Glase cour Aelyecs Sine BV: Pe, D INSTRUMENT Vipdyd SATHIS paAM ake Foyer Stein Measerements See Sottabus Vibreuion Measurements Linear variable git ion meusuremeats= vibration meter ~ of sign ode Ray Q ution Systems cre el Row measures = pressure transducer = sound fevel meter | 1 wind vail and i use fn steel analysis = struct wee rnd ysis pio vaca! ” eT rote - Hatt elfyasnraction and we = Ds esunant = eect oe) — Nn vesting Medians tll YY a Daitduyp Readges and Thsers+ Rebexin Haroner Avousie : ssn! spcshos =I +e of ' ferns i . su nua Pubihs | a Hl i tospvseunl Seve Smaloas, ata Meee Hilay BElninnenseememenae 7 i Vig) Mast Muth. ight & EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS LECTURE NOTES (For Students of CIT) Compited by JA. P. MUTHURAJ, LECTURER IN CIV!L ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING TORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, COIMBATORE - 64° 014 ‘% Pa 2 SB RRRow —* Serta rege ERESincere thanks to » Dr. K. SUBRAMANIAN, Ph. D., Professor and Head, Department of Civil Engineering, Coimbatore Institute of Technology, Coimbatore » Prof. A. SAMSON RAJ, M. E.,. Assistant Professor, . a Department of Civil Engineering, ack Coimbatore Institute of Technology, Coimbatore Special thanks to > P. SARAVANAN >» C, SIVASHANMUGAM WMA. E, (Structures) Students, Coimbatore Institute of Technology, CoimbatoreEXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS. CHAPTER CONTENTS Topic Introduction to experimental stress analysis. introduction to strain gauges | basic characteristics Characteristics of an ideal strain gauge 13 Yefinition of strain gauge 14 echanical type strain gauges 1 echanical type strain gauges - Use of levers 16 ‘Mechanical type strain gauges - Use of micrometer 1a a Mechanical type strain gauges - Use of dial Mechanical type strain gauges - Use of microscope 4.21 "echanial type strain gauges ~ Optical principle, 1.23 Mechanical type strain gauges - Miscellaneous types vechanical optical strain gauges lectrical strain gauges 1.47 ‘STRAN GAUGES i \ | ea ss/ a EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS. CHAPTER 1 At aL sts LUCTION TO EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS ‘an experimental stress analyst must have a thorough understanding of stress, strain and the iw wetting stress to strain. The concept of elementary theory of elasticity Is very important before sroraccing Lo the stress determination exoerimentaly | } DEFINITION ! IW the state of stress at a point Is established by the use of experimentally dotermined lures, then the procedure is referred to as experimental steess analysis perimental stress analysis almost not involves in the measurement of stress directly, it + the measurement of some quantity which in turn can be related to stress. This Is very jo basic types of force act on a bor to produce stresses. First type is surface forces. Exa-apies are external loads and reactions. Second type Is body forces. Example is self weight. In most {te soalysis the bady forces will be neglected, wiich will praduce minimum effect \ is procedure Imvliosnfnding homal and tangantal / shear streses act on 8 body, DISPLACEMENT AND STRAIN £4 g'ven body is subjected to a system of forces, individual points of the body will move. This E rnavement is a vector Quantity known as displacement. If the various points in the body undergo uifferest. movements, each-can be represented by Its own displacement vector. Each vector can be nx, y and z directions, i 5 ¥otion of the body may be considered as the sum of the following i 1. translation and rotation of the body as @ whole. 2. The movement of the points of the body relative to each other, . The translation or rotation of the body as a whole fs known a5 rigid body motion, This type of, | a votion is applicable to either the idealized rigid body or the real deformed body, Rigid body motions : an be large or small, Deformations are generally small a STRAIN is a geometric quantity which depends on the relative movement of two or three aints in the body and therefore Is related only to deformation displacements. Rigid body splacements does not produce strains, therefore displacement of this type may be neglected. ‘A NORMAL STRAIN is defined as the change in length of a line segment between two points divided by the orginal length of the line segment. A SHEARING STRAIN Is defined as th> angular change between two line segments which were originally perpendicular. 7 INTRODUCTION TO STRAIN GAUGES ‘The quantity most often measured using strain gauges in experimental stress analysis 1s axial seraig, The stress analysis Tavolves experimentally determining the state of strain at a point and ‘Teducing the state OF Stress at the same point, eaicins te sae of stress atts sume pointy N 3 TRAN GAUGES "train_is the change in ten nethod involved ti th of en cristina ten and as chinese drect. seurements of length. The TIBET to establish the reference or ‘inn aebls) he change In this gouge length coring Bathing, Measurement of a change in inne length obviously does na he sin at en but father the average strain over Stain represents the tru stan at any point within the gauge TENE along the gauge tengiirard ve length involved experinanal m | goge Constant strain Linear strain Non tinear strain Fig 4.2 Stain «types \ | it CASE 1: Constant Strain 5 No error, bg = hy f : CASE 2; Linear Strain No erear, wm ker ky ASE 3: Hon Linear or Quadratte Strain 40 OFF Is HOVER tae? y+ ky The ditereace ty ‘ween the average and Erno = ky AE 92, by ‘mid point strains represents the error involved and ts given by oradient, = Gauge iength Serain ior be measured withau: whose change beta, ured €t a point with any type of ‘gauge and in soine degree of error. fon linear fields t cannot The distance detween two knife edges or newdle tips 0 chan alled base length or C\UGE LENGTH. The gauge aie vat a specie unl an Sause is characterized by the distance betwen the ete edges in contact with the Peter. 172 i th Of the movable tite edge. The gays lengeh of the metal flim strain gauge * deters inet oy the eogth of the strain portion of tha sid and the width is defined as the width of be pri fag FE RIE | re ore rman' True fallowing ace the tnost commonly used mechanical ype strain gauges and detatted option ace also discussed we hy USE OF LEVERS rose 3." Simple lever type Tons an Goodmans! Extensometer Capps" Divider - Simple lever Porter {pp Strain Gauge - Maltipte tever Huggenberger Strain Gauge - sultiple lever 5, Berrys Strain Gauge Templins’ simple Strain Gouge 0 8, Olsens’ Deflectometer Ii) USE OF ICROMETER / VERNER. 5. saicrometer 2, Amslers? Recording Extensometer Unwin? Extensometer te Cambridge Extensometer 5, Unwins' Compressometer 6.’ Demec Gauge : % : 7. Jenkins’ Gauge 3 8, Olsens! Compressometer Ii, USE OF DIAL. of : 1, Dial Gauges Amslers" Dial Extensometer Lindleys’ Extensometer Scobles* Extensometer i \mitemore Strain Gauge Iv) USE OF MICROSCOPE 1. Ewtiggs! Extensometer yj USE OF OPTICAL MAGNIFICATION 1. Amslers! Mirror Extensometer 2. Lambs’ raller extensometer vi) MISCELLANEOUS 1. Oise type displacementmeter 2, clingineter 3. Pfonder Gauge {Contact type strain gauge) en emereun REESE TESE OF Levers Fig 1.3 Schematic representation of simple lever type strain gauge In these typ Strain 1 magnified by use of levers and fulcrums, Strain magnification is Possible either by increasing the gauge length or by increase the lever ratio, Suppose it is required to measure strains over gauge lengths of 2 em and the mechantim got ihe leverage ratio 24 (for example). Ix is the displacement, the displacemé x is magnified as 24x; ‘whereas the actual strain is 1/2. Tre magnified displacement is 48 times the av tual strain . 2. GOODMANS” EXTENSOMETER Eig. 1.4 Schematic representation of Goodmen's extensometer In hls instrument the mayement apart of two pent onthe test pleceT, i multiplied by 4 lever Land recorded ona crear suited ac. Two cps Cand whch fom part of ee ome the instrument, ae attached tothe test plece T by rneae of screws provded with haere points, which enters the test piece, the pairs of centre being generally 25 cm apart. The reminder of the frame Fs made of ight brass tubing, ad although not hinged, has stent Nesbit for cops ‘pring apart by about 1/2" Beyond the gauge distance witout damage in ihe owureene STRAIN GAUGESi DEF NITION OF STRAD GAUGE } nen a material # stressed or subjected to a force (compression, tension or shear) itis ishsned, Viven the force applied Is small, the deformation is also small and increased with increase 1 \ sd, To study the elastic properties ofthe materia, ft necessary to measure the deformations sce sately a all stages, The spacial instruments used to measure these strains are catled STRAIN iL G25 oF STRAIN METERS, diag upon the type of strain measurement, they ore sub divided as tensor “Tu measure extensions of specimens subject to tensile stresses 2 Compressometer_: To measure the compressive strains when the specimens are subjected to compressive load : Deflectometer To measure the deflection of the loaded beams Troptometer To measure twist when specimens are subjected to torsional loads Tha principle of operation of all these Instruments is snore or less same. acinte employed In LETNINY 1.20 Schematic representation of Lindleys! No f Extensometer ‘The extensometer show in fig 1.20 consfsts of body A having a rigid arm 8, To the upper end of 5 the body is hinged a similar arm C. The hinge consists of a wide strip of spring steel; whicn allows the Fer atta plane but prevent any sideways of rotational movement The specimen unde: test I groped between the ends ofthe screws , These are operated wy meats of thuniaheels | ranch, gears tuted in easing ) in such a manne thatthe verti ols pre seen, whatever be the thekness of the later, Is always colcldent with the centtl plane Bf the ie eee ee “es etensometer. f , Te the uper arm of the extensometer i secured a spring stellevr H, which pressed dv ihe frane of the body and carries 9 cone shaped button, Pressure on the lever forces, thecree one ole at the base of the body are so arranged that when this fs done, the distance between the axes of the gripping screws fs 2°, Be ‘The outer end of each arm is provided with a hardened steel bush recessed to take one of the ball ends with which the spectal diat gauge fs fitted. The ends are retained in the sockets by means of forked springs which prevent end mave, but permit the dial to be rotated in ayy convenfent position {or observation. In the event of the test piece elongating unduly or breaking the dial is released without damage and although the spring hinge may be strained, this is easily remaved for correction or seplacement,vile 1 af sere extens 195 capacity of 5/8” diameter or thickness up to %', to, > EXYENSOMETER (41.21 Schematic representation of Lindleys' No 2 Extensometer Although the 5/8* opening of the No. 1 extensometer is sufficiently large for most purposes _ there are occasions when great capacity is destrable as for instance, when testing tubes over 5/8" |< diameter or when the jaws of