue. Therefore, management of paddy straw through composting
will avoid air pollution caused by residue burning and also
prevent loss of plant nutrients and organic matter (Sidhu and
Beri, 2008; Sneh Goyal and S.S. Sindhu, 2011).
Points on Cane Trash Composting
Sugarcane produces about 10 to 12 tonnes of dry leaves per
hectare per crop. The detrashing is done on 5th and 7thmonth
during its growth period. This trash contains 28.6%-organic
carbon, 0.35 to 0.42% nitrogen, 0.04 to 0.15% phosphorus, 0.50
to 0.42% potassium. The sugarcane trash incorporation in the soil
influences physical, chemical and biological properties of the
soil. There is a reduction in soil EC, improvement in the water
holding capacity, better soil aggregation and thereby improves

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porosity in the soil. Sugarcane trash incorporation reduces the
bulk density of the soil and there is an increase in infiltration
rate and decrease in penetration resistance. The direct
incorporation of chopped trash increases the availability of
nutrients leading to soil fertility. Sugarcane trash can be
easily composted by using the fungi like Trichurus, Aspergillus,
Penicillium and Trichoderma. Addition of rock phosphate and
gypsum facilitates for quicker decomposition.
The detrashed material has to be pooled together and
transported to the compost yard. If no compost yard is available
to farmer, anyone of the corner area in the sugarcane field
itself can be used for making composting. There is no necessity
to make a pit for composting. Composting can be done above the
soil.
Sugarcane trash is lengthy one. Handling and heaping the
trash will be more cumbersome. It is recommended to shred the
waste into small particles. This process reduces the volume of
material, increases the surface area of the waste. If the waste
material contains more surface area, more microorganisms work
effectively on the surface and degradation will be faster.
Shredder is the ideal instrument to shred all the sugarcane

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trash. Chop cutter machine can also be used for this purpose. If
no machinery is available manual shredding is recommended.
Without shredding the composting process will take long time.
http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/org_farm/orgfarm_composting.html
Though the composting is better option for sugarcane
decomposition but the time taken is little high. In recent years
integrated system of composting, with bioinoculants and
subsequent vermicomposting, to overcome the problem of
lignocellulosic waste degradation of different crop residues and
waste industrial by-products is receiving worldwide attention of
scientists (Shweta et al. 2010; Prasnthrajan Mohani et al, 2011).
Bioresource Technology Volume 101, Issue 17, September 2010,
Pages 6707-6711 stated that waste by-products of the sugar-cane
industry, bagasse (b), pressmud (p) and trash (t) have been
subjected to bioinoculation followed by vermicomposting to
shorten stabilization time and improve product quality. Press-mud
alone and in combination with other by-products of sugar
processing industries was pre-decomposed for 30 days by
inoculation with combination of Pleurotus sajorcaju, Trichoderma
viridae, Aspergillus niger and Pseudomonas striatum. This
treatment was followed by vermicomposting for 40 days with the

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native earthworm, Drawida willsi. The combination of both
treatments reduced the overall time required for composting to 20
days and accelerated the degradation process of waste by-products
of sugar processing industry, thereby producing a nutrient-
enriched compost product useful for sustaining high crop yield,
minimizing soil depletion and value added disposal of waste
materials.
Points on Corn Residue Management
Journal of the Mexican Chemical Society reported that corn
stalks remaining in the field after harvest 43 % polysaccharide
consisting mainly of hemi cellulose and cellulose, 29 % lignin,
7% proteins, 5% ash, and 16% others
(http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/pdf/475/47545207.pdf). The amount of
corn residue that can be sustainably harvested in the absence of
supplemental carbon (manure, sewage sludge, perennials or cover
crops) depends on the crop rotation and tillage system. While
corn varieties, soil fertility, growing conditions, and yield can
affect the nutrient value of corn residue, any form of residue
removal will result in nutrient removal from the field.
Eventually, these nutrients will need to be replaced in order to
maintain soil productivity. Corn residue is a source of many

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nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
sulfur, magnesium, copper, manganese and zinc. When calculating
the cost of removing residue, growers should consider the
fertilizer costs for replacing the nutrients removed with the
residue.
A large, round bale of corn residue contains approximately
11 pounds of nitrogen (Fixen, 2007), but this nitrogen would not
be readily available to the subsequent crop if the residue had
been returned to the soil. Instead, this nitrogen would slowly
become available over time as the residue decomposes. Another
consideration is that when residue is removed in continuous corn,
the nitrogen fertilizer rate for the subsequent corn crop can be
reduced, since corn residue promotes tie-up (immobilization) of
nitrogen by soil microorganisms. Research at three locations in
northern and central Illinois on dark prairie-derived soils in
2006 and 2007 showed that the economically optimum nitrogen
fertilizer rate in continuous corn was reduced by 13% when half
or all of the corn residue was harvested, and this was consistent
for both chisel plow and no-tillage systems (Coulter and
Nafziger, 2008 as cited by Jodi De Jong-Hughes 2009).
Dr. Erick Larson reported about Corn Residue Management,
that after harvest, producers face management decisions as they

