Professional Documents
Culture Documents
REVIEW PAPER
40
Medical Journal of Zambia, Volume 37 Number 1 (2010)
For the family, a cancer diagnosis for a family reliance on God, (c) positive suggestion/attitude or
member creates multiple challenges, including re-affirmation (d) acquisition of information and
physical demand for practical care giving, education.
emotional strain, change in role and responsibilities,
and adjustment to work and career schedules. In DISCUSSION
order to adapt/cope, both the patient and family
caregivers ought to employ certain coping Stress and Coping Mechanisms Defined
8,
mechanisms. Individuals with terminal illness who Lazarus and Folkman proposed one of the most
utilize coping strategies have better quality of life comprehensive models of stress and coping known
compared to those who do not5. as the Transaction Model of Stress and Coping. The
Transaction Model is built on the assumption that
AIM OF THE REVIEW stress is a person-situation interaction, one that is
dependent on the subjective cognitive judgment that
The aim of the review was to gain an in-depth arises from the interplay between the person and the
understanding of the stress and coping mechanisms environment. Any individual faced with either
used by breast cancer patients and their family care physical or psychological situation or event
givers. performs what is known as primary appraisal.
Primary appraisal is an evaluation of an event for its
MATERIALS AND METHODS personal meaning. If primary appraisal results in the
person identifying the event or circumstance as a
Data sources and search methods harm, loss, threat or a challenge, then the person
The Following databases, Pub Med, Hinari, British experiences stress, if not then the event is benign. If
National Index and African Journal Online were stress is present, a person performs a secondary
searched for the period 1980-2010. The search appraisal which focuses on possible coping
strategy involved hand-searching of current strategies. There are two forms of coping strategies;
journals for health research, chronic care, oncology Problem focused and emotional-focused
8,10,17
nursing and palliative care. Cited references from coping .
the journals were identified and retrieved. Search
terms included stress, coping, breast cancer, Problem-focused coping attempts to find solutions
coping mechanisms, and coping mechanisms by to resolve the problem causing the stress. Problem-
breast cancer patients and family caregivers. focused coping strategies functions to alter the
Recurring topics were structured to focus the stressor by direct action, used when conditions are
review; coping with breast cancer, coping with appraised as amenable. Strategies include learning
cancer diseases, impact of terminal illness, caring new skills or developing new standards of behavior.
for the terminally ill, palliative care, family Emotion-focused coping involves managing the
caregivers. emotions that an individual feels when a stressful
event occurs. Emotional focused coping mostly
RESULTS occurs when an appraisal has been made that
nothing can be done to modify the stressor.
Of the 22 articles reviewed, 13 focused on coping Emotion-focused strategies include wishful
8,10,17
with breast cancer, 5 on stress and adaptation to thinking, minimization, or avoidance .
cancer and the last 4 on experiences of family
members on care of the terminally ill. Eighteen of Some strategies such as seeking social support serve
17
the 22 used solely qualitative methodology while 4 both emotional and problem-focused functions .
used mixed methods. Analysis of the 22 studies Neither of the two forms of coping is inherently
revealed that several researchers investigating how adaptive or maladaptive, thus in stressful situations
individuals cope with stressful situations have used individuals may use a combination. The key to
Lazarus and Folkmans Transaction Model of Stress successful coping is the use of coping flexibility.
and Coping9,10,11,12,13,14,15. Further analysis, revealed 4 Coping flexibility involves ability to change, and
predominant coping strategies by patients and adapt coping strategies over time and across
family caregivers: (a) seeking social support, (b) different stressful conditions as different strategies
41
Medical Journal of Zambia, Volume 37 Number 1 (2010)
work effectively than others depending on factors, changed body image was prominent; all
12,17.
circumstances participants reported hair loss as having been
8
detrimental to their coping. Being pitted by others
Coping does not imply success, but efforts to was also stated as a hindering factor.
resolve a stressful situation. Several factors
influence the stress-coping response. Some factors A positive relationship and full reliance on God gave
are related to the stressor such as; intensity, scope, participants hope that God was in control and that
duration, number and nature of concurrent stressors the disease was from him 21. The results suggest that
and predictability. Those related to the individual belief in God helped the participants to accept the
experiencing the stressor include level of personal diagnosis and cope with the disease. Studies
control, feeling of competence, availability of social conducted in different parts of the world 22, 23 10 also
support, information and guidance, and access to reported that religion offers hope to those with
resources (equipment and supplies). Others are age cancer; it plays a major role in facilitating the disease
at the time of stress and cognitive appraisal 9,8. acceptance process, and it has been found to have a
positive effect on the quality of life of cancer
Figure 1: Diagram of conceptual framework of stress patients. Such findings imply that the care given to
and coping with breast cancer. cancer patients should have a spiritual component
irrespective of an individuals religion. Individuals
Stressor
Diagnosis of breast cancer regardless of religion believe that God is powerful,
capable and a source of inspiration and miracles 21.