the extensometer must encircle spectal features. No. 2 Extensometer can be used with spectal attachments, to measure compressive strains, /, Gauge length = 2 Least Coun 1 20000" i, SCOBLES’ EXTENSOMETER ca i¢ representation of Scoble's Extensometer Seb his oporates on the same principle as the Lindley's extensometer but it is sturdy and a little w vehi tin its arrongement. The lever multiptication ratio of 1:3 and the diat reads extensions up to 1 10, Hance inthis case, it a spring stee! rad of special manufacture,ucpases er 5/8" EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANAL Two spacer bers keep the gauge length of the “hile ting to the specimen, After attaching the exter of serens, the spacer bars a specimen to a constant value of 2° rsometer to the specimen by means of tno pa Before removing the Fit. 1.23 Schematic representation of Whitmore Strain Gauge The Whittemore strain g: on cme a ene ohn hada lege. Ann te exe of Seneca eh Hy nner tera ead for ens othe soge aac ross ea iY "er Nesta be mend ante sige red onan ee ap 7e ain sensitiv of the gauges us 30,0001" s 0.60005" per inch for 2° base length and 0.00001" for 10 base length. In both cases a gauss witha ange of 0.24” is available, . Like the Berry gauge its’ advantage Ue primarily with its [2k work, Its high strain sensitivity ond large base length mak strain analysis, except in concrete structures ruggedness and hence suitability for it unsuitable for most laboratory” WLUSE OF Microscope |, EWINGS" EXTENSOMETER [hs Ewings! extensometer is an example of an optical magniticaten t allows the stretching of the specimen to be continuoisty watched Preces, and can be used on testing machines of the vertical or hor 'ype. The extensometer It i applicable to large or small test lzontal type, ‘The extensometer {s clamped to the specimen by two patrs of set screws with steat points, yrhich grip the bar, the distance apart of the two points being accurately adjusted so that a definite {ength of the specimen is under observation. The upright rod rojecting from the lower part of the stroman end in @ rounded pare, which engages with a conieal hole im the ‘upper half of the malt: When the test piece extends, the polnt serves as fulerum for tre Upper part of the oe ec acto $2 that a poht onthe opposite side ef the test place and at the same distance from it 22s felcrum, wil move, relatively tothe lower half of the instrument, through a distance equal to tovice the extension, STRAIN GAUGES 7‘is distance is measured by means of a microscope attached to the tower clipythe movernent being brought into the Feld of view of the microscope by means of a rod hanging from the upper clip and carrying tits lower end a fine wire on wiich the microscope Is sighted. The displacement is read ~ cna micrometer scale in the eyepiece. The gauge length is 8. By estimation readings of extension can be token t6 1 / $0000" To ensure corect readings, the microscope must be adjusted with the dived | head seen on the upper part of: the extensometer which enables this adjustnient to be tésted since) : “when ihe microscope is in correct alignment a single turn ofthe divided, head shoud-cause la, oc “splacement of the wires through 50 divisions of the eyepiece scale. Pee i la cg {24 Pictorial vow of Wings extensometer Fig 1.25 Principe of Ewing" extensometer L ! The adjusting serew further serve to bring the sighted mark, toa convenient polat on the eve ale, and also to bring the mark back, if the strain ts so large as to carry it out of the field of SE "this cave a single turn of the screw adde another 50 cvislons to the range shown on the eye eeu Seale To facilitate the application of the extensometer to any rod, a clamping device bar is added by ich the two clips are helé at the correct distance apart, with axis of their set screws parallel white ‘ay ‘2 bolng secured to the test piece. 1A modified form of Ewings’ extensometer is also available for measuring the elastic img session of short blocks, having clips centres 2° apart. Readings to an accuracy of 1,/ 125000" of i “-tslon can be taken, These are also suitabte for tension tests Gauge length « 8° east Count « 1 / 50000" » WEAKER CLR OTMMM NEED ba ib1. AMSLERS’ MIRROR EXTENSOMETER FOR MEASURING SMALL ELASTIC DEFORMATION | cisread Description 4} Honcan ay, Spberatus ts used for measuring very siallvarations tn the i divided {ubjected 19 tension br-eampression by means of vertical or horizc 14, singo 7 Sadist Ue st | ausé!a astie Tot VLUSE OF OPTICAL MAGNIFICATION 7 3 OF OPTICAL MAGNIFICATION lever resting on the other gauge mark. The litle lever he intro. Hf the gouge length of test har undergoes a change, the litle lever is rocked over. An elastic clip, with a slight pressure, prevents the Strip on the test bar from being displace ‘movement of the small lever. &s tO sharp parallel edges and carries But the comparison strip remaing constan the course of its asplacement enables the change Placement, use Is made of the mirror fixed to the Fae imittor ts effected by means of a fixed telescope lever which undergoes’ the angular movement of the rene’ fo the miror, which Is turned towards a scale at right angles to its axis. When the mirror = (Moves, the image of the scale reflected by ft, traverses the telescope reticute by an amount which = Dears a simple relationship to the change in gauge length, [i 8.1.26 Arnslers' mirtor extensometer » Tetescope F1S1.22 Amslers’ mirror extensometer -Mitror and Clip=e aE Ne PRINCIPLE OF-THE INSTRUMENT Inthe accompanying illustration ‘Als the telescope Js the mirror 1D the double edges prism / mireor carrier Elst Fs tho edge of the comparison strip est bar Gis ah Fig 1.28 Opticot principle of Mircor extensometer A similar assembly is arcanged symmetrically each side of the test a Loolow. ‘The illustration however enly shows one set of memturing pari , gunuvatly preferable to place the edge Of the strip F at the red end of the text bar and mirror ea 2 the bottam. The adjustment of the telescope and mirror should be such that on looking 90%) and C represents te tension image (when 9 <20") a” image] ge prism | Stasin GAUGES 1 $096 5+ caemevenenmenacendese angrier. EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS. OIE | fig. 1.34 a single bundle of light rays are shown. The fiduciary mack F ls the point under the | rellector R that Js illuminated by lamp. This fiduciary is a circle with two ears, bath of which consthute the image. The ears on the circle serve to indicate the correct alignment of the avtocollimator about its axis. The lenses empleyed in both the eyepfece and objective positions ere of | U-shighest quality and are accurately pesitioned. 7 ‘Three images are seen through the eyepiece; the reading image, the flash image-and the front face image. These three are. due to the different reflections from roof prism which: fs eriplojed mnitior Mt. . : 1. The reading image fs obtained when the light reflects from the roof surfaces of the prs, This ‘image Ulss on the reticule and Its position relative to thé scale is governed only by the angle between the lozenge end the pris. The mation between the spectmen end the autacolimator does not influence the position of the image along the sca of the reicule. 2, The flash tmage fs obtained when the ight reflects fram the flash surface of the prism. This image is parallel to the reading image and may be displaced by rotating the extensometer bout its Longitudinal aes. This Image fs useful in eliminating errors due to rotation of the } ' ‘extensometer under lead and should appear inthe field of view when observing the reading i ‘nase. 3. The front face image fs obteined when the light reflects from the font face of the oof prism. This image se-ves no useful purpose and is usually positioned by moving the autocolmator 50 that tt does not interfere with the reading image, ‘The purpose of replacing the mirror Mt, by a roof edge prism was to eliminate loss of the resting tage due to titing of the gauge and to eliminate Biting errors. Since the gauge i not sensitive to a tit normal to the plane swept by the reflected beam itis necessary to obtain indication He ‘of ine relative inclination of the collimating system to that plane. This is accomplished by providing 2 ‘ {00 surface at the bottom of the roof. The image from the flash surface fs sensitive to inclinations of ' to ellinator. 2 the lash image can be viewed, the relative inclination of the collimetor is small and | . the inclination error is minimized. The gauges are 0,25", 2.0" and 10.0" in gauge length, AC YANTAGES 1g2 Is highly sensitive and accurate or weld + 2. It can be employed in dynamic applications for frequencies of less than 40 cps and are ase jeanne Mma dranbac the requ ortho operator forts successful ization ee The mauring of gauge ait a 4. The aligament of the optical system raquires both skill and patience, rays for the mechanical levers, This substitution decreases the size and inertia of the clvice aciably snd pormits tho optical gauge to be employed at low frequencies in dynamic application, 5+ 1965, considerable research effort has been devoted to the area of optical methods of reat otrass eralysis, The two types are diffractian and interferometric$5 ANALYSIS int under the | 2th of which sent of the ston ate of 1d the front mployed as ° prism, This sy.the angle 3 socollimator 3 i ls This tensomreter | ition of the | thie reading 00f prism. atlimator $0 toss of tie geo "ean | dod | fonts | small and ve device aication, hogs of 1.0 IEFRACTION STRAIN GAUGE : Fig 1.32 Difraction showing changes in the dif ‘The otfraction type'is quite simple in © welded to the component, The two blades and aro fixed to the specimen along the ed, monochromatic ight from a helium neon laser pattern that can be observed asa tine of dove o When the distance R to the screen is very 9f the intensity of tight in the dittract Pp Faction pattern with increasing strain re axtuction. It conssts of two blaces that are bonded os Daated by a distance b to form a narrow aperture Hes 2 Sve ® SoUse Length L. A beam of collimated Is erected onto the aperture to produce a difractcn M8 screen ata distance A from aperture large compared with the aperture width b, the Gistribution ion pattern is “Mere 40 the amplitude ofthe light on the centre tine of the pattern (0 = 0) andIf the analysis of the diffraction pattern is timited to short distances y from the centerline of the system, sin 8 fs small enough to be represented by y/R and ‘The intensity | vanishes when sin B =O.or P=nx, wheren © 0,1, 2, 3, By considering those points in the diffraction pattern where | » 0, it is possible to obtain a ‘lationship between thelr location in the pattern and the aperture width b. Thus ‘ysote nis the order of extinction in the diffraction pattern at the point having y as Its pesition, ‘as the specimen is strained, the deformation cesults in a change in the aperture wicth Ab = el '» corresponding change in the diffraction pattern in the diagram. The magnitude of this stain « be determined fremn the above equation and measurements {rom the two diffraction patterns, AS sample, consider the diffraction pattern and deformation, where Rn! 4 «ithe diffraction pattern before deformation be abe tn) @ ede In practice, the order of extinction a! is selected as high as possible consistent with the optical ty of the diffrection pattern. When the higher orders of extinctions are used, the distance y can nyecsurodh vath sufficient accuracy with calipers and engineering scale ond elaborate measuring ices cu be avoided “The diffeaction strain gauge Is extremely simple to install and use provided the component can observed during the test, The method has mary advantages for strain measurement at high peratures since it is automatically temperature compensated if the biades are constructed of the i feacerial as the specimen, EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS me Figs asl speci and « this¢EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS . 