2015 48th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences
What Makes Smart Work Successful?
Overcoming the Constraints of Time Geography
Yong-Young Kim
Konkuk University
kyyoung@kku.ac.kr
Abstract
The era of Smart Work emerges as a means for
enabling us to overcome spatial and temporal
constraints. Smart Work means the work that
individuals perform from a physical distances for their
organizations in a flexible and innovative manner
using mobile devices such as smartphones. Thanks to
the Smart Work affordances with seamless access
enabled by using mobile computing devices,
organizations can assign tasks to employees and
provide services to the appropriate customers in
mobile environments. In addition, Smart Work can help
improve the sharing of knowledge in the coordination
and collaboration among individuals and groups
performing organizational tasks. Smart Work can even
help the innovation of previously unimagined services
for completely new customer segments. The dramatic
performance improvement is manifest by utilization of
Smart Work in organizations. Therefore, the interest in
the introduction of Smart Work is growing. With the
lens of time-geography, this study investigates what
makes Smart Work successful. This research,
especially, concentrates on the infrastructure and
processes for overcoming the spatial and temporal
constraints in the field. A case study of the Seoul
Metropolitan Rapid Transit Talk & Flash (SMRT T&F)
is developed and analyzed through the framework of
time-geography and communication cube, and the
implementation processes and success factors of SMRT
T&F are investigated.
1. Introduction
As Kurkland and Bailey [1] forecasted, new
patterns of work enabled by the use of information
communication & technology (ICT) - home-based
telecommuting, satellite office, neighborhood work
center, mobile work - have significant implications for
working pattern. Mobile computing provides much
promise for organizations, for example, the small size
and wireless connectivity associated with some of
these devices introduce new flexibility in terms of
when, where, and how these technologies can be
1530-1605/15 $31.00 2015 IEEE
DOI 10.1109/HICSS.2015.128
Sangjo Oh
Dongyang Mirae University
secase@dongyang.ac.kr
applied [2-4]. The new freedom can alter how people
carry out their activities and how they interact with
others, which may eventually lead to changes in the
spatial and temporal distribution of travels [5].
The era of Smart Work is upon us for overcoming
spatial and temporal constraints with advances in
mobile information technology [6]. Organizations
support tasks and services for their employees
providing smart devices and seamless connections. In
addition, by adopting Smart Work, they are able to
reconfigure organizational activities and task
coordination and collaboration processes. Through
these activities, organizations seek to achieve the goal
to dramatically improve efficiency and performance.
Smart Work is emerging as a means to help
organizations realize their goals by bringing them
closer to the ubiquitous computing environment.
However, there is little empirical research focusing
on the propositions regarding new flexibility and
freedom in the era of Smart Work. It is, however,
crucial to gain a better understanding of human
behavior utilizing Smart Work in organizations. Time
geography, proposed by Hgerstarand [7], provides an
effective approach of studying the relationships
between various constraints and human activities in a
space-time context. Smart Work enables the
overcoming of spatial-temporal constraints by
improving the flexibility for human-to-human as well
as humanto-machine interactivity. Therefore, this
study explores two research questions: what is the
infrastructure to successfully operate Smart Work; how
a mobile work force leverages Smart Work to
overcome spatial-temporal constraints and to transform
existing behavior into new and innovative working
patterns in the organizations.
The remaining parts of this paper are organized into
six sections. The next section reviews previous
literature on Smart Work, time geography and ICT,
and interactivity. Then, based on that discussion, an
adjusted cube framework of communication modes is
presented. Through the framework, a case of Smart
Work, Seoul Metropolitan Rail Transit Talk & Flash
(SMRT T&F) is analyzed. Finally, theoretical and
1038
practical implications are proposed and future research This paper explores the case of Seoul Metropolitan
questions are also presented. Rail Transit (SMRT) adopting a type of a mobile work
and being one of the most successful Smart Work cases
2. Literature Review in Korea.

2.2. Time Geography Theory and Information

2.1. Smart Work
Technology
In order to understand the concept of Smart Work,
Individual activities depend on specific space and
we need to go back to 1970s. In the 1970s, when
time [14]. Time-geography originates with Swedish
office automation was realized, the terms, distance
geographer Hgerstrand who views time and space as
work [8] and telecommuting, meaning that an
different but not inseparable [15]. Time geography
individual works at home, were coined [9]. In 1970s,
constitutes a useful perspective for analyzing human
one of hottest topics being discussed in academic and
movement in an integrated space-time environment
practical areas was that the new work style of
and explains individuals activities using a trajectory of
transferring data replaced the traditional work style of
tasks that individual performs during a given period
individuals needing to travel from place to place.
[16].