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begin preparing fields for next years crop. High-yielding corn
may produce five to six tons of crop residues per acre.
Historically, growers perceive this residue as a problem which
must be destroyed by fire or tillage. However, crop residue
generated in crop rotation systems produces substantial long-term
benefits far outweighing any short-term savings accomplished by
destroying residue, particularly since our soils are naturally
low in organic matter. Kip Cullers, a Missouri farmer who is the
current world record holder for soybean yield (139 bu/a) and 2006
National Corn Growers Association yield contest winner (347 bu/a)
says when asked about burning, My opinion is that the soil
benefits from the return of both root tissue and above-ground
crop residues. We rarely use field burning in our high yield
fields. We do everything we can to maintain or increase the
amount of organic matter in our soils.
Burning crop residue eliminates a precious opportunity to improve
organic matter content and potentially can lead to substantial
nutrient loss. Nutrients normally recycled in residue can be lost
if either runoff water or wind displaces ash in a burned field.
The replacement cost could be nearly $70 per acre for phosphate
and potash loss alone, for high-yielding corn. Crop residues
improve soil water infiltration, improve soil water holding

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capability, improve soil tilth and reduce evaporation. In other
words, residue recycling can better accomplish the same goals we
annually attempt to temporarily fix using deep and/or intensive
tillage. Of course, crop residue also does an invaluable job of
soil conservation, particularly reducing soil erosion from runoff
water.
CHAPTER III
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This chapter presents the activities to be undertaken
during the experimental period. This also includes the materials,
tools, equipment and methods that will be used in the study.
Materials, Tools & Equipment
To ensure convenience in the conduct of this research and
to facilitate efficient gathering of necessary data, the
following materials, tools and equipment were provided.

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The materials used in this experiment were two hundred
twenty five (225) kg dried cattle manure, three hundred (300) kg
sawdust, one point two (1.2) liters (li) EM solution, two
thousand four hundred (2,400) African night crawler, two hundred
twenty five (225) kg corn stalks, two hundred twenty five (225)
kg sugarcane tops and two hundred twenty five (225) kg rice
straw, forty eight (48) empty sacks, old newspapers and canvass
or tent.
Tools and equipment used includes blunt bolo, spade,
knapsack sprayer or sprinkler, thermometer, weighing scale,
measuring cup, syringe, 3/16 mesh wire (sieve) and shredder
machine.
Experimental Design, Number of Replication and Treatment

Combination
A Factorial Experiment in Randomized Complete Block Design
(F-RCBD) was used in this study: For Factor A: Treatment A1
75% Animal Manure + 25% sawdust (control); Treatment A2 75%
Corn stalks + 25% sawdust; Treatment A3 75% Sugarcane + 25%
sawdust; Treatment A4 -75% Rice straw + 25%sawdust.
For Factor B: Treatment B1 25 earthworms; Treatment B2
50 earthworms; Treatment B3 75 earthworms. Each treatment

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combinations will be replicated four (4) times making a total of
forty-eight (48) variates.
Table 1.1-Combination of Treatments
FACTOR B
FACTOR A (Earthworm Density)
(Different Substrates) B1 B2 B3
25 worms 50 worms 75 worms
A1
Animal Manure A1B1 A1B2 A1B3
(Control)
A2
A2B1 A2B2 A2B3
Corn Stalks
A3
A3B1 A3B2 A3B3
Sugarcane tops
A4
A4B1 A4B2 A4B3
Rice Straw
Legend:
Factor A Factor B
A1 75% Cattle Manure + 25% Sawdust (Control) B1 25 worms
A2 75% Corn Stalks + 25% Sawdust B2 50 worms
A3 75% Sugarcane Tops + 25% Sawdust B3 75 worms

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A4 75% Rice Straw + 25% Sawdust
Randomization and Lay out of Beds
All treatments represented by letters of the alphabet were
distributed at random. Randomization was performed by drawing of
lots.
The vermi beds (sacks) were laid out in a Factorial-
Randomized Complete Block Design (F-RCBD). An area of forty
square meters (40 m2) was divided into four (4) blocks which
measures 7.2 m2 for each block. Each block was divided into 12
treatments with an area of 0.40 m2 per treatment (sack/bed).
Approximate distance between blocks and treatments is 0.45 meter
and 0.25 meter respectively.
Figure 1.1 Randomization and Layout of Vermi Beds
BLOCK II BLOCK III
A3B2 A2B3 A3B1 A3B3