2. INTERFEROMETRIC STRAIN GAUGE ' Nakvsis celine of sown a 5 i naped | istainn tems. As f F ~ ; Fig 1,39 Interference fringe pattern produced by reflected ight from two V shapes grooves | The interference patterns produced when coherent, monochromatic light from a source such 25 a helium neon laser i reflected from two shallow ¥ grooves ruled on 2 highly polished prion of the & Specimen surface. The V grooves are usally cut with a diamend to a depth of approximately 0.001 mm and ace spaced approximately 0.125 mm apart. An interference pattern from a par of grooves having at this depth and spacing and a groove angle of 110° fs shown inthe aiggram. { ey cane fy ek ete hen the grooves which serve asthe reflective sues ae small eget case the lg to | aiffract, and ‘when the grooves are close enough together to'permit the diffracted light rays to = a Sepetinose fp proce an nererence pater, te Intenaty a ht ot pat ne piven by the - F expression ee om ane nt can = ° i BE % fe thigh . 2 BOP Cee . ‘ ote P| te Ak Gato P were 6» ZAsing g2 2d sme- oo. : ae aE a and b= width of groove 6» wieth between grooves © = angle from central maximum, as previously defined “STRAIN GAUGES: 136 BR Rome SBS ERR A: Cpe R Renee mee eo reeEXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS ‘As the light is reflected from the sides of the V grooves, two different interference patterns are formed. In-actual experimental situation, the fringe patterns are observed on screens located: approximately 200 mm from the grooves. ti ‘The intensity in the interference pattern goes to Yerd and a dark fringe is produced whenoie? | | where © 0, 1, 2) 3y... oF when § = (m+ ¥A}n, where n= 0, 1, 2, 3, h 8 When the specimen is strained, both the distance d between-grooves and the. width b of the grooves: | change. These effects produce shifts in the fringes of the two interference patterns which can be related to the average strain between the grooves. The proof Is beyond the scope of this presentation. | Ana) Ba sinh ‘winere aN and aN) are chan as the angle between the incident light eam and the diffracted rays which produce the interference (an The interferometric strain gauge offers a method for measuring strain without actual use of gauge, thus eliminating any reinforcing effects or bonding difficulties. Since no contact {s made, the mecied can be employed on rotating parts or in hostile environments. Again temperature compensation fs autamatic, and the method can be employed at very high temperatures. The true optical gouge Is an interferometer type. These gauges which depend on the rence fringes produced when two oatical flats undergo relative motion equal to one half of the wave length of the light, are suited only for the most sensitive laboratory work. The fist use of the Intevforometer 3s a strain gauge was made by Vose in 1935, Interferometer strain gauges have been used! iw varlous laboratories to det corsmerctaily available. ne Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio, but they are not COUSTICAL STRAIN GAUGES. | | t (00h plone wie) WITT Te 7 TTT ort plc Fly 1.47) Sevematic representation af vibrating wite eauge The vibrating wire or acoustic strain gauge has been in use since 1930. its mode of operation esse! on the fact that @ stretched wire vibrates at a particular frequency which depends, amongst Js stretched between two posis attached to a test 1 which i 15 desired te measure the strain, It is evident that any change in the sistance posts due to straun vill result fn a laceration in the tension of the gauge wire, its natural measure the frequency of vibration of the gauge wire, It is made of magnetic 1d to vibrate in the field of & parmanent magnet surrounded by a coil passing @ oon ngs, on the tension in wire, Ifthe var eon gum. oRNRDERSERDGYTM HERA id 22 £ Tre Liat tiliueet tt. ELT. PeeEXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS pulse of OC current through the coil. A small alternating voltage is thus set up in the coll in which after sauysrs arapification, is compared with signal of <° ‘lar amplitude by feeding one of the signals to be - | attesns compared to the X plates of 2 cathode ray c eilloscoge and the other signal to the Y plates, The tweated frequency of the reference signal is adjusted nti a circular or eliptical figure is observed on the screen, The two signals then have the same frequency which can be found if the source of the reference signal has been previously calibrated, The gauge wire is caused to vibrate by passing a pulse fe through the coll. The resulting vibration persists for a few seconds and by repeated plucking, the seuuge and reference signats can be matched on the cathode ray tube a oe TPRMIVALS can be ~ Lectleg ere ‘ve tension cchate, sin ong erence Vitrating wir Rech 08 aa Cove 5, Pecos use of Beer 00 as Gavas Uenerd — Artoroye pid fig 1.44 Demountable vibrating wie tan gauge sem an the Cost Fen cover By of the 2 LLELILALY : | Y _ZTtee bidge ples Leet shud Karan ta eos 5 rd : aE 1 —paial z 2 4 \ X "Aten" screws Crarping be : onis gst test ance ural Fig 1.43 Vibrating wire gauge for embedding in concrete : sare 338 STRAIN GAUGESPE that it5 tension could be altered by means of a micrometer me Signals were compared using earphones. This 1s possble because the signals bore an inehranism, the well known "heterodyne beat” is heard and now in exrcor Practice this is ene reolaced by reference gauge wire with variable osellator, the eatin e of which can be Saeas'@ #* anytime by apptying a signal fom a standard tuning fork in place of re measuring gauge signat screw and Any number of measuring gauges can be hy landied by incorporating a multi way selector switch 2t the measuring gauge Input terminals. Vibrating wire strain gauges are marketed by MAG Hamburg, convenient form, a laboratory oscilloscope and oscillator can be used eh It should Be noted, however, that the oscillascope is require to have » ‘oI with rather weok signal from the gauge, these instruments are in very 'en a plucking circu Is added, high gain amplifier in order to | The frequency of vibration ofa stretched wie is given by are ‘iver «frequency of wibraton length ofthe wire density ofthe materia ‘he strain a Ue 2 Se Ne AE ‘t JS Convenient to work in terms of strain units of (f° / 1000) and the strain in the material of So testo ce will be obtained as the ifference of two such "Wil and final frequencies of the gauge wire, Calibration ca (on vibich a vibeating wire is mounted. umbers which relate cespectively to the n be carried out by means of steel tension The accuruty af a vibrating wir Uipexent used nieved and strain go.ge is determined by the accuracy of the electrical Fe eat the Frequency of vibation. A senstvty of 0.5 u m /-m Is quite easily 2 Fish degree of stabitty 's attainable. It will be noted, for example, that ae che pee | 2 Of Mequeney, the resistance of gauge leads and switch contacts does not come ine ionse are of comparatively simple mechanical con a . penn nar aca aH : 5 test component with a sultable y © feithially tanetor stain tn the imum performance, the adhesive » ‘Wer shovls be used and recommended procedure fer mounting the > th0ge shou be fale, - acterl impotent factors have tobe considered while selecting the adhesive for a particutar compa an tek component combination, Its very important te ensuct toet Coe achesive is Athen of thee Poth the gauge backing material and test material, The scheswe tours not damage » ether of them. The adhesive should also have tong term stability and high creep resistance at the > ve Bah easene Ove" the expected temperature range of operation. The soheaie wee also ‘ove hgh insulation resistance, The main features ofthe more corenen types of strain gauges are: > 1. Nitro Cettutose Cement ’ 2 Epory cements ; 3. Cyanoacrylate Cement 4. Phenolic Adhesives , 5. Ceramte Cement , Niro Cettulose Cement area inne Cement ls commonly used to mount paper backed gauges. Since thete cements i see gy 2 are Fraction of solvent (85%), the bonded gauge shouldbe eorea es remove all the Scant: BY evaporation. The curing time varies with the percentage of solvent, relative humidity, ’ Curng te-mperature and also the purpose for which the gauge is used. Hit “Sort time dest using thin paper gauges, curing at room temperature for several hours t= ee sae cat Me curing ime for wrap around gauges i 5 to 10 tines onger cen the flat grid gauges. In ) en ast ff long term tests where stabiity i an important requirement & on day room temperature they Be requited. Mis time can be reduced to day oF tno by circulating air at about 55° C over ine, nate Hstallation. As nitro cellulose cements are hygroscopic: the oa sauge should be > y ab it eeaested by a moisture resistance coating. This wl ensure elsee eal ‘and dimensional HabLity Dt the gauge installation, > > Epoxy Cements 7 Two types of epoxy cemenis - room temperature epoxies and thermosetting epoxies are som ans! (He. Both types have two constituents, 2 monomer and n hardening agent. Mixing of t Fel ng sath the hardening agent induces palyertestion. Room temperature epoxies use amine type 7 justine agent while ermosetting epoxies require anhydride type hardening ogent. in che case of atom sa late Epoxy polymertzation takes place at room temperature of a temperature slightly } sca fac temperstare. Thermosetting epoxies need 2 curing temperature In excoss of 120° C for s0v2F- 1 how's for complete polymerization , Tins adhesiv For ane parature and the residual stresses generated during curing are highty. prone an ah ttt 9f Whe thonomer to the hardener in the pony for ae reason, only the Bouse toute monomer and ine rareening agent secommmenced by rhe gauge manufacturer should be use fo" preparing (or aghesive. 