Under this background both distance work and
Generally, three assumptions of time geography are
telecommuting were invented. After the new work
as following: first, everyone has 24 hours in a day;
style of transferring data was realized with the
second, no one can be in more than one place at a time;
advancement of ICT, both researchers and practitioners
and finally, no one can move instantaneously from one
became significantly interested in teleworking via
place to another [17]. These assumptions limit
dispersed locations [10]. Telework, e-work, virtual
individual activities, which are constrained by
team, and virtual organization were newly developed
capability, coupling, and authority [7]. First, capability
to explain the advanced teleworking.
constraint occurs by individual physical and biological
Smart Work is an emerging term describing the
capability. For example, individual activities are
telework that individuals perform in a smart and
restricted by both physical capability like walking and
innovative manner using mobile devices such as
running speed, eye sight, and hearing as well as by
smartphones. Originally, Smart Work meant work
biological capability such as eating and sleeping.
smart [11]. Smart Work can be regarded as an
Second, coupling constraint takes place when the
extended version of telecommuting or distance work
individual has to stay at a specific place for a time to
and defined as working efficiently and conveniently
interact with other(s) and complete his/her task.
regardless of time and place utilizing ICT.[12].
Finally, authority constraint limits individual activities
Therefore Smart Work is regarded as an extended
by regulation and law prohibiting access to a specific
concept of telework rather than a new concept.
place and (or) time.
According to Korea Communications Commission
Under the constraints of time-geography, individual
(2011), 136 out of 1,794 major companies (7.7%) in
activities are explained using three dimensional model
Korea adopted tablet PCs and the Korean government
as presented at Figure 1 [18]. Place is represented with
plans to make Smart Work environment until 2015 so
two dimensional plane, time (e.g., from t1 to t2) is
that 30% of the whole labor is able to work efficiently
represented with another dimension. On the left hand
regardless of time and place. In Korea, various types of
side of Figure 1, space-time path is made connecting
Smart Work are attempted to make working time and
station that is a space where tasks are performed.
place flexible.
Activity bundle is made when an individual interacts
Though types of Smart Work is not defined,
with others on the same station. If a space-time path is
generally Smart Work is categorized into four types
expanded, a domain is represented where people can
[13]; first, telecommuting which means employees
access under a specific constraint, and it is called
work at home connecting organizational network such
space-time prism [19]. In the space-time model, space-
as virtual private network (VPN); second, working at
time path is made following individuals actual
Smart Work center meaning that the employees go to
activities, while space-time prism represents
a Smart Work center at the nearest distance and
accessibility under the same condition. It is possible to
perform his/her work at that location; mobile work
follow individual activities using the coordinates with
meaning that field workers perform their task using
space and time, and to find the potential domain where
mobile devices such as a smartphone or tablet PC; and
the individual can access. A general way of traditional
finally flexible work or flex hours meaning that the
interaction is to select one path out of the possible
employee is in control of his/her starting and stopping
paths and to configure the actual path.
work times.

1039
 With the advances in ICT which mitigate spatial
and temporal constraints, more flexible interaction is
possible. Above all, through telepresence which is
configured in cyberspace developed with networking
technology, people are freed from the spatial-temporal
constraints [20]. Two basic assumptions of time
geography are broken with an emergence of
telepresence; one can be in more than one place at a
time and one can move instantaneously from one place
to another. ICT enables us to communicate with one
another during times of travel.
Originally, a wired telephone is designed for
synchronous interaction between a sender and a
receiver. Later voice-mail telephones emerged, where a
wired telephone could support asynchronous
interaction. In addition, as the bandwidth of the wired
internet expanded, asynchronous interaction such as e-
mail as well as synchronous interaction such as online
chatting and teleconferencing became widely used.
A wired channel has a vital weakness in that
individuals are restricted to areas for interacting with
one another as shown in the middle of Figure 1. Here
an individual is required to use a specific device
installed at a specific place; hence his/her activity is
constrained at that place until he/she finishes their
interactions with others. This is an example showing a
strong coupling constraint between space and time.
The activities could be represented as a space-time life
line, where the scope that an individual activates is
restricted.
As an individual carries mobile devices for
communicating, a wireless channel could provide more
free and flexible interaction than a wired one [19]. As
shown on the right hand side of Figure 1, an individual
carrying a mobile device is able to interact with others
free from a restricted place. In other words, he/she can
interact with other within the space-time life cylinder.
In the case of using a mobile channel, wireless
communication provides more flexible interaction with
others for individuals overcoming traditional spatial-
temporal constraints compared to wired
communication.
space-time path space-time life lines
Time
t2
t1
L1 L2 L1
no access channel wired access channel
Figure 1. Features of Channel Types [18]
space-time life cylinder
Space
wireless access channel
2.3. Person-to-Machine versus Person-to-
Person interactivity
The widespread adoption of ICT has created a
parallel virtual space in addition to the conventional
physical space. The virtual space, also known as
cyberspace, is supported by ICT infrastructure and
facilities in physical space, and it carries the flow of
information. The existence of virtual space enhances
connections among people through electronic linkages
and allows people to exchange information even while
they occupy different physical locations. This enhances
the ability of individuals to participate in an activity
remotely, known as telepresence in the literature [20].
Space and time are each categorized into two sub-
categories. Time is categorized into synchronous and
asynchronous time based on the criterion whether
individuals share the same time. Space is
subcategorized into physical presence and telepresence
based on whether the individual interaction occurs is
physical or virtual places [21]. Before ICT emerged,
communication with one another is possible when they
share the same space and time. With the advances in
ICT, however, cyberspace was developed enabling the
separation of space and time. ICT has created an
evolving cyberspace beyond interactions restricted to
the same place and same time.