42
Medical Journal of Zambia, Volume 37 Number 1 (2010)
26
common strategy among African Americans. patient care skills by trial and error . Caregivers had
no access to common patient care equipment or
The investigators further reported that religious information. A daughter of a terminal cancer patient
coping was stable across time among African recalled the difficulties of caring we did it all
Americans and Hispanic but declined among the ourselves, and I must say if you dont yell nobody
non-Hispanic whites after surgery. Although some will tell you anything. Such findings therefore,
ethnic differences were identified with regard to support caregivers desire for several types of
coping responses, findings point to a greater many support from health care professionals, including
similarities. Investigators concluded that distress emotional support, education in practical aspects of
was consistently related to avoidance coping care and access to skilled guidance. It is assumed
strategies such as denial, self-distraction and that care givers burden is eased with access to
venting. The decline in the use of religious coping education, resources and skilled guidance in
noted among non-Hispanic Whites following palliative care. This situation requires changes in the
23
surgery is contrary to Halstead et al who stated that education of health professionals for greater
length of survival did not result in different choices awareness of families support needs.
of strategies by his subjects.
Erickson and Lauri 27 indicated that families needed
In a qualitative meta-analysis conducted by Bertero both information and emotional support to help
20
and Chamberlain a diagnosis of breast cancer made them cope with their caring role. The study
the women aware of the possibility of their own confirmed that emotional support from health
imminent death. They experienced an professionals include conveying acceptance and
overwhelming feeling of fear; the only thing they responsiveness, listening to concerns,
could see was death. They described the feeling as demonstrating understanding and showing concern
standing with one leg in the grave and the other on for the familys welfare. Informational support
the edge They lived in uncertainty. Two factors that needs for the family include information about
reduced uncertainty were information and support cause and management of symptoms, how to care
from significant others. Information was cited as a for the patient, likely prognosis, how to respond to
very important factor in reducing uncertainty both sudden changes in patients condition and available
practical and emotional. Practical support meant services in times of need. Such findings suggest a
standing by the womens side to help her adjust to the need for health care professionals to remain alert
new situation, while emotional support meant and respond to the familys needs for emotional and
understanding the womens feelings of uncertainty information support.
and assuring them that significant others would offer
constant comfort and love. Despite several studies conducted on coping with
breast cancer, literature search did not find any
Stress and Coping Mechanisms by Family published study that has investigated coping
Caregivers mechanism on breast cancer in Zambia, other
Family caregivers are stressed when a family malignances or any chronic illness. However, there
member is terminally ill; hence they need is literature on quality of life among Zambians with
25, 26.
information and education to cope In a focus HIV and AIDS. Mweemba et al, 30 revealed that two
25
group discussion conducted by Kalnins , in a study thirds of the participants had good Spirituality,
entitled caring for the terminally ill: experiences of Religion and Personal Beliefs, (SRPB). The
Latvian family care givers a care giver voiced that investigators concluded that SRPB and quality of
they expected the family doctor to do the education life could be associated because of the importance of
and informative work. Doctors have to explain to spiritual wellbeing in coping with chronic illness.
family caregivers what the patients condition is Although the study was conducted on People living
because care givers look to them for medical care, with HIV and AIDS, the implications of the finding
25
education and validation of their care giving . on the association between SRPB and quality of life
are important considering that breast cancer is a
When asked about any instructions for their role as chronic condition if not diagnosed in the early
caregiver, most subjects could not name any specific treatable stages.
education or preparation; they learned practical
43
Medical Journal of Zambia, Volume 37 Number 1 (2010)
44
Medical Journal of Zambia, Volume 37 Number 1 (2010)
Non-Hispanic Whites. Psycho-oncology 2002; 25. Kalnins, I. Caring for the terminally ill:
11 495-505. experiences of Latvian family caregivers.
20. Bertero, C. and Chmberlain, W. M. Breast International Nursing Review 2006; 553, 19-
cancer diagnosis and its treatment affecting self: 135.
A Meta-synthesis. Journal of Cancer Nursing. 26. Seymour, J., Ingleton, C., Payne, S. and
2007; 30 (3) 194-201. Beddow, V. Specialist palliative care: patients
21. Doumit, M. A. A., Huijer, H.A., Kelley, J. and experiences. Journal of Advanced Nursing.
Saghir, N. Coping with breast cancer: 2003; 44 (1) 24-33.
Phenomenological Study. Journal Cancer 27. Erickson, E. and Lauri, S. Information and
Nursing 2010;33 (2) 33-39. emotional support for cancer patient,s relatives.
22. Teleghani, F., Yekta, Z. and Nasrabadi, A. N. 2000; Eur Journal of Cancer Care. 4: 118-121.
Coping with breast cancer in newly diagnosed 28. Gall, T. L. and Cornblat, M.W. Breast cancer
Iranian women. J Adv Nurs. 2006; 54 (3): 265- survivors give voice. A Qualitative analysis of
272. spiritual factors in long-term adjustment.2002.
23. Halstead, M.T. and Fernsler, J.I. Coping Psycho-oncology. 11:523-535.
strategies of long term cancer survivors. 29. Meravigilia, M. Effects of spirituality on Breast
International Journal of Cancer Care 1994; 17 cancer survivors. 2007. Oncology Nursing
(2). Forum. 33 (1) E1-E7.
24. Weaver, A.J. and Flannelly, K.J. The role of 30. Mweemba, P. 2008. Quality of life among rural
religion/spirituality for cancer patients and their and urban Zambian men and women with
caregivers. South Med J. 2004; 97 (12):1210- HIVand AIDS. Personal communication.
1214.
45