4s the quantiy of {6 adhesive required for incalting strain gauges FLECTF CAL Seana, 216| . strength and to reduce the coefficient of expansion of the epoxy, Clamping pressures and curing cycles clifer for various adhesives and should be chosen to suit test conditions. A clamping pressure of 0.35 to 1.4 kaf / cm* during the curing period ensures as this adhesive layer or bond line in the case of epoxy cements, Thin bond lines are desirable as they tend to Feduce creep, hysteresis and non linearity. Epoxy coments resist moisture and chemicals and are ‘useful for tost temperatures in the range - 230° C to 300°C cyanoacrylate Cement Cyanoacrylate cement cures rapidly at room temperature. It I an excellent generat purpuse adhesive for laboratory and short term field applications. It is compatible with most of the test materials and strain gauge backing materials. & firm thumb pressure for about a minute Is sufficient to induce polymerization at roam temperature. A strain gauge bonded with this achesive can be used approximately 10 min after bonding. Its performance deteriorates with time, elevated temperature and moisture absorption. When protected with coatings like miczoerystaltine wax or silicon rubber, the life of the strain gauge bonded with this achesive con be extended to 1 to 2 years. The typical ‘eperating temperature range for this adhesive Is 75" € to 65°C, Phenoilc Adhesives Phenolics are single component thermostting adhesives requiring curing at an elevateo temperature af 120° C to 175° C for a falily long period. In most appticacions these adhesives have been replaced by epoxy phenolic adhesives, However, pheratle achesives are still attractive for transducer applications as they provide long term stability under load. Gauges bonded with this ‘adhesive can be used in long duration tests up te a tempercture of about 150° C, In short time tests phenolic bonded gauges can be used up to a temperature of 260°C. Ceramic Cements Ceramic cements are used for bonding high temperature strain gauges. One such cement consists of ceramic powders such as alumina or silica combined with phospharie acid, These powders are mixed with 9 solvent to form a tiguld mixture, A brush is used to apply a thin layer this liquid mixture to tie test surface. The gause caer is removed before another layer of cement is appiled to bond the gauge grid to the text component, The yan ek ahs the Cetonale Cen nd ‘The gauge installation is cured at 300” C and used over a temperature range of «235° C ta S00" C, totally ent 4m another method the strain gauge gid carried on a temporary carrier {s bonded on to the component with molten ceraintc particles flame spreyed from a special gun, The gauge wire grid together with (cad wires 1s mounted by the gauge morufscturer of a frame type carrier. The carrier, vsuatly made from a glass reinforced Teflon tope is wesistent to the mialten flame sprayed ceramic particles. After the gauge wire grid is secured {0 the sompanent, the carrier is removed and motten ccoramic particles are again sprayed on the grig to conplete enceee it in the ceramic. Flame sprayed adhesives can be used over a wide ternperature range «f + 235° € to 800" C. They ate hygeescopic and have poor insulation resistance at hig temperatures, Gauges bonded this way fonction satisfactorily in vacuum and in 2 nuclear radiation environment '5 quite small, carefully weighted quantities of the monomer and the hardening agent, should be taken and mixed thoroughly. Organic filters in moderate quantities are added to improve the adhesive” 298 ae ree-2 3% o oe @ e % Hs e @ a Let Aeeaer fn eM wre_. ce tenenami ctn 7 PROTECTIVE CouTINGS Strain gouge installations ore effected by environments containing water or moisture or > homnical vopours, They are also susceptible to mechanical damage. Therefore unless tests are to be tot conducted under (aboratory conditions within a short time after installation, protective coatings are ‘Bs essential. The important considerations that influence the selection of a coating are test environment, ' {est duration and the degree of accuracy required, Though several commercial coatings are avalable, only thase proven by tests to be electrically and chemically compatible with @ gauge Installation > should be used in any application, ' EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS: _ Wax coatings like microcrystalline wax, are melted and poured directly over the strain gauge t*stollation to form @ costing of thickness in the range of 0.5 to 1.5 mm, These are good barrlers to ‘ water or moisture but provide litle mechanical protection. It is well suited for general purpose Laboratory work aod field applications, can be used at temperatures up to 60° C. An alr drying olswrethane coating or acrylic coating can also be used in the laboratory ‘or protection against moisture over a temperature range of - 40°C to 1008 ¢. Both single component and two component epoxy plastics are available for use as protective "a3 For example, » solvent chinned single compr vent epoxy resin compound can be brushed on 'uRl’ and Used (0 provide en excellent chomice and mechanteal protection, Its an excellont fem ra8 Fav taaasduce applications oy to 120°C vss Lite (hay wit wire Pebese Cresr SPECIMEN yh aera $0958 Teenie Bees : air an Fg2.11 Water proofing @ strain gauge in severe environment Li. Synthetic rubber coatings such as nitride rubber, silicone fubber, poly sulphides, butyt Folymers, provdes good protecton agaist mokture, fresh and sale water immorion or anny, Tea voerating temperatre range varias accorang to te polymer selected over the Tonge of term exposure to adverse environment, say sea water, several layers of different types of caatings ar poeded. ae ELECTRICAL STRAN GAUGESmanearepevaemmreens poi ETHOD FOR BONDING STRAIN GatiGes To highlight the precautions to be teh 1Uge {0 a coraponent, a oe slo a ceanting a strain gauge is described nere. The surtace to whieh the gauge ree be Donded should be perfectly clean, smooth and nave the proper chemicotafinty to the auheee Using alse netics fae aay fit OF ale onthe surface is removed t obtain a smoath but nt hehe rer erate. The prepared surace i then washed with a solvent to remove metal or det on eee and grease. some of the cleaning flutds suitable for this purpose art acetone, Uiebtoroettyiene, pertybetiyl Ketone, ehlorcethene NU and Freon TF. To achieve the degree of clesainen requires, coucl or a my hae te washed sevrat times and the washed surace wiped with cleen onnct ae be reac uge late-with thee bonding face i in contact with the plas slate. Temporary bind the gauge to 100 / 150 mm long ond about 25 mm wie cellophane tape, Pesition the gouge / tone assembly correctly an the specimen b) Coat the specimen and back of the gouge with the Prepared adhesive. 6} Lif the tucked over end of the tape and brldge over the adhesive, With a plece af gauze slowiy mate a single wining stroke over the gauge / tape assernbly, bringing the gouge back down over the alignment morks on the specimen @) lace 3 2.5 ew thick siticone gum pac and 9 metal Back up late over the gauge installation and apply the specified ressure through spring elemps or dead weights, PULP wasasa sere aJiveswscvaely, Une gauge Can be positioned by Using a righd transparent tape. The tape method ‘ferred for fol gauges. After the adhesive is applied to the area marked on the test surface, the wie is brought Imo position and is pressed down gently with a thumb. This gentle pressure with the Thumb Is {0 squeeze out excessive adhesive and to ensure that there are no air bubbles between the ‘est surface and the backing. Terminal tabs may be cemented along with the gauges. ‘The gouge installation is then subjected to a proper combination of pressure and tempefature oF « recorsmended length of time to ensure complete cure of the adhesive, During the curing process, ne onesie may expand because of heat, undergo a volume réducton curing polymerization, and ontrect upon cooling. Any cesidvel stresses in the adhesive will-deform the relatively flexible gauge v2 slement and influence the output of the strain gauge. Therefore the curing is critical and should © complete particularly when the gauge installation {efor tong term strain measurements. CHECKING THE ADEQUACY OF BONDING After the strain gauge s bonded to the test component and the adhesive is subjected to a curing cycle, some checks are needed to determine the quality of the bond. The gauge resistance Stovld be measured to determine whether there Is an apprectable change caused by damage during ‘mounting, The presence of absence of volds between the gauge and the component cafi be detected tapping the gauge installation with 2 soft rubber eraser and observing the reading of the strain Ilcator. & change inthe strain incicator reading confirms the presence of voids between the gauge and the specimen, thereby indicating that the gauge bond isnot satisfactory, ‘he degree of cure of the adhesive is very important as ft entirely governs the properties of | the bend between the gauge and the specimen, such as Is strength, modulus of elastely, creep Properties, estivy. There sno rect method fr determining the extant of eure of the aah, & frequenty adopted procedure involves the measurement of insulation resstance isan oes é te extent of the cure ofthe aches. A gue instalation reitance In excess of 19.00) Pnccatve of a well cured istlition, an insulation resistance of 50 fo 100 Mc Is usually ladeative Incompleteness of cure ofthe aahesive. Such alow value for inslatlon resistance may be tolerated short Lem apllations : A less simple procedure for checking the degree of cure involves the measurement of change ‘n souge resistance, while the gauge instalation (s subjected to a strain cycle. Any change in the strain corresponding to zero ead after a strain cycle, t.e. zero shift, is a measure of the degree of cure, Alternately, the area enclosed by a strain resistance change curve corresponding to a strain cyele can be used to indicate the degree of cure. A zero shift of less than 2 ym / m is indicative of the completeness of the cure of the adhesive, incase the zero shit fs Larger, the gauge installation should be subjected to a post cure temperature cycle. |r Some cases it may not be easy to subject the gouge installation to a strafn cycle, tn such cases a tormperature cycle con be substituted to a strain cycle. Here also any shift inthe strain reading {2210 suit) fier the gauge installation is subjected to a temperature cjce, 1s a measure of the completeness of curing of the adhesive,Lead wires are needed te transmit the electrical signals from strain gauges to the srain measuring instrument. The lend wire sysiem connected to the gauges must perform satisfactory Under all enviconment conditions. The lead wires should have low resistance and tow temineradure Coefficient of resistance. They should not intraduce significant eesistonce change or generate or transmit electrical noise, As copper wire has, low specific resistance, it i commonly used us material for lead wires. However, it should be noted that copper has a large temperature coefficient of resistance and has oor corrosion and fatigue resistance, Tinned, placed or metal clad solid copper wires have superior ‘corrdsion resistence, {Standard copper wires are flexible. Hence they are used when relative motion between the lead wire and the component {s expected. NI» Cr alloy lead wires are prescribed in high temperature applications. These wires are sultable for temperatures