Generally, coupling is defined as a relationship
between a certain A and a certain B [22]. In time
geography, an important coupling is the relationship
between space and time. Coupling has a basic attribute;
a relationship may be tied strongly (called tightly
coupling) or weakly (called loosely coupling) [23].
Traditional space and time is a relationship that is
tightly coupled and never to be separated from each
other [19]. With the advances in ICT, spatial-temporal
coupling has been loosened and decoupled, and
cyberspace has created new spatial-temporal coupling
such as telepresence.
It is common for users to interact with both
computers as well as with other persons using
computers. Recently, through telepresence computer-
mediated communication shows the evolution of
person-to-person interaction and provides opportunities
to use various communication methods with both wired
and wireless networks. Computer-based interaction is
divided into two main types: person-to-machine and
person-to-person. Person-to-machine interactivity is
interacting with the medium itself (e.g., computer).
Person-to-person interactivity, on the other hand, is
using the medium as a tool for communication [24].
What distinguishes person-to-machine from person-
to-person interactivity is who or what causes the
feedback [25]. In person-to-machine interactivity, the
machine itself has the agency for feedback, while in
person-to-person interactivity, the persons

1040
communicating provide the feedback. Person-to-
machine interactivity stresses the programmed
interaction procedure. The machine makes judgments
or decisions only on the basis of its program [26]. On
the other hand, person-to-person interactivity focuses
on the process of interactive communication between
persons. Interaction between people has a high level of
unpredictability which people do not experienced
through interacting with the machine. The response of
a prior message might be uncertain because the
human has potential for transcending his or her
programming, on the basis either of reason or of
emotion [26]. Interactivity is not simply reaction, but
rather reciprocity, wherein participants in the exchange
can freely take turns and reverse roles: It is a process-
related construct about communication [27].
Figure 2 provides a comprehensive communication
cube considering all of above-mentioned factors: space,
time, and interaction actor. Although Smart Work can
support face-to-face interaction, a typical interaction of
physical presence, it plays a significant role of
expanding a range of interaction based on telepresence.
We would like to focus on the telepresence domain,
where the activity can be performed remotely through
the enablement of ICT.
INTERACTION
Machine
ACTOR
Person
Synchronous
TIME
Asynchronous
Physical
Telepresence
Presence
SPACE
Figure 2. Communication Cube
The core of Smart Work is to overcome spatial-
temporal constraints and time geography provides a
solution by theorizing both the decoupling from
spatial-temporal constraints. The telepresence domain
of Communication Cube can explain the process of
continuously decoupling spatial-temporal constraints
with the advancement of ICT.
3. Research Methodology
The case study object of this paper is SMRT T&F,
a mobile work type of Smart Work which SMRT built
up. The reason we selected this case is that SMRT have
utilized their Smart Work actively and successfully. In
addition, we considered both the suitability for
academic analysis and the theoretical and practical
meaning being able to be referred by organizations
considering the adoption of Smart Work [28].
1041
In order to achieve the research objective to provide
what is the infrastructure to successfully operate Smart
Work and how a mobile work force leverages Smart
Work to overcome spatial-temporal constraints, this
study followed the procedure and ways of case study
provided by Benbasat et al. [29] and Yin [30].
Generally, we followed interpretive research approach
and linear-analytic structure for writing cases [30].
Data collection followed procedures provided by
Yin [29] and Bonoma [31]. First, we collected
secondary data a variety of sources. After writing a
draft, we verified and confirmed it through interviews
and collected additional data.
We collected data following two stages. At the first
stage, secondary data were collected from various
sources such as promotional material by SMRT, data
from Internet searching, newspapers, magazines and so
on finding SMRTs current state of Smart Work. A
draft was made based on these data.
Data searching using the Internet is as follows: first,
some keywords were searched like smart work,
smart office, flexible working, teleworking and so
on using Google and Naver, one of the largest
search engines in Korea; second, from the search
results, the data were filtered to include the contents of
SMRT T&F introduced by SMRT. The final search
results included academic material, business
presentation, articles from newspaper and magazine,
broadcasting material and so on. We made a draft of a
Smart Work case of SMRT.
During the second stage, the first author visited
headquarters of SMRT and interviewed several key
persons in the organization including the CIO
responsible for SMRT Smart Work project (see Table
1.). These interviews helped verify reliability and
validity of our draft including the implementation,
operation, and performance of SMRT T&F based on
the secondary data.
Table 1. List of Interviewees
Name Title Division
Division Information System
J. Lee
Head/CIO Planning Division
Deputy General Information System
K. Cho
Manager Planning Division
Deputy General Technology
S. Park
Manager Management Division
The interview took around two hours. The
interview consisted of two main parts. The first part
included general status such as the background of the
introduction to SMRT T&F, the status of distributing
smartphones at SMRT, and future plans related to
Smart Work. The other part was made up with question
items asking for performance of SMRT T&F through
the lens of time-geography. The questions included the
following area in detail: evaluation of the introduction
to SMRT T&F systems, ICT infrastructure for the
operation of Smart Work, regulation modified after
adopting SMRT T&F, and cases of tasks overcoming
spatial and (or) temporal constraints. The interviews
provided the opportunities to verify and confirm items
listed on our draft as well as to collect additional data
such as internal reports and internal regulation after
adopting Smart Work. All of interviews were tape-
recorded and documented, which were utilized for
writing the case and analysis.