9M
A3B1 A4B3 A4B1 A1B1
A4B2 A2B2 A2B3 A4B3
A1B3 A1B2 A1B3 A1B2
A2B1 A1B1 A2B2 A3B2
A3B3 A4B1 A2B1 A4B2
5M
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BLOCK I BLOCK IV
A2B1 A4B1 A2B3 A3B3
A3B2 A1B2 A4B3 A2B2
A4B2 A3B3 A1B3 A4B2
A2B3 A2B2 A3B2 A1B1
A3B1 A4B3 A3B1 A4B1

0.25m
A1B3 0.5m A1B1 A2B1 A1B2
0.8 m .45m
Shed Preparation
The experiment was conducted inside the Agrimechanic Shed of
NSCA Cauayan Campus. The area was vacated of all unnecessary
materials before the conduct of the experiment. The floor and
surroundings were thoroughly swept and cleaned to ensure
predators like ants, frogs, snakes, crickets and the like were
not present in the area.
Table 1.2 Substrates Tabulation
Substra Volume Volum Volume Volum Volum Total Total

tes of e of of e of e of Volum Volum
Combin Cattle Corn Sugarc Rice Sawd e of e of
ation Manure Stalks ane Straw ust Substr Substr
per per trash per per ates ates
treatm treat per treat treat Per per
ent ment treatm ment ment Treatm block
(kg) (kg) ent (kg) (kg) ent (kg)
(kg) (kg)
A1 18.75 6.25 25 300
A2 18.75 6.25 25 300
A3 18.75 6.25 25 300
A4 18.75 6.25 25 300
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Substrates Preparation and Combination
The substrate materials collected and prepared were as
follows: cattle manure, sawdust, corn stalks, sugarcane tops and
rice straws. Corn stalks, sugarcane tops and rice straws were
hauled from nearby fields and barangays. must at least be of the
same age after harvest or harvesting interval should not exceed
one (1) week. The substrate materials were sundried for three
(3) days for handling convenience. Except saw dust, all substrate
materials were separately shredded through a shredding (RU)
machine to obtain a more or less uniform and finer structure.
Three (3) parts by volume of each of the substrate materials
were thoroughly mixed with one (1) part saw dust using a spade.
Enough volume of each mixture was prepared according to desired
quantity for every treatment.
Upon mixing of the different substrate materials, a known
proportion of diluted EM solution (1li EM/50li H20) were
gradually and evenly sprayed onto each mixture using a knapsack
sprayer or a water sprinkler at a rate of one milliliter (1 ml)
per one kilogram (1kg) of substrate materials.
Pre-decomposition or Fermentation of Substrates
Moistened substrate materials were placed in the shed and
covered with canvas or tent and allowed to ferment for three (3)
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weeks. Turning of the heap as well as checking of moisture
content was done once a week. The temperature of the fermenting
substrate materials was checked on the third week of fermentation
by burying a hand deep into the center of the pile.
A thermometer was also used to determine the exact temperature
reading. Since the temperature of the substrate materials were
still hot to the hands and thermometer reading was still above 32
degrees Celsius, the fermentation period was extended for another
one (1) week. After a week when temperature has cool down to 30
degrees, worm stocking was done.
Sack Preparation and Filling
Forty-eight (48) pieces uniform-sized empty sacks (Hog feeds
sacks) were prepared. Each sack was filled with twenty-five
(25) kg of each substrate materials mixture according to
treatment combinations. After filling, the sacks were positioned
horizontally on the floor.
Procurement and Stocking of Worms
African Night Crawler (Eudrilius eugenae) species of
earthworm was used in the experiment. The earthworms were taken
from the vermicomposting project of Mrs. Tomias, Municipal
Agriculture Technician of Ilog, Negros Occidental who is residing
at Brgy. Tabuk-suba, Cauayan, Negros Occidental.