up to about 370° C. As it has high specific, only short lengt: lead wires should be used. I 2. INSULATION peg : The lead wires are always covered with an fnsulating material. Some &t the nsuating Bos : imoterils used for this purpose are: 7 E 1. Teflon for temperatures - 269° C to 260°C. ‘ 2. Polyimide for temperatures - 269°C to 315°C. ‘ 2. Vinyl for temperatures» 50°C to 80°C. 4. Polyurothane for temperatures - 75°C to 150°C, 5. Fibre glas for temperatures - 269°C to 480°C. i { 13 DC supply voltage is used to energize the stain gauge, screened cables are not requited In | case of AC bridge, sereened cables should be sed to avotd zero drift due to capacitance variations : arising from movement of the cables. ug CONNECTIONS: Leod'wires ate usaly soldered tothe srin gauge leads, The meting pln of the slder chosen shouldbe at lest 15" C higher than the test temperture. The Tallowing table lists soe 1 typical soldering alo and Its pepe ~ [isting ron 16 Best solder” for general use; nat suitable below 7c ‘96% tin = 4% sliver cryogenic applications | 2 ‘Use for critical work nat suitable | | 958 (ead Eu) “45% silver = 243 cadmium ~ 16% zine - 15% eapper ELECTRIGAL STRAW GAUGES SEeSRPICLARIPA FES are eaar Fe esx Keeser awae ee e!eens 8 dt EASUREWENT OF STRAIN Zhe change inthe gtuge resistance due to variation in the applied strain is extremely small, "instance, @ strain of 1 yim / m produces in a gauge with gauge factor of 2, a resistance change of Wy 4» 10° © er A resistance of the geuge. To measure the small change two electrical elreuts, the ‘potentiometer circuit and Wheatstone bridge will be employed, ‘Most te Wheatstone bridge will be employed to find the change in vesistance, Fu [ ah (R) / : the gouge factor Fs known to us and aR 7 is known as AE (output valtage) 'smeasured from Wheatstone bridge and strain wil be calculated based on the above equation, THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE {can be used to determine both dynamic and static strain gauge reegings. The bridge may be \sed af @ direct readout device, Also the bridge may be used as a null balancing system, where the curpur voltage a€ is adjusted to 3 2270 valve by adjusting the resistive balance of the bridge. In either serene ee ation the ridge can be effecthely employed in a wide variety of strain gauge application, {2 stow hat the principle of operation, consider the crcult shown in fig 2.13, The voltage drop across noted as Vay amvoty he age from the bridge Eis equivalent to VBD Ry — Ra Re od 2 v Boe) CRa ak) ve Cal 0 to z0%0 and the bridge will be consideced in balance when : % {eoture of balancing which pesmits the Wheatstone bridge to be employed for statle strain Gas Somerts, The bride i infbly balanced betere strains are appied tothe gauges in the bridge. a setae E's tnivaly tee, and the stain induced voitage af can be measured directly fos ys ane cymamvie applications CSS BOR § (BRAC ORS ARRN SERA ER Eeeinitialy balanced bridge with A, Ry = Ry Ry so that € » 0 and! the change in each value of Consider resistance Ry, Re, Ry, RyBy an incremental amount of 4, utput AE is jean Rena) leavtar, Raters : Pee eee ee |Ropak + eer 28 = \ i iG Ry vanareniste) eglecting second order By expanding each of the determinants and n fare AR. 4. ARs ARS he mie (SED ~ SEE + SER ABs RRs C RR) Rika Re AR Ae, ARS AR, av ER a8 amy aR. Ae CRi+ BS : > By subslsehmy ~ Rifas wee Vee DE Gro LR In reatity the above equation carry a non lfnear torm, But the influence of this is quite small and can bbe neglected. Its suitable for strain measurements up to $2. The above equation ecprescits Ms bers ‘equation with governs the beheviour of the Waeatstone bridge In strain measurement, The strains may be ditectly recorded using any one of the following vee 41, Manual null Balance strain indieator 2. Manuat direct reading strain indicator 3, Aukomatic data acquisition systern 4, Potentiemeter recorder The Oseitlegraph and the Galvanometer Cotnade ray oscilloscope Telemetry system 6 7.Seoe weevce ESS ANALYSIS i PEREORIANCE OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUIGES sre eepermance Of strain gauge depends on adhesive and bonding procedure used, gauge ca eaten operation ernperatare, sate of stess being measured, curation of tet, ervirorn eres conditions, ete The strain gauge and adhesive selection should be based on the following information 4. Type ef strain measurement Operating tempersture of gauge instattetion Duration of test 4. Fatigue life 5. Accuracy Ths important factors affect the performance of electrical resistance stran gauges are 1. Temperature compensation 2. Strain Cyeting 3. Transverse Sensitivity - 4. Gauge Length 5. Strain gauge response to dynamic strains 6, Strain gauge excitation evels B 8 Stability Environmental effects 5 Molsture and humidity 8) levied and Cryogenic temperatures hoe $8) Effects of tu pressure 1) Nuclear radiation fields ‘ 2. Eifet of magnetic Fields : Penta Cesrintion regording this tpte refer “Experimental Stress Analysis by DALLY & RILEY" of Experimental Stress Analysis by SRINATH" $ EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS: ‘he filament js usually mounted on a cartier or a backing to facilitate handling. Epoxies or > ses art gh Maen terials. AS the Mamants are extremely thin, property caren icy imilactaren oe gentle $4 con be applied safely to rad as low a 6.5 mon dan oe the w inaticoners test all taments (0 a tense strain in excess af 3000 yan / sn sen ‘Therefore these “ges con be sofely used to measure up to 3000 um / m strain in tension or compression [Wi brocess of bonding of backed gauges is identical to that for metalic strain gauge’ having Ni comemes hte: Gauges with phenolic backing may be mounted with cyancaentase se epoxy or “tonele coments, Gauges with epoxy carriers are bonded with epony or cyansecrynce ‘cement, ri cchee gauges requires sil in handling.» ements such a cellulose nitrate coment, epoxy, ‘ceramies can be used for bonding these gauges. covnaatitessione brie, provide a strain sensor with a senstity of 259 wien temperature Sormensted for spparent stain over the range from 10% to 65*C to within tb eam in or £182.48 Duat element semiconductor strain gauge ro On ser80r containing tour somt conducting element are formed by diffusing the impurities i Une ihe surface lyer of chips of siote cryta silicon. The chips represent ron beams and / oF she ere con enc te used In the fabrication af acceleration, displacement, or pressore transducers, 1 femanductor strain sensor permits the design ofa wide range of subminntos transducers which ‘rave a high natural frequency and a high output slat, /ANTAGES > > 6 7 1+ Thi is much sulted forthe measurement of éynamic strains than state strain > ? > DISADVANTAGES 1. The crystal must be incorporated in an electric circuit esigned t6 convey the electrical signal Fracuce) by deformation ofthe crytal to the inleaing device, The eneral nase be insulted from the frame of strain gauge. s 2 The crystal must be subjected to compression only. Therefore two Souges are required one {each for compression and tension, , 2+ The force must be sufficient to cause a deformation ofthe crystal >. 4. The gouge cannot be applied to Light structures 7 5. Wis prone to temperature changes, - ELECTRIGAL Steal GagGES a 228 ’ » ‘ialaiae iaeiaaisitalatialahiaiaianinaimataiaala fs enmoennsA cemnne:i PERFORMANCE OF SEMI CONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGES ‘The important factors affect the perfnrmance Of semi conductor strain guuyes are 1. Strain sensitivity 2. Effect of temperature 3. Linearity in gauge factor 4, Gauge current and fatigue tite For detailed description regarding ths topic rofer “Experimental Sirass Analysis by DALLY f& Ri “Experimentat Stress Analysis by SPINATH” CONCLUSION Strain is fundemental engineering phenomenon. Strain gauges are widely used for thelr mmessremems because ofthe simpy of handing and resting hgh seuray, leads tog quantitative analysis of strain alstribution under actual operating conditions, Strain gauges are ‘extensively used as the primary sensing elements in load cells, as well as in measurement of pressure, _ force, torque, displacement, temperature and many other specialized transducers. AK strain: gauges discussed in chapter 1 and 2 give strain at a point only. Therofore many gauges are needed to investigate a strain fle\d over a finite area, A more effective methed would be the one which yields simultaneous data at many points over the whole fleld, Severst whole field methods have been developed for strain measurement, The more impertant of these methods are: Moire method, Brittle lacquer method, Photeelasticity and Hologrepny The method of Photoclasticity s descrihed in the next chapter, STRAIN ROSETTES ‘The procedure most often used while employing electrical resistance strain gaugos and a sroup of these gauges fixed at a point in a specified direction is known as a strain rosette, Electrical resistance strain gauges are normally emplayed on the free surface of a spécimen to ‘establish the stress at a particular point on the surface, In general itis necessary to measure three strains at 9 point to completely define elther the stressor strain field. in terms of principal strains it is necessary to'measure ey an t2 and the direction of cy relative to the x axis as given by prinelpal angle 4. Conversion of the strains into stresses requires, in addition, a knowiedge of the elastic constants € and v of the specimen matertal In cortain special cases the state of stress can be established with @ simile strain gauge: he direction of oy. is !9ovm. The stress Contider first a uni axial state of steers where oy = ty =O. ou Etre Ke OF SUUYS WICH Hay yen OF ME AE 00, and the magnitude of the stresses Host, consider an isotropic 3 In Ubis case a strain gauge may be mounted in any dite can be established fram Erti-wer were co{s the strain measured In any direction in the isatropic stress fel, we ——EXPERTHENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS. + EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS eine eenttal ease, no Knowledge of te stress field oF its direction {s available before’ the cpletety esac ee onUeteS. Three clement rosettes are required in these Instances re sce stataee cea ie sess fet, To show that three strain maaturements are suffitent, cowtée, "ree sain gauges aligned along axes A, 6 and C as shown in fig 2-17, 614608 Oh + EYY Sin? By + vy €05 On sin Og % 7 fan O5! Gy c¥y Sin? Oy + ¥y £0805 sha Op COS! Be» ayy sin? Be iay COS Ge sin Oe principal strains andl di BW lag + by) 6H lag ty + vg? HW loa yd 1 Mh 9 269 vay fag yd Where $i the angle between the principal axis (oy) and the x axle. 'ctlons can be established by the following equations By) + vg? Princip stresses can be computed by equation (1). 