4. A Case Study on Smart Work
4.1. Introduction to SMRT
Seoul metropolitan rail transit, one of companies
operating subway in Seoul and suburban, was
established in 1994 with the objectives of
development of urban transportation, providing safe
and rapid public transit, and contribution to citizen
welfare. After the establishment, they had opened and
operated successful four lines from 5th, to 8th line.
They also hold and manage 148 stations and facilities
with 158 kilometer railroads. Passengers using these
lines a day are up to 3.35 million and sales a year 2009
was 514.2 billion dollar won. In February in 2010,
there were totally 6,438 workers including both office
worker of 1,950 and engineers of 4,488.
In January 2010, wireless networks like WCDMA
(wideband code division multiple access), WiBro
(wireless broadband), and Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity)
were added to New UTIMS, which could support field-
oriented work structure implementing and combining
both wired and wireless networks. In addition,
smartphones were distributed freely to all of employees,
who could work in mobile environment. Therefore
using Smart Work, all of employees could make
checking facilities and reporting errors or problems
immediately as well as they could make a decision
rapidly.
In the next section, we use a time-geography
perspective to identify the key factors from the case of
SMRT T&F for successfully adopting Smart Work.
4.2. Overcoming Capability Constraint
SMRT completed the implementation of SMRT
T&F in January 2010 in order to manage the facilities
using smartphones in real time. They provided
smartphone terminals, Omnia II Show, for all
employees and their staff. By using the new Smart
Work systems, they have managed the facilities
1042
systematically, processed tasks efficiently, and
improved passengers satisfaction.
The strong wireless network infrastructure is one of
driving forces for implementing SMRT T&F.
WCDMA, one of 3rd generation mobile
communications systems, supports internet access to
almost nationwide area but has some limitations for
photo transfer and group communications because of
costs and speed. This problem was solved with massive
file transfers and free communications over WiBro
covering 148 stations and facilities with 158 kilometer
railroads. Wi-Fi was installed in the stations and
enables notebook computers and smartphones access to
high-speed internet.
First, this network infrastructure eliminates spatial
constraint by expanding accessibility. It can provide
collaboration through seamless access and
communications. Within the organization, employees
can use all of three mobile networks. WiBro is used the
most frequently because it can provide high speed and
wide bandwidth as well as free phone calls, multi-user
calls (up to 20 persons), emergency calls, and video
call services. In addition, engineers could download
his/her daily work schedule during rush hour accessing
WCDMA network. Sometimes, they could utilize
mobile devices supporting Wi-Fi network access such
as notebook computers and tablet PC etc.
Second, a hardware device, Omnia II Show, played
a key role for SMRT to adopt and operate the Smart
Work. This high performance smartphone provides
portability and instant accessibility with almost zero
travel time for engineers. Omnia II Show was the
worlds first smartphone being able to access three
types of wireless networks such as WCDMA, Wi-Fi,
and WiBro. It had 800 Mhz CPU, 4 giga-byte
memories, and was installed Windows Mobile 6.1 as
operating systems. In addition, 500 mega-pixel camera
was embedded and provided smooth video-
conferencing and bar-code scanning. With this function,
all employees and staff can communicate with one
another and scan the bar codes easily. Machinery
failures in the facilities are easily tracked by, scanning
the bar code and seamlessly collecting the information;
hence, an employee can easily monitor and report on
the status of facility machinery to the command and
control center (CCC).
Finally, SMRT developed 3,000 applications being
able to be installed on Omnia II Show. 5678 Service
Division is responsible for planning and developing as
well as maintaining these applications based on Java
language. Through continuous maintenance and repair,
they accumulate their capability and apply it to develop
the applications for general administration such as
human resources management, accounting
management, and so on. Therefore, they are making
progress to include all the processes of general
administration.
SMRT T&F enabled users to extend their physical
and biological capability improving the individual
mobility, the ability of an individual to move itself,
information, goods, or some other object between
places in the physical world or places within
cyberspace [32]. Various abilities such as accessibility
and portability were provided by SMRT T&F. In
addition, physical abilities were extended by it. With
the lens of Hall [33]s extension concept, smartphone
could be an extension of head, camera be that of eye,
telephone be that of voice and hearing, and network be
that of arms and legs. Through providing and
extending various abilities, SMRT T&F overcame the
existing capability constraints.
4.3. Overcoming Coupling Constraint
4.3.1. Synchronous-Telepresence-Person. After
developing Smart Work, other case not being tied to a
place is as follows; it is possible for a train driver to
communicate after leaving drivers seat. While trains
are operated, they might be out of order. When a
breakdown occurs, the driver leaves his seat to look all
around carefully. In the past, he loses contact with
headquarters. However, after adopting SMRT T&F,
although the driver leaves his seat, communication is
maintained, and the CCC gets the picture in real-time.
