Orbital Bonding

Atomic orbitals can be combined and reshaped- much like dough- to make other orbitals
of different shapes and properties. There are two basic types of orbitals that can result
from such processes. They are:
1. Hybrid orbitals- result from combinations of orbitals within a given atom, either
prior to or as bonding with another atom takes place.
2. Molecular orbitals- result from combinations of orbitals between atoms as
bonding takes place.

Orbital Hybridization

Hybridization happens when atomic orbitals mix to form new atomic orbitals. The new
orbitals have the same total electron capacity as the old ones. The properties and
energies of the new, hybridized orbitals are an 'average' of the original unhybridized
orbitals. The concept of hybridization was introduced because it was the best
explanation for the fact that all of the C - H bonds in molecules like methane were
identical.

Example

Carbon atoms naturally have electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p2.

The four outermost electrons, i.e. those in the 2s and 2p sublevels are available to form
chemical bonds with other atoms. The 2s orbital is capable of holding up to two
electrons, and there are three 2p orbitals, each capable of holding up to two electrons,
which means the 2p orbitals can hold up to six electrons. Individually, these electron
orbitals look something like this. (Each is centered on carbon's nucleus and the p
orbitals make angles of 90 with one another).

The 2s orbital and the three 2p orbitals hybridize to form a new hybrid orbital, called
sp3, which is capable of holding up to eight electrons. The sp3 hybrid orbital, which is the
sum of the original 2s and 2p orbitals, looks something like this:

The sp3 hybrid orbitals have a tetrahedral shape - each orbital makes an angle of 109.5
with the others. This angle maximizes the distance between the orbitals, which is natural
given that the electrons in each orbital repel one another. The shape of molecules like
methane, CH4, with bond angles of 109.5, is consistent with sp3 hybridization of carbon
atoms.

Geometries of Hybrid Orbitals

Other hybrid orbitals can also be formed when different combinations of s, p, and d orbitals are
combined. The geometries of five different sets of hybrid orbitals are shown below. You are
only responsible for knowing the sp, sp2, and sp3 hybrid orbitals.

Summary of Electron Distribution and Hybridization

# of places where Molecular Geometry
Hybridization
electrons are found (VSEPR)
2 Linear sp
3 Trigonal planar sp2
4 Tetrahedral sp3

Molecular Orbitals
When atoms combine to create molecules, molecular orbits are created. The molecular
orbit belongs to the molecule as a whole. A molecular orbit that can be occupied by two
electrons of a covalent bond is called a bonding orbital.
Sigma Bonds
When atomic orbitals of different atoms (pure or hybrid) overlap to form covalent
bonds, they may approach each other in two major ways: head to head or sideways. Only
head to head overlap is possible with s orbitals because they are spherical. Hybrid
orbitals also undergo mostly head to head overlap forming covalent bonds. P orbitals, on
the other hand, can approach each other sideways or head to head. For molecular
compounds with single bonds, p orbitals will approach each other head to head.
When orbitals approach each other in a head to head fashion, the resulting covalent
bonds are called sigma bonds. In the figure below we see two examples of sigma
bonds- one between the hydrogen atoms in the hydrogen molecule and 4 between the
hydrogen atoms and the sp3 orbitals in methane.

Pi Bonds
When molecular compounds contain double or triple bonds, pi bonds will be present in
addition to sigma bonds. Pi bonds result when p orbitals approach each other sideways.
The diagrams below show how the p orbitals in ethane (C2H4) overlap sideways to create
a pi bond.

Practice:
Complete problems in textbook on page 236 #23, 25, 26, 27, 28.
Sources:

Hybrid Atomic Orbitals, chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch8/hybrid.html.

What is the definition of hybridization in terms of chemistry? The Definition of Hybridization in Terms
of Chemistry - Quora, www.quora.com/What-is-the-definition-of-hybridization-in-terms-of-
chemistry.