4 actual practice, three element 42s 10 compietely detine the stress field. roseties with (ixed angles are employed to provide sufficient TPES OF STRAIN ROSETTES: gauche angles between the sean @ uges tna strain rosette could be anything less ‘per 360" and more than kero, However, forthe ease o,caluleton and crowing ie customary to use Thun che connect Go” oF 45% Incidental this avoids the Ml conditioning of the eauations Ye once Thu: che common strain rosettes are vo.lement rosette ne Rectangutor type Delta type element rosette ree olemont sos Rectangular type Tee delta type For analytical and graphicel solutions of ro Fre ceement strain gauges are also avaiable with 10 gauges arranged along a tne. These Crepe are wsuaty idstaled in filets where high sraln gradients occur and is dffeult rare the point where the stéain is maximum, “ie summary of equations involving rosettes is described inthe following table ELECTRICAL stham GauoESF ! (eee Cis 78 7 er 2 T eae eee aoe (3 — aaa WAC Saag anasoy | ssons edu | i Tam SS Wi DSEXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS ce] o I CHAPTER - 3 : iy He i PHOTO ELASTICITY | j> ; Ske Topic Page Number 7 inviodtlon i a ly Bose concepts of light ba by } Potarized tight 33 > © Photoeiate effect 35 > 5 toehromacies 28 po Isoctinics 35, in - ! 2 lane poarizers 36 , . 2 iow plates 36 > ar am A Cond toning of light 38 0, Suess optic tae 38 1 Plane polarscope as 7 nw Circular polariscope 4 3.15 3.18 13 Circular polariscope (dark field) 15, Polariscopes 16 Diffused tight poleriscope Lens polariscope 1 19 Scattered ight potariscope , 10 Reflection type potariscope * Pacroeasticary ‘ORNS SUR ES BE RS TE7 CHAPTER 3 Measurement of strain using optical methods may be classified Inco xo groups. The first method in which the strain in specimen is measured directly using strain gauges, which employ optical princintes, and the other In which strain is measured indivectly by means af some interference: phenomenon, Out of these two the latter methed, which is the photoelastic method, which has fount! ' wide range of appileation In the solution of compiex stress problems, This method not only gives & rapid quatitative picture of stress eSstribution {a a toaded object but alse provides the designer watt ‘quantitative Information, sich can be utilized to evaluste the stresses In the inaded object ‘The photoelastic method vtillzes the well known phenomenon of double refraction exhibited by transparent materials wien subjected to stress together with the elements of the theory of elasticity ‘The savantages of the method may be summarized as bolow: 4, Determination af stresses for problems that are found to be difficult vo solve analytically Obtaining an overall picture of the shearing stress distribution throughout the loaded specimen Accurate stioss determination to Irregular members Iinprovine the design of component parts ‘To provide a check on the theoraticat solutions of design problems BASIC CONCEPTS OF LIGHT ‘The two theories of light, corpuscular theory and electromagnetic theory are 1 for exataining the behaviour of Light. consider ‘The corpuscular theory propose by Newton states that lighe Is an electromagnetic disturbance may de exprested os light voetor, whica fs ermal to the direction af propagiiton and user! to describe the photoetastic effect by Clark Maxwell, Tronsverse waves which are propagated along straight lines called rays Electromagnetic radiation is predicted by Maxwell's theary to be @ transverse wave motion, which propagates with an extremely hivh velocity. Associated! wath me wave are oscillating electric and magietle fields, which ean be des.ribed with electric aed magnetic vectors E and Hi ‘These vectors are in phase, perpendicular to each other, and at sight angles to the direction of propagation. & simple representation of the electric ond magnetic vecters asseciated with on pinctremagnetic wave at a given instant of cime ie slusteated in fig. 3.1, For simplicity ang convenience of representation, the wave has beer given sinusetdal form, Pore aLasTiCiTyHig2.1 The electric and magnetic vectors assoclated with 2 plane electromagnetic wave All types of electromagnetic radiation propagate with the same velocity in free space {about 3 x 10* m/s). Characteristes used to differentiate between the various radiations are wave length and frequency and ts related by i= wave length f= frequency = velocity of propagation : ugHr Light fs usually defined as radiation that can affect the human eye. Far normal range, 400 to 790 nm fs visible, Within this range eye Interprets the wave lengths as the different colours Listed in Table 3, [ Wavetengih range, am Colour] Wavelongh range, nm Goer 7 voit [__ 3507570] elon Green | Blue 570-590 Yellow ro coe 390-630 [orange {ion 630-760 wane uci 1 Sere: Day taht or white Vent fs made up of number of consitwont vibrations possessing itfevent frequencies, That f, compenents of various wave lengths may be > > > b 3 ig 2,2 Plane polerized ti Polaroid sheet may be desecloed as a transparent material with stained and oriented > moiccuics. A thin sheet of polyvinyl alcohol is heated, stetched and immediately bonded to » > Lupporting sheet of cellviose acetate butyrate, A Liquid which Is rich in fodine then stains the potyvinyt 4 face of the assembly. The smount of foaine diffuses into the sheet determines its quailty. The grades > , > > , . » » > of Polaveid sheets available are HN 22, HN 32 and HN 38. HN 22 1s Fecommended for photoetastle purposes. cig LARLY POLARIZED LIGHT, 7 If the wave motion is helical, the light vector cotates along the tine of propagation and : ing magnitude is constant, the. light is sald to be eicularly polarized Ught. The tip of the {ight veeror 7 deserts a circular helix as the light propagates as shown inf 3.4 zi ‘The lightivector can be’ resolved into two components In any two direction it right angles. These components will have the same amplitudes. Circulstly polarized light can be obtained by +) putting 2 doubte retracting plate or bi refringant piste such as mica inthe fleld of a plane polarized « tight tn such a iay-thar the optcel axis of tne mica-late fs inclined at an angle'of 45° tothe pline of polation nthe case of manociromatie light this double cefracting plate can be designed to she a +s Greater goacized ihn and this called as quarter wave pats , ig 3.4 The electri ‘and magaetie vectors associated with a plane electromagnetic wave The wave plates may consists of a single plate of quartz or calcite cut parallet to the 2 single plate of mica, a sheet of oriented cetophane or a sheet of ovented polyvinyl optic a alconetMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS ELUPTICALLY POLARIZED LIGHT If the magaitude of light vector changes periodically during its propagation and the : tips of tight wector are plotted along the Une of propagation, it will describe an elliptical hettx. The resuiting light i said to be elliatically polarized light The photoelastic effect is observed when certain transparent materials, through which plane polavized light ray 1s passed, under load exhibits temporary double refraction or birefringence fie.) the ray slits into two component rays vibratiag In the directions of the principal stresses at the soins, The fundamental laws connecting the birefringence with the stress condition in a loaded tmode! haz been revives by Neumann and Maxwell an may be stated as betow. 1. Plane or circularly polarized light perpenclculasly incident on to a transparent photoelastic ‘material that is subjected to a generalized plane stress system will have the plone of ‘poletization parallel to the directions of the principal stresses at each and every point in the plate, 2, The difference in velocities of these two polarized light rays at any point is proportionat to the r difference of the two principal stresses at the point and is indepencent of other stresses perpendicular to the plane of the wave propagation, nen at any point in a strained transparent birefringent plate, the relative retardation of the light rays on emergence becomes one or more whole wave lengths, there will be tithes light intensification or light extinction at the point depending whether a light or dark Field of fcxamination ts used. Many adjacent points experlencing the same whole number of wave length retardations wil give rise to dark or tight Lines called "Interference Fringes" ‘The interference fringes maybe of two types 1, sochromaties 2. tsoctinie| socHRONATICS Those are fringes obtained! with eiraathy pola. sve Heli ane an toes res te seh points nf epl prea ctrey, Aten YAN ats Has Sled ven tue, High Une te spate Baa oe ssocutucs When tho principal stresses, another set of interference fringes cus of the points of equst principal stress inclination, ° 9 & snovol tneienct plane polorized light ray fz made coincide with the direction of one of Ure is obtained, called icoetinics, Those may be detined asthe & 9, as Ee INE HnEXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS. > Pi ue Fis 2,9 Absorbing and transmitting characteristics of a plane polarizer Plane polarizers are optical elements which absorb the components of the light vector ro’ vibrating in the direction of the axis of the polarizer. When a light vector passed through a plane Polirize, this optical element absorb that component of the light vector which fs perpendicular to the ‘xi: of polarization and transmits the parallel component as shown a the figure 3, (f the plane poterizer is fixed at some point along the 2 axls, the equation for thé ‘amolitude of the tignt vector may be written as ia Ke asin(2xct 14) Poy OB 7 Which can be recucad to © : Arash (2nft) a shat : Whore ~ 2x f, the etreuer frequency of the Ught. : oe ‘The absorbed and transmitted components of the light vector are ‘Avs asin ot sind 7 ‘ I Avashatcoss I. | 7 7 i” + hen : vette 4 Ly hes) j ys arlene he nae Fig sriged light vector entering a doubly refracting plate wo" > et 7 3 k EUR EE] CRRA UR EAE hak eee| EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS: Certain materials have the ability to resolve the light vector into two orthogonal components and: moreover, transmit each of these components at different velocity. & material exhibiting this property Is called doubly refracting. The doubly refracting plate is shown in fig 3.6 has two principal axis | and 2, The teansmission of light alang axls 1 proceeds at velocity c, and along axis Zat velocity cy. Since ¢j>¢,axls 1 often called as fest axis and axis 2 the slow axis If tls doubly refracting piate is placed in afield. of plane polarized tight such that the Light vector A, makes an angle fb with axis 1, then upon entering the plete the light vector fs fist resolved into two components Ay and Aa along axis ! and 2 respectively. The magnitudes of these sre Ay = ACOs S Aa * Asin B «a sin ot cos sin D = hsin at sn B asin wt cos 8 cos Bek sin at cos p Where k= a cos 5 Bex Fig 3.7 A plane polerized light vector entering a coubly refracting plete “mhe light components Ay and Ag travel through the plate with different velocities ¢ and cy cespectively. Because of this difference, the two components will emsrge from the plate at different times. in other words, one component is retarded time wise relative to the other coraponent ‘This retardation can be hancled most effectively by considering the relative prase shift beween