After SMRT T&F, in the environment of
decoupling space and time, collaborative work is
facilitated. In the past, when difficulties occurred
during working at a field, an engineer used his private
mobile phone, so he was concerned about these
communication costs. In addition, in the emergency
situation, it is necessary for many employees to
communicate to one another simultaneously to solve
the problem properly. Before adopting SMRT T&F, it
is impossible to communicate to one another except
face-to-face. However, after implementing SMRT T&F
building WiBro, supporting free communication, and
enabling emergency call and multi-user call
services, processing time is reduced and service quality
is improved.
Emergency call service is a way to interrupt the
current call of the receiver and to communicate with
him/her in the emergency situation. For example, if
CEO wants to talk with head of CCC, firstly two
messages are notified by the Smart Work systems; first,
CEO wants to talk with you; and second, do you
want to take this call. If the head answer yes, the
current call ends and a new call between CEO and the
head is connected. This way is possible because SMRT
configures the internal network through WiBro.
1043
It took a long time to solve the problem facing an
emergency situation because I didnt know who was in
charge and to whom I had to call. Since we used smart
work, I can search for the person in charge and
contact him. In addition, I can communicate with
various employees with expertise using emergency
call service and multi-user call service. By talking
with them, I can reduce the time to solve the problem.
(J. Lee)
Video call service and multi-user call service
enables employees to collaborate with others anywhere.
Through this collaboration, checking and maintenance
quality could be improved. For example, if an engineer
encounters a problem which he cannot resolve while
checking the equipment, he can use his smartphone to
ask colleagues or his team manager for a solution.
Through video call service, he can see a concrete way
to solve the problem. Video call service is more helpful
to finish the work efficiently because it can provide
images as well as voice. This new procedure to process
a task leads to service quality improvement.
Now all of employees can see the standard
manual and the standard operation procedure (SOP)
added on it. However, both of them cannot support a
detailed procedure. Even this part can be supported
through video call service. In the past, after going out
to the field an engineer had to fix the problem. But now,
on the way to the field, an engineer can find out the
situation and can consider the cause of the problem or
how to fix it. In addition, if he cannot fix it by himself,
he can use the video call service or the multi-user
service and fix it. (S. Park)
SMRT T&F enable SMRT to realize real-time
collaboration. Through various wireless networks,
employees can discuss problems with their colleagues,
ask for advice, and find solutions. Smart Work plays an
important role for collaboration, and this new way to
process a task can improve service quality, efficiency,
and innovation.
In this paper, decoupling was occurred when
existing coupling constraints were surmounted after
adopting SMRT T&F. Before adopting SMRT T&F,
field workers had to report to the office to confirm
their daily task assignments. This was a spatial
constraint where they were tied to the office to view
and input data via a computer for filling out the
checklist. However, after adopting Smart Work, a new
working environment was created freeing employees
from this place constraint. Field workers could now go
to the field directly, check facilities, report the
resulting data to the systems, and finish his/her work
out in the field.
4.3.2. Asynchronous-Telepresence-Person/Machine.
SMRT T&F has newly connected between space and
time and has transformed ways of businesses with
improving both richness [34] and synchronicity [35] of
interaction. In the past, when equipment failed, the
exact problem was not normally reported. What was
worse, broken systems were usually reported as
working fine to the operation management office. One
of reasons why this problem occurred was that there
was no system that the employees could use for
properly tracking maintenance and repairs for facilities
or equipment that were reported as being in a failed
state (e.g., location of equipment, problem types, etc.).
However, the existing business process using text
and speech was changed into the way using barcode
scanning of facilities and equipment. This scanning
data is reported directly to operation management
office and the accuracy of reports has been improved.
In addition, after checking the failure history and the
failed part of broken equipment, the engineer then goes
out to fix the failure in a timely manner. Interaction is
rich because of not only text and voice communication,
but also images (e.g., a photo taken a picture a failed
part) can be transferred. In addition, an employee is
able to check the failure history of the equipment and,
sometimes, can refer to the electronic manual.
4.3.3. Synchronous-Telepresence-Machine. In the
past, it is possible to make an announcement only in
the office. An employee could not get out the office to
hear the passengers who waited for the train
impatiently and make a quick response to them.
However, after implementing SMRT T&F, an
employee makes an announcement freely in the station
or on the platform, not being tied to a specific place
like an office. The performance related to this case
could be confirmed following an interview;
In the past, the station agent wanted to go to the
platform and hear the passengers directly, but he had
to stay in the office to make an announcement. Now
smart work supports making announcements anywhere,
so he can go to the platform. It makes him comfortable
to be able to make announcements from a distant
station. (K. Cho)
In addition, in past time only at the surveillance
room, closed-circuit television (CCTV) could be
monitored, which made a strong place constraint.
However, after adopting SMRT T&F, CCTV could be
1044
monitored through a smartphone. Now, CCTV could
be controlled remotely.
4.4. Overcoming Authority Constraint
With the adoption of SMRT T&F, some business
processes were changed. In order to support these
changes, SMRT changed some regulations. For
example, SMRT enacted a provision to permit
engineers to go to field without reporting to the office.
They also changed the form of checklist which was
used the most frequently. In the past, an engineer had
to check items which were not to be done daily. So
SMRT needed to coordinate time cycles to match new
business processes. As the result, SMRT eliminated
more than half of checking items and revised company
regulations considering checking cycle, checking items,
checking criteria and so on.