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A total of one thousand two hundred (1200) breeder worms
with more or less uniform size and length were distributed in
each sack according to desired stocking density for each
treatment. Stocking was done by spreading the worms over the
surface of the substrate materials. Moisture was then checked to
ensure it is at the optimum level of 50-80%. This was to enhance
the optimum performance of the worms in the achievement of
efficient digestion. The mouth/opening of the sacks were then
partially closed to avoid spilling over of substrates as well as
to protect worms from predators.
Table 1.3 Breeders Tabulation

Stocking Number of Number of Total number
Density Earthworm per Earthworm of earthworms
treatment (pcs) per block @ 4 blocks
(pcs) (pcs)
B1 25 100 400
B2 50 200 800
B3 75 300 1200
Care and Management
The entire experimental area was inspected from time to
time to avoid presence of predators. Moisture content of
substrates was also daily monitored to maintain recommended
moisture level at fifty to eighty percent (50-80%). Checking of
moisture content was done by getting a handful of each substrate

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mixture and squeezing it between the palms until water drips. If
two or three drops of water comes out then the substrate is at
the optimum moisture level. Water was added if moisture content
is low. Water was introduced using a knapsack sprayer or
sprinkler.
At about one week before harvesting, watering was suspended
for convenience in sieving the castings.
Harvesting and splitting
Harvesting of castings was done after one month from
stocking. Before sieving, the substrates were poured and
scattered on the floor matted with tent/canvass to facilitate
easy collection and separation of earthworms. Earthworms from
each treatment were then placed in separate containers for easy
counting and recording of data. Substrates for each treatment
were then individually sieved through a 3/16 meshed wire
separating the castings from large particles not consumed by
earthworms. Quartering of digested particles or earthworm
castings were done for each treatment to obtain a sample of 1.2
kg per treatment. Samples for each treatment were then
separately packed and labeled individually.

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Data Gathered
Necessary data were gathered right after harvesting of all
treatments. The data gathered were as follows: weight of casting,
weight of undigested substrates and number of earthworms.
1. Weight of castings (Digested Substrates) and weight of
undigested Substrates were measured using a 10-kg capacity
weighing scale.
2. Number of earthworms were determined by counting the number
of worms taken from each treatment.
Analysis
Relevant data as previously described were organized and
statistically analyzed using the F-Test in F-RCBD. Test of
Significance for the three major components was done using the
Least Significant Difference Test (LSD) or Duncans Multiple
Range Test at 5% and 1% levels of significance.

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1

Republic of the Philippines

DIGESTIBILITY RATE BY EFFECTIVE MICROORGANISM (EM) TREATED

A Thesis Proposal Presented to the Graduate School

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Republic of the Philippines

Background of the Study

Today, the global scientific society is looking for a more

economically cheaper & environmentally safer alternative to the

destructive chemical fertilizers for safe and sustainable food

production for the human society (Sinha, 2009). In relation to

this, human, livestock and crops produce approximately 38 billion

metric tons of organic waste worldwide each year and accumulation

of wastes, particularly organic wastes, is becoming a serious

hazard responsible for deterioration of environment (Goyal et.

al, 2011). In this regard, recycling of organic waste is

feasible to produce useful organic manure for agricultural

application (Ansari, 2011).

Vermicomposting has been reported to be a viable, cost-

effective and rapid technique for the efficient utilization of

crop residues and byproducts, and organic wastes (Nedunchezhiyan

et al, 2011). Hence researches are being done to validate which

wastes that can produce most nutritive vermicompost

substituting chemical fertilizers and the best methods of

Republic of the Philippines

vermicomposting including the selection of composting worms that

can give rapid and good results (Sinha, 2009).

On the other hand, vermicomposting is a non- thermophilic

biodegradation of organic matter through the joint action of

earthworms and microorganisms (Nedunchezhiyan et. al, 2010).

Microorganisms are mainly responsible for the biochemical

degradation of the organic matter during composting and/or

fermentation process and, in the latter, earthworms play a very

important role in both microbial activity and diversity (Mupondi

et. al, 2010).

Therefore, this proposed study aims to explore the technical

viability of using Effective Microorganisms (EM) in combination

with earthworms in reducing the time of composting and improving

Objectives of the Study

1. To determine which of the EM treated substrate materials

for earthworm will have a higher digestibility rating.

densities used will have a significant effect on the

digestibility rating of the different EM treated

Republic of the Philippines

3. To ascertain the interaction between the different EM

treated substrate materials and different stocking

densities on the digestibility rating of earthworm

Importance of the Study

The result of this research served as a guide to farmers and

entrepreneurs who want to engage in vermicomposting business.

This were providing them additional knowledge on the potentials

of Effective Microorganisms in enhancing decomposition and in

improving compost quality. Furthermore, this will encourage

future researchers to explore and undergo research studies on the

importance of promoting highly sustainable recycling methods of

organic wastes and agricultural crop residues.

This was also contributing to the promotion of organic

farming as well as encourage the use of economically cheaper and

environmentally safer organic-based natural fertilizers in

improving crop performance and production of crops free from

chemical residues and safe for human and animal consumption.

Scope and Delimitation

Republic of the Philippines