the two components, 2s shown in fig 2.7. ro ebtoly ths teative phase shift, consider the ongulr retrdation for ch cemponent, hich shown betow: Bye (My) Pan ay ¥ (ayo) 2s 1 whore a isthe index of refraction of alr The difference (as + Aa) represents the angular phase shift or difference between the ‘wo components of light when they emerge from the wave plate, Hence bs Sah = * (0) 1) Za The reletive phase shift 6 produced a doubly refracting plate i dependent upon its and the properties of the place <= described by (m= ma: e angular rotardations of x and 2x ate known as half weve quarter wave plate Upon emergence from 3 light are described by the thickness h, she wavelength of the tight Doubly refrzcting plates designed to i plates respectively. Ifthe eetardation fs x/2 i 5 call generat wave plate exhibiting the retardation 4, the twe components of equat Bae PES ’PURERAULREWA crAY et®@ar-e¢e¢eonicre gs eeeen easySoe} SE. Lee ey Cee EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS Ag ok a pban ot Th amattude of the ight vector produced by these two co. ponents may be expressed as CFA) GSB y Bink eok BokB Ls: the angle thet the emerging light vector makes with axis 1 is given by Bin ub fang Gin (ch 4 2) Thu, i i leer thot both amplitude and the rotation of the emerging light vector can be vontsiled by the wave plate. Contoling factors are the relative have aliferonce and the (CON !TIONING OF LIGHT BY A SERIES OF A LINEAR POLARIZER AND A WAVE PLATE The equations for the emplitude and the direction of light vector emerging from a series combination of a linear polarizer and a wave plate have been presented previously, The light emeraing from this combinatlon of optical element 4s always polarized. However, the type of polarization may be plane, circular or elliptical. The factors which control the type of potartzed light ay: reduced by this combination are the orientation angle p and relative phase difference. Paget i The tnsee cases are discussed in detail below. ‘A, PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT. If the angle pis set equal to zero and the retative retardation 4 ts not restricted in any i sense, then the amplitude and direction of the emerging light vector are computed from i Adis isin (wt +A) 1" : 2 Since y= 0, the light vector not rotated as it passes trough the wave plate; hence ; the light vpan emergence i stl plane polarized. The wave pate In this instance doesnot influence 4 the Inzht except to retard it by an amount equal to 4, Identical results. are ‘obtained by letting B=x/2. 3 b. CRCULARLY POLARIZED LIGHT Ifa wave plate fe selected sé that o = x / 2 and pis sek equal toa / 4, then the amplitude ofthe emerging Want vector I given by Me ikJavarate + Ek : Thus, the light vector upon emergence has constant amide, iis possible to show that tony to Equations show that the angle of emergence increases with ¢ and indicates that the omplivide of the tight vector is @ constant value Independent of t. Hence the tip of the light vector Lassenvs out a cite, As the tight propayotes along the J iis, the citcle & opened UP Into a caula lietn wath ie xis colneicont with 2 ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED LIGHT. IU a quarter wave plate a = 8 / 2 is selected and is pesmitzed £0 be any angle other than 0, 2/4, x12 oF even multiples thereof, then the emerging light v A oh JCA ORE renee aars The anae of the vector upon emegence wil be piven by tony stan at tan p The light vector describes constitutes ellipticaly polarized tent, Since circularly polarized tight & employed In photo elasticity, itis important that the folloviing equation to be re examined, 88 (ayy) Bab, Recall that circularly poterized light requires the use of 9 quarter wave plate: therefore, whe phase difference determined to give & = n/2 once the plaie material, (a ng) anid the wavelength of light 2 are selected. However a quarter plate suitable for one wavelength of ‘monochromatic light will not be suitable for a cifferent wavelength, Alio, no quarter wave plate can be designed for white ight since {t contains components of different wavelenths IC LAW IN TWO DIMENSIONS AT NORMAL INCIDENCE Consider a two dimensional photoelastic model machined from a suitable sheet of : transparent plastic, Initially, this model is unstressed state and exhibits an index of refraction ap which 's the same at all points and at all planes of the model, However, when a system of leads placed on the model, a two dimensional state of stress Is induced which changes its optical properties. Opticaly, ‘the modet becomes doubly refracting and exhibits properties very similar to those of wave plates, The principal axes of stress at any point tn the model become the fast and slow axes of the plate; hence it ‘3 apparent that the Index of the refraction of the model hes changed in relatfon to the stress system apalied to the model. It is this unusual optical property upon which the foundetion of phatoclastietty Is based. The polariscope fs simply an optical instrument, which measures these changes of the index TH of refraction, The theary wien relates the changes in the index of refraction to the state of stress i¢ due to Maxwell, who reported this phenomenon, Maxwell noted that the changes in the indices of ‘efraction were linearly proportional to the stresses Induced in the model and following 1s the relationship isthe Index of refraciton of the model in the unstressed state ‘yand ny are the indices of refraction along the two principal axes associated with cespectivety cyand cyare the stress optic coefficients “The equation can be written as Wy 9; = Key GP Les ond a €@@aar>.-¢ eas ee \OR@ ee IAA > ave Tere Tr rei Sie model ca value ca etermin principal aio eye) = (oy - oy) 1 eG andthe oon maybe derives a Niyihettecen/ 000) 4 And it may be rewritten as e Nii he(2,+ey) Wert the materi ng value intr of sala For» perfect late photoelats edel, te determination of Wi sufient to extabich oth (oy -o and (y= ef any tee ofthe materi poor Este oe ian Honest, an photoelastic materal exis vscelste properties and aceon Tose es Puote ELAsTicity EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSTS fo -y) eh, - Bilt 14s crecesetecee 2) : a ey) fay +03) Bah 2 's expressed in terms of Brewster's (1 Brewster = 10" em? / dyne ations the classical description of the stress optic wy ve cetardation is tinearly proportional to the diffe ence in the principal stresses (1 - a). ‘ive stress optic cootficient c is a material property which depends upon the selection of the ‘omployed in the fabrication of the photoelastic model Units associated with the Brewster are not commonly employed in engineering practice, it is »veniont to rewrite and redefine certain quantities as show below. (4 44, the welative retardation in terms of a complete cyele-of retardation = 2 cis the material fringe volve thickness of the model Ft is immediately apparent that the stress difference (ay « ox) in a two dimensional an be determined If the relative retardation N can be measured, and if the matertal fringe 9 be established by means of calibration. Actually, the function of the poleriscobe Is to the value of W at each point in the madel. . If a photoelastic model exhibits » perfectly elastic behaves the difference in the strains (ey - ex) can also be measured by establishing the fringe order N. ale vane 4 PRR SEER [Ee Eee sews eeARRANGEMENT OF THE OPTICAL ELEMENTS IN A POLARISCOPE PLANE POLARISCOPE ‘The plane polarizcope is the simplest optical system used in the photoelasticlty, for it consists of onty (wo linear polarizers and light source arranged in the manner as showa i fig 3.8 9 Plane potariscope The linear polarizer nearest the Ught source Is called the polatizer, while the second tinear polarizer is known as analyzer. In the plane polariscope the two aes of polarization are always Crossed hence no light is transmitted through the analyzer, and this aptical system produces a dark field. In operation a photoelastic model is inserted between the tHo crossed elements and vievied Unrough the analyzer, EFFECT OF A STRESSED MODEL IN A PLA Consider first the case of a plane polariscope with its normal coincident with the ax's of polariscope as shovin in fig 3.8 ressed model inserted into the flelé of @ plane ft should be noted that the principal stress direction at the point of the model uncer consideration makes an angle with the axis of potarlzation of the polarizer. text, consider the light as ‘it emerges from the polariser and propagates through the rrodel and the analyzer. The tight emerges from the polarizer in a plane potarizec state, vibrating in the verticat plane with an amplitude whic varies with time in the manner shown belovt Sagganre Ane ne. ESRCSBR ie spRgese 1C@evINK ©; €es3 ©Ce@eane~ ig..10 Stressed model in plane polariscope cr cane Polarized taht enters the models shown in gure 3.10 Since the stressed IIRC ARE the optical properties of a wave plate, the impinging light vector Is resolved into two rmpanents Ay and fy given below fos koma sine These two components of the tight vectur afer velocities, from the model, The ropagate through the stressed model at % ind 35 @ consequence the two components are out of phese when they emerge ‘letve phase diference A between the two components fs given by Dall = hay) I fy 1 LO relative phase atference i divided equally between the two components A, and ix, ihe smplituces ofthe tpn vector compenents ypen emergence fram the mocel bony i Al = cosa sin fot © a/2} Ay < Kita Sin fot «2/2 Components A,! ard A! then prog the analyzer. They enter the analyzer in the ‘and 4," agate out of phase by a total angle & untt they reach ‘manner shown fn the fig 3.11, The light components Ay! SESoNed when they enter the analyzer lato hortzontat components &y" and A, mn Oe wane or Aeeny eRvd i an EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS Since the vertical components are absorbed because of the linear polarizing characteristics of the snalyzer plate, they have not shown in the fig 3.11, The horizontal components (of light transmitted through the analyzer are superimposed and result in an emerging light vector A with an amplitude is given by A Ack sin «cosa (Sin (at «/2) sin (ok + 6229) WAY Ay! Cosa AN! sin “Through the use of suitable trigonometric identities, the above can be reduced to As -tesin 2a cos tin (A022 ‘The intensity of the light as recorded by the eye is proportionat to the square of the ing from the analyzer, hence, the intensity of the emerging tight | amplitude of the light vector emer at this point on the medel is glven by 1s kesin? 