Until July 2010, SMRT have revised company
regulations three times. In the fields of electricity,
facilities, signal, communication, electronics, railroad,
equipment, and architecture, SMRT reduced 43 of
checking cycles into 32 and they diminished 2,967
checking items into 1,489. In addition, the previous
checking criteria with good, poor, O, X was changed
into five levels of A (very good), B (good), C (fair), D
(poor), and E (very poor) following the criteria being
applied to SMRT T&F. The reason why SMRT
institutionalized new business processes following
SMRT T&F is to continue the improved processes. If
the process was ignored, the confusion might be
intensified on the Smart Work system which had been
built with much difficulty. The importance of process
institutionalization was confirmed with an interview
emphasizing the interaction between organization and
information systems as well as the necessity of revision
of regulations
Organization and (information) systems together
have been improved and developed continuously. I
think that this is self-evolving and developing
systems. I always say to my subordinates that we
are making (information) systems reengineering
business processes. After systems being applied to
work-site operations, company regulation should be
revised immediately. (J. Lee)
5. Discussion
This study answers two research questions. For the
first question, what is the infrastructure to successfully
operate Smart Work, time geography theory suggests
that the ICT infrastructure and the institutionalization
are necessary condition to overcome spatial and
temporal constraints. In order to answer the second overcoming coupling constraints by smoothly utilizing
question, we explore the possibility of integrating time both synchronous and asynchronous telepresence as
geography theory and communication cube. The well as by facilitating human-to-machine interactivity.
findings provides how a mobile work force leverages Finally, new SMRT Smart Work processes can be
Smart Work to overcome spatial-temporal constraints quickly institutionalized. Unless regulations were
and to transform existing behavior into new and revised, Smart Work could not be stabilized and
innovative working patterns in the organizations. institutionalized quickly.
SMRT had high performance after adopting Smart The costs investing the implementation of Smart
Work. We need to consider how the organization Work is forecasted up to 10.2 billion Korean won
experiences greater flexibility through Smart Work. including smartphone buying costs and communication
We can find out that overcoming three types of fees. However, for five years, almost 28.4 billion
constraints is the most important to implement SMRT Korean won is expected for direct operational costs to
T&F successfully. First, the use of the ICT enables the be reduced [36]. The internal communication called
overcoming of capability constraints for implementing soft phone among employees is free over WiBro
Smart Work successfully. Without using the network. The soft phone is a type of internet telephone
smartphone platform, mobile networks such as WiBro, providing helpful services such as searching for
and mobile applications, such as SMRT T&F, would extension numbers, emergency call, multi-user call,
not work. Second, implementing the ICT infrastructure, and video call services. Through real time checking
without being actively utilized, would turn Smart Work and processing, instantaneity and accuracy were
into a white elephant. SMRT actively applied Smart improved. The time needed for checking equipment
Work to improve previous work processes for was reduced from one hour to 28 minutes on average.
Table 2. Summary on the Performance After Adopting SMRT T&F
Type of
Subcategory Description
Constraint
1. Capability Hardware Operating various applications (CPU: 800Mhz, OS: Windows Mobile 6.1 etc.)
Scanning bar codes attached to equipment (500-mega pixel camera embedded)
Software JAVA-based official applications (more than 300 applications installed)
Network WCDMA supporting to communications in nationwide area wherever base
stations are installed
WiBro supporting free communications, emergency/multi-user/video call
services in all of 148 stations and thorough 158 kilometer railroads.
Wi-Fi supporting internal access within stations.
2. Coupling STP* Smartphone has capability to check task assignment, report task completion, and
check going to and leaving work
Smartphone support continuously to communicate for a time that the driver look
around the train away his/her seat.
After adopting SMRT T&F, real-time collaboration systems were built-up using
emergency call, multi-user call, and video call services.
ATP/ATM** After smartphones were distributed, it was improved to report a problem of
equipment: scanning bar code attached on equipment and facilities, transferring
video files on failed part, searching maintenance history, utilizing electronic
manual, and so on.
STM*** Announcement with smartphones was possible during traveling in a station as
well as in other stations.
CCTV could be monitored through a smartphone without spatial constraint.
3. Authority Revising Permitting engineers to go to field without reporting to the office.
company Reducing checking cycle types: 43 types 32 types
regulations Reducing checking items: 2,967 items 1,489 items
Changing checking criteria: good, poor, O, X A (very good), B (good), C
(fair), D (poor), E (very poor)
*
STP: synchronous-telepresence-person
**
ATP/ATM: asynchronous-telepresence-person/ asynchronous-telepresence-machine
***
STM: synchronous-telepresence-machine

1045
Information missing is minimized as well as
information accuracy is improved because employees
should input data in the field. Employees time
efficiency is improved because the travel time between
the office and the field is reduced and can be
completely eliminated.
In summary, this study provides a theoretical
foundation to check the operating status taking into
account the importance of the decoupling of the spatial
and temporal constraints as well as the support of ICT
capability and authority.