2a cos? ot sia? (6/2) ination of equation shows that extinction {| = 0) can be achieved by the following bi three ways Relative totandation Polurner of tro sermponenta ake On emerggnse In repaint to, Fip.3.22 Plane polariscope (Dark field) CASE 1: FREQUENCY EFFECTS en t= (2m + 1) a) 2, where n= 0, 1,2, eailable high speed photogrephic equigment does rot record this periodic extinction. Thus for static photoalastic applications this effect can be completely ignored ant 322)EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS.” ' sat egrets srs annus e ‘Tis effect should be considered in determining the dynamic frequency response of a Belanécope when it Is employed in the solution of impact probleme, Actual, the Gynamlc tesponse OF ° ) bolariscope is extremely high (of the order of 10"? eps), and to date no dynamic stress Problem has o feo aulempted where the frequency response of the polariscope has been found inadequate, Insteedy vr aachlcation of dynamic photoelastcty, the problems encountered are associated with loading e he adel, recording the fringe pattern, and selecting a sutable model materiai, @ i" ‘AS! 2: EFFECT OF PRINCIPAL STRESS DIRECTIONS. # Wiven 2a « nx, where n=O, 1, 2, sin! 2a = 0) and the intensity | goes to zer0, producing a condition of extinction, This net plies that witen a = 0/2, oF any other multiple of n/2, the principal directions of elther e, or « » conde with the axis of the polarisr, Since this analysis can be extended to cover every point In Le Tce al the points an a model where extinction due to this effect occurs can be cevermined, ‘her the entire madel is viewed, a fringe pattem results where the fringes and loci of points where © Prnetbat sess directions (oy or 03) coincide with the axis of the polerser. The fringe pattern {coskced by the sit 2a term is known as the tsocini fringe pattern. This soclinte fringe patterns are ‘© voleyed to determine the principal stress directicn In a photoelastic model, CAGE ss FREQUENCY EFFECTS When a/2 = nz, where n=, 1,2, . sin" (8/2) =O, and the intensity | goes to zero, producing a condition of extinction, ean be shovn 8 2e= O Nah (oy an) fy . W. en t22 principal stress difference fs such that Deno y= 0,142, wh orciton (or extinction is sateled. The order of ext ton (N+ «0, 1,2, «i controlled by the tr aitice of the principal stress cifecence, by the thicin2ss of the model, and by the senathity of the phoscolastic material, as denoted by the value f, in general, the principal stress difference (0; « 01) and the principal stress directions ar_[ paint « point in the photoptastic model. The analysis presented previously has cealt with : {i Rt" pesing touch only one point in the model. Ifthe analysis is extended to cover every goine anc ¥ We Fests ram al Points are combined to obtain whole feld coverage, lines of extinetion wl Derotaredwtiere (oy-a5)=N fei h Sot H varying as 0, 1, 2, 3, . and wltere exther one of the two principal stress “te tors coincides with the axis of polarization of the polarisr. These two sets of extinction tines are Cali feoes, and the twa diferent fringe pattemns are formed and superimposed one upon the other, Lines of the first type, known as isochromatic fringes, are lines along which (Gy - 1) ‘eater seumtaat depen upon the arder N of the fringe, ‘The second type of the fringe pattern which is selated to the principal stress directions Is cated an soctinie fringe pattern eer eee raat PHOTO ELzstiery7 na SXPERINENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS Theoretically it has been established that the Izoelinie and isochromatic fringes should be lings of zore, width, however the fringes appear as bands which has considerable width. alse direct i visual examination of the fringe pattern in the polariscope will show again that the derivation just resented is inaccurate, because the fringe width is due to the recording characteristics of either the ‘eye or photographic film, if the intensity of the light emerging from the analyzer were recorded by Using a suitable photoelectric cell, the fringes would show a minimum intensity &t some point near thele center which would coincide with the »«inetion line. ‘hn example fringe pattern is now in fig, 3.24 AS the name implies, the circular polariscope employs circularly polarized light; consequentiy, the photoclastic apparatus contains four eptical elements and a light source as shovn kn fig, 3.14 “PHOTO ELASTICITY i =a 2 oa eT ceertree arr" eeoxnee 03 \o ee amr teeeenreMatceosite he ia Sirota paluticagy — Tpteny vanes? ele Qutrteray, Cireular poleriscope (Dark feta) The ir clement following the light source is called the polerlter, tt converts the OF at7 ‘Nt Foto plane potarized ight. The second element '5 a quarter wave plate set at an angle cieataty poke boerzation. This fst quarter wave plate converts the plone, polarized light into Sra ana palerized light. The socond queter wave plate fe sot with le fe oe parallel to.the slow Woh cnay tt aear@r wave pia, The purpose ofthis element to conser the circularly polarized {ih into the plane polarized ight, whin i again vibrating me the nonce the snalyzer, with its axis of pol 125 ink series of optical elements constitutes the standard erongent gore ‘ire soos cet 8 dak lela. actualy, four azrangements ofthe optical eevee ye Thece ta seameiPs pon whether the polarisers and quarter wave plotes s "ese Tow: optical arrangements are described ta the fltawing table ane secre /tvangeme Quarter wave plate] Polarter and Analyzer Field +H 7 et Crossed Crossed Derk i 5 ~ Grose T Paraliet Bee Parallel Crossed Seep Parallel “Parallel PHOTO ELisniciry 36 Spiess oe eee EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS:LL or * @ @ & : ; : ‘ | e | 6 i e | oe \ “ | ‘ | ce a ; aa | a « ‘ « « ‘ o ° “Arrangements A and 8 are normally recommended for light and desk field usage ‘of the polaciscope: 4 1 aoanineverton of te erforinrocuced by inperfect quarter wave pntes i cancates out. Since ¢ caer ove plate ave ften of poor cua, hs fc siortent cat inating the poarcope e SEE e nisi maTeny ‘ ‘i © H @ 2eevee vUeTeeueuvUvEeeeoauBwFROUeY weveveewvduis EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS: EECT_OF A STRESSED MODEL IN A CIRCULAR POLARISCOPE (DARK FIELD) ‘wnen a stressed photoelastic model fs placed in the field of a circular polariscope with its sora! coincident with z axit of the polariscope, the optical effects differ somewhat from these ootained in a plane polariscope. The use of a circular polariscope eliminates the lsoclinic fringe pelter, and as a result the circular polarscope Is more widely used than the plane polarlscope,. To Iiuysteate this consider the stressed model in the pelariseape as shown tn fig. 3.16. Gu 3.14 Circular polariscope (Dark field) rf ‘The light emerging from the first quarter wave plate can be expressed as z Als Zeb gingwe 1.) 2 Bak coswe Cask Aas) Aes Bi Ginust EMoory Cre Aris) The tight vector emerges from the first quarter wave plate Is circularly polarized, The ligit vector combining the components Ay" and Ay’ is of constant amplitude, and it sweeps out circular he! ast propagates down the axis of the polarscope, In this analysis however, the components wil bbe eases individually as they passthrough the remaining elements in the polariscope. Fig 3.17 Stressed model in the circular polarscop Light vertor as they enter the model The components of light propagate from te first quarter wave plate and enter the ie tole shoven fig 3.17. on C8 =} Gin C7 ~ ) Ay sta) GosCimed') ~ Ah Gola =) ar ve UE 8a ctr — — ; 7 7 sa han ai He exeenIItENTA Ate &. i Jeorcce Conlin AA) Gintck Hint Hn ATS ia An Beg G snsck 8 0% AO OS Bolts -O) an Ee a since the stressed model has the characteristics af a wove plate, the two components : ‘yPand &" propagate through the model with efferent velocities and emenge aut of phase by & o Aan a erate Te prcpaonal io the wes eifference {ay - on. nls eeatwe phase a netueen the two components, then the ampitade of these components upon . ‘rom the model beceme an ~ we eos Cot tale) 2 wa) Sin (eb #1) BM a0} “ i : a 6. pale) 05 CMs kD > OF fot 4a) Sen can ~ OY ams Gaz YHnee ie) @ re { on 9 Wey 9 2 s tS od ogee a ay / fF A e a om e x 8 6 & 2.8 nesltan ofthe tit component as they anor te second quater wane pate 4 “he waht emerang fram the made pepagsts to the second quarter wave plate and c enters it vecording figure 3.18 7 Now 8 at pete Ag ees(™e 8) yA" Go 74 -4) . sve AY eo8fnye > 2 > > > vw eee ee ee ON .FUSON OF ‘ is comparison the fotlowing propr .'es of a photoelastic polariscope will be 1s wred; definition of the boundaries, direct view of he model, Wight intensity, fength of the unit, (cen rial characteristics, and cost. Sinee a lens polariscone empiays a paralle! beam of light, the definition of the imeige the “nade! boundaries on the camera back is sharper than that obtainable with ¢ difused! ght var cope. However, two precautions ean be taken with a diffused light polariscope to improve the We age che ancel haundlaries \ fong Fecal length tens should be employed; moreover, tt should be stopped down as {2s sossible, Results ebtaines by employing a lens with a fecal length of 610 mm stopped down to ulte satisfactory i almost atl applications. 4 ane region of the model ts quite important, this region should be centered in the fied ot she polariscope. The width of the boundary shadow in a diffused light polariscope is @ function of sa distance of the Loundary from the centerline of the poleriscope. Thus minimizing this distance for ertical regions of the model, mintmizes the boundary shadow where it may be detrimental: For direct viewing of the model, the diffused light polariscope is much more Satisfactory than the lens polariscope. In 2 diffused light potariscope the fringe pattern occurring in the mocet can be viewed by looking dtrectiy ito the analyzer. Moreover, Ifthe analyzer, ts edvenced Until eis quite close to the model, the lnvostigator can load and align the model while viewing the pattern. ‘ith a tens polariscope the mocel fringe pattern cannot be viewed directly through the ana yzer: instead), itis necessary to project the image on a ground glass screen in a darkened room, This procedure ‘s less suitable for rapid testing than that established with a diffusion polarizcope, Light intensity offers tittle or no difficulty for either polariscope provided they both ate property designed, High intensity light sources are relatively fast lenses can be employed with both poleriscopes to hold exposure time well below { minute while using relatively slow high contrast film, The length of the polarséope ts an item to be considered when laboratory'space 1s llavted, & lens polariscope ts necessarily long, running from 3 to 4.5 m, depending primarily upon the Stamoter af the fiold and the distance betvicen the two fleld lenses. In a diffused light polariscope the nly component which requires any appreciable length fs the camera. If the camera is eliminated, the system ean be designed to gccupy a length of less than 0.3m and the image cen be viewed directly, However, if a camera is reqtired on a diffused light polariscope, then a tong focal Length is necessary 8nd the tength of the camera will approach or exceed that ofa lens polariscope, ‘The dilfused tight potariscope ts, in general, easier to operate than a lens polariscope, 33 the adjustments required are fewer and less precise. Another very Important advantage of the titfosed ight polariscope is that the surface finish of the model being tested does not require a high

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