6. Theoretical and Practical Implications
This study provides academic and practical
implications. First, from the academic perspective, this
study identifies the process of overcoming the
constraints proposed by time geography theory as well
as the relationships between the three constraints.
Previous studies dealing with both the ICT and time
geography theory have had the following limitations:
just theoretically describing the spatial-temporal
extension [e.g., 37] or focusing on the conditions
overcoming the three types of time geographical
constraints [e.g., 38]. However, these studies focus
only on the comprehensive performance with the
advancement of ICT and they are insufficient to
characterize the process for overcoming the spatial-
temporal constraints. This study addresses this gap by
identifying the relationship between the time
geographical constraints of capability, coupling, and
authority and the process to adopt and implement a
Smart Work successfully.
Second, this study reexamines research questions
proposed s by early studies on ubiquitous computing
[e.g., 3, 4]. Smart Work satisfies the conditions of
ubiquitous computing pursuing seamless access
anywhere and anytime transcending both space and
time. This study investigated one of their research
questions suggested by Lyytinen and Yoo [3] on the
infrastructure necessary for implementing Smart Work
in an organizational level and the organizational efforts
to be made to provide services effectively based on this
infrastructure. Through a case study, this work
suggests the adoption process and performance of
Smart Work, with which it provides the solution to
research questions in an organizational level proposed
by previous studies.
The findings also provides practical implications.
First, the companies who consider adopting Smart
Work successfully can utilize the process and
framework proposed by this study for checking what
they prepare for and what processes they follow. In
order to attain the goals through the Smart Work, they
should transcend three types of constraints provided by
1046
time geography. Through the findings provided by this
study, companies can learn the importance of preparing
for the ICT infrastructures and institutional policies in
order to achieve successful outcomes by exploiting the
flexible interactivity enabled by Smart Work.
In addition, the framework can be used for the
companies to check the current operational status of
mobile work forces and to troubleshoot any mobile
resource problems. The adoption of Smart Work
cannot guarantee success because they depends on the
continued usage of ICT [39]. The case of SMRT T&F
emphasizes the effort for institutionalization such as an
in-house application development and maintenance and
training of ICT human resources.
7. Limitations and Future Research
This study deals with only the mobile office
identifying four types of Smart Work: telecommuting,
working at Smart Work center, mobile work, and
flexible work. While there are shared factors between
these four types, each type of Smart Work has unique
characteristics. Therefore, it would be interesting for
future research to conduct an empirical study to
determine the similarities and differences between
these four types.
In order to generalize the findings this study
provided, future research needs to develop more cases
on Smart Work and apply the framework integrated
with both time geography and communication cube. In
addition, it would be one way to develop detailed items
based on the three constraints identified through time
geography and make a Smart Work checklist to
evaluate systematically the status of Smart Work
development and utilization. On the basis of the criteria,
it would be meaningful to find out the critical success
factors of Smart Work using cross-sectional analysis as
well as longitudinal methodology.
8. References
[1] Kurkland, N.B., and Bailey, D.E., Telework: The
Advantages and Challenges of Working Here, There
Anywhere, and Anytime, Organizational Dynamics, 28(2),
1999, pp. 53-68.
[2] Varshney, U., Mobile and Wireless Information
Systems: Applications, Networks, and Research Problems,
Communications of the Association for Information Systems,
12, 2003, pp. 155-166.
[3] Lyytinen, K., and Yoo, Y., Research Commentary: The
Next Wave of Nomadic Computing, Information Systems
Research, 13(4), 2002, pp. 377-388.
[4] Banavar, G., Beck, J., Gluzberg, E., Munson, J., Sussman,
J., and Zukowski, D., Challenges: An Application Model for
Pervasive Computing, Proceedings of the 6th Annual
International Conference on Mobile Computing and
Networking, 2000, pp. 266-274.
[5] Yu, H., and Shaw, S.-L., Revisiting Hgerstrand's Time-
Geographic Framework for Individual Activities in the Age
of Instant Access, in (Miller, H.J., ed.): Societies and
Cities in the Age of Instant Access, Springer, 2007, pp. 103-
118.
[6] Kim, Y.-Y., A Case Study on Smart Work through the
Lens of Time-Geography Theory, Information Systems
Review, 13(3), 2011, pp. 99-121.
[7] Hgerstrand, T., What About People in Regional
Science? Papers in Regional Science, 24(1), 1970, pp. 7-24.
[8] Olson, M.H., New Information Technology and
Organizational Culture, MIS Quarterly, 6(4), 1982, pp. 71-
92.
[9] Nilles, J.M., Carlson, F.R., Gray, P., and Hanneman, G.,
The Telecommunications-Transportation Tradeoffs: Options
for Tomorrow, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1976.
[10] Limburg, D., Realising Telework: The Role of
Design, UK Academy for Information Systems Conference
Proceedings, 2009.
[11] Ahn, B., Work Smart, Samsung Economic Research
Institute (SERI), 2010.
[12] Kim, Y.-Y., Oh, S., and Lee, H., A Study on the Smart
Workers' Perception of the Boundary Strength between Work
and Nonwork, Information Systems Review, 15(3), 2013,
pp. 71-87.
[13] National Information Society Agency (NIA), A
Revolutionary Change of a Way of Work : Smart Work,
Smartwork Insight 1, 2010.
[14] Golledge, R.G., and Stimson, R.J., Spatial Behavior: A
Geographic Perspective, The Guilford Press, New York,
1997.
[15] Pred, A., The Choreography of Existence: Comments
on Hgerstrands Time-Geography and Its Usefulness,
Economic Geography, 53(2), 1977, pp. 207-221.
[16] Farber, S., Neutens, T., Miller, H.J., and Li, X., The
Social Interaction Potential of Metropolitan Regions: A
Time-Geographic Measurement Approach Using Joint
Accessibility, Annals of the Association of American
Geographers, 2012.
[17] Hanson, S., and Hanson, P., The Geography of
Everyday Life, in (Grling, T., and Colledge, R.G., eds.):
Behavior and Environment: Psychological and Geographical
Approaches, Elsevier Science Publishers, 1993.
[18] Yu, H., and Shaw, S.-L., Exploring Potential Human
Activities in Physical and Virtual Spaces: A Spatio-Temporal
GIS Approach, International Journal of Geographical
Information Science, 22(4), 2007, pp. 409-430.
[19] Yu, H., Spatio-Temporal GIS Design for Exploring
Interactions of Human Activities, Cartography and
Geographic Information Science, 33(1), 2006, pp. 3-19.
[20] Janelle, D.G., and Hodge, D.C., Information, Place, and
Cyberspace: Issues in Accessibility, Springer Verlag, 2000.
[21] Miller, H.J., Travel Chances and Social Exclusion,
10th International Conference on Travel Behavior Research,
2003, pp. 10-14.
[22] Weick, K.E., Management of Organizational Change
among Loosely Coupled Systems, in (Goodman, P., and
Associates, eds.): Change in Organizations: New
1047
Perspective on Theory, Research, and Practice, Jossey-Bass,
San Francisco, CA, 1982, pp. 375-408.
[23] Beekun, R.I., and Glick, W.H., Organizational
Structure from a Loose Coupling Perspective: A
Multidimentional Approach, Decision Sciences, 32(2),
2001, pp. 227-250.
[24] Leiner, D., J., and Quiring, O., What Interactivity
Means to the User Essential Insights into and a Scale for
Perceived Interactivity, Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication, 14(1), 2008, pp. 127-155.
[25] Stromer-Galley, J., Interactivity-as-Product and
Interactivity-as-Process, The Information Society, 20(5),
2004, pp. 391-394.
[26] Bretz, R., Media for Interactive Communication, Sage
Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, 1983.
[27] Rafaeli, S., and Sudweeks, F., Interactivity on the
Nets, in (Sudweeks, F., Mclaughlin, M., and Rafaeli, S.,
eds.): Network and Netplay: Virtual Groups on the Internet,
The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998, pp. 173-189.
[28] Glaser, B.G., and Strauss, A.L., The Discovery of
Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research,
Aldine Publishing Company, New York, 1967.
[29] Benbasat, I., Goldstein, D.K., and Mead, M., The Case
Research Strategy in Studies of Information Systems, MIS
Quarterly, 11(3), 1987, pp. 369-386.
[30] Yin, R.K., Case Study Research: Design and Methods,
Sage Publications, London, 1994.
[31] Bonoma, T.V., Case Research in Marketing:
Opportunities, Problems, and a Process, Journal of
Marketing Research (JMR), 22(2), 1985, pp. 199-208.
[32] Buliung, R.N., Wired People in Wired Places: Stories
About Machines and the Geography of Activity, Annals of
the Association of American Geographers, 101(6), 2011, pp.
1365-1381.
[33] Hall, E.T., Beyond Culture, Doubleday, Garden City,
NY, 1967.
[34] Daft, R.L., and Lengel, R.H., Organizational
Information Requirements, Media Richness and Structural
Design, Management Science, 32(5), 1986, pp. 554-571.
[35] Dennis, A.R., Fuller, R.M., and Valacich, J.S., Media,
Tasks, and Communication Processes: A Theory of Media
Synchronicity, MIS Quarterly, 32(3), 2008, pp. pp.575-600.
[36] KT Business & Economics Research Center, Economic
Effects of Mobile Office Adoption: A Case of Seoul
Metropolitan Rail Transit, Seoul, 2010.
[37] Dijst, M., ICTs and Accessibility: An Action Space
Perspective on the Impact of New Information and
Communication Technologies, in (Beuthe, M., Himanen,
V., Reggiani, A., and Zamparini, L., eds.): Transport
Developments and Innovations in an Evolving World,
Springer, Berlin, 2004, pp. 27-46.
[38] Schutz, D., M., Kim, Y.-Y., and Yoo, Y., Unleashing
Mobility in the Organization: A Time-Geography
Perspective, Proceedings of 42nd Hawaii International
Conference on System Sciences, Big Island, 2009, pp. 1-10.
[39] Kim, Y.-Y., Oh, S., Ahn, J., and Jahng, J., What
Happens after IT Adoption?: Role of Habits, Confirmation,
and Computer Self-Efficacy Formed by the Experiences of
Use, Asia Pacific Journal of Information Systems, 18(1),
2008, pp. 25-51.