Gouvernernent

If 1 Government
of Canada du Canada
Canadian General Office des normes Reaffirmed
Standards Board gdndrales du Canada
May 1997

Advanced Manual For:

Eddy. Current Test Method
7-

~anonalaranaara of Canada
The CANADIAN GENERAL STANDARDS BOARD (CGSB). The STANDARDS COUNCIL O F CANADA is the co-ordinating
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NATIONAL STANDARD OF CANADA
Reaffirmed
May 1997

ADVANCED MANUAL FOR:

EDDY CURRENT TEST METHOD

Notes:
This Manual is based on Eddy Current Manual Volume I: Test Method published by the Atomic Energy of Canada Limited.
Chalk River Laboratories (Report AECL7523), written by V.S. Cecco, G. Van Drunen and F.L. Sharp.
Publication RC 1433, Innovations in Eddy Current Testing (Document Number RC 1433). complements this manual and is
available through the Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, Engineering Technologies Division, Nondestructive Testing
Development Branch, Chalk River Laboratories. Telephone (613) 584-3311 ext. 4623.

Prepared by the Approved by the

Canadian General Standards Board Ccc- Standards Council of Canada @

Published February 1986 by the

Canadian General Standards Board
Ottawa, Canada KIA 1G6

@Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada - 1 9 9

No pan of this publication may be r e p m d u d in any form without the prior permission of the publisher.
 CANADIAN GENERAL STANDARDS BOARD

COMMITTEE ON NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING,

EDDY CURRENT METHOD
(Membership at date of reaffirmation)

Cecco, V.S. Chairperson Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd.

Bagley, W. Ingersoll-Dresser Pumps Canada Ltd.
Dewalle, S. Canadian N.D.E. Technology Ltd.
Dewalle, R. Andec Manufacturing Ltd.
Dziuh, G. Canadair Inc.
Fiorito, G. Collkge Ahuntsic
Kennedy, W. Canadian Welding Bureau
Marshall, D. Dofasco Inc.
Martin. D.G. Ontario Hydro
Mazurek, G. Consultant
Momson, G. Air Ontario
Newhury, J. Natural Resources Canada
Pfeiffer, F. Canadian Airlines International
Quirion, Capt A. National Defence
Reid, J. IndusVial Nondestructive Testing
Schnuhh. P. First Air
Siehen, G. NDT Management Association
Stasuk, D.G. Stasuk Testing & Inspection Ltd.
Szpakowski, E. Transport Canada
Szucs, J.R. Air Canada Base 025
Taylor, D. Taylor NDE Services
Tremblay. S.Y. Metaltec Inc.
Wright. R. Norsand Metals Inc.
S i i e n , E. Secretary Canadian General Standards Board

Acknowlrdg,nrnf is made for ihr fmnslution qf lhis Nnfionul Srandard of Canu& by the Tramlorion Bureau of Publir Works and
Govrmmrn! Srwirrs Cunuda.

CANICGSB-48.14-M86
 ADVANCED MANUAL FOR EDDY CURRENT TEST METHOD
TABLE OF CONTENTS

L, -
CHAPTER 1 SCOPE AND INTRODUCTION PAGE
1.1 SCOPE
1.2 EDDY CURRENT TESTING
1.3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE O F EDDY CURRENT TESTING
1.4 ORGANIZATION OF MANUAL

CHAPTER 2 - EDDY CURRENT FUNDAMENTALS

2.1 BASIC EQUIPMENT
2.2 GENERATION O F EDDY CURRENTS

2.2.1 Introduction
2.2.2 Magnetic Field Around a Coil
2.2.3 Equations Governing Generation of Eddy Currents
2.3 FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES O F EDDY CURRENT FLOW
2.4 SKIN EFFECT
2.4.1 Standard Depth of Penetration
2.4.2 Depth of Penetration in Finite Thickness Samples
2.4.3 Standard Phase Lag
2.4.4 Phase Lag in Finite Thickness Samples

L 2.5
2.6
SUMMARY
WORKED EXAMPLES
2.6.1 Standard Depth of Penetration and Phase Lag

CHAPTER 3 - ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND PROBE IMPEDANCE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 IMPEDANCE EQUATIONS AND DEFINITIONS
3.3 SINUSOIDS, PHASORS AND ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
3.4 MODEL O F PROBE IN PRESENCE O F TEST MATERIAL
3.5 SIMPLIFIED IMPEDANCE DIAGRAMS
3.5.1 Derivation of Probe Impedance for ProbeISample Combination
3.5.2 Correlation Between Coil Impedance and Sample Properties
3.6 SUMMARY
3.7 WORKED EXAMPLES

3.7.1 Probe Impedance in Air

3.7.2 Probe Impedance Adjacent t o Sample
3.7.3 Voltage-Current Relationship
CHAPTER 4 - INSTRUMENTATION
PAGE

4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 BRIDGE CIRCUITS

4.2.1 Simple Bridge Circuit

4.2.2 Typical Bridge Circuit in Eddy Current Instruments
4.2.3 Bridge Circuit in C r a c k Detectors

4.3 RESONANCE CIRCUIT AND EQUATIONS

4.4 EDDY CURRENT INSTRUMENTS

4.4.1 General Purpose Instrument (Impedance Methad)

4.4.2 Crack Detectors
4.4.3 Material Sorting and Conductivity Instruments

4.5 SEND-RECEIVE EDDY CURRENT SYSTEMS

4.5.1 Hall-Effect Detector

4.5.2 Send-Receive Coils and Lif t-Off Compensation

4.6 MULTIFREQUENCY EQUIPMENT

4.7 PULSED EDDY CURRENT EQUIPMENT
4.8 SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
4.9 RECORDING EQUIPMENT

4.9.1 Frequency Response

4.10 SUMMARY
4.1 1 WORKED EXAMPLES

4.1 1.1 Impedance a t Resonance

CHAPTER 5 - TESTING WITH SURFACE PROBES

5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 SURFACE PROBES

5.2.1 Probe Types

5.2.2 Directional Properties

5.2.2.1 Sensitivity a t C e n t r e of a Coil

5.2.3 Probe Inductance

PARAMETERS AFFECTING SENSITIVITY TO DEFECTS

5.3.1 Sensitivity with Lift-off and Defect Depth

5.3.2 Effect of Defect Length
 PAGE

COMPARAISON BETWEEN SURFACE AND THROUGH-WALL INSPECTION 62

IMPEDANCE GRAPH DISPLAY 64

5.5.1 Effect of Resistivity 67

5.5.2 Effect of Permeability 67
5.5.3 Effect of Thickness 67
5.5.4 Effect of Frequency 67
5.5.5 Effect of Probe Diameter 67
5.5.6 Comparison of Experimental and Computer Impedance Diagrams 68

CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETER 69
DEFINITION O F "PHASE" TERMINOLOGY 72
SELECTION O F TEST FREQUENCY 73

5.8.1 Inspecting f o r Defects 73

5.8.2 Measuring Resistivity 74
5.8.3 Measuring Thickness 77
5.8.4 Measuring Thickness of a Non-Conducting Layer on a Conductor 78
5.8.5 Measuring Thickness of a Conducting Layer on a Conductor 79

PROBE-CABLE RESONANCE 80
SUMMARY 81
WORKED EXAMPLES 82
5.11.1 Effective Probe Diameter 32
5.11.2 Character is tic P a r a m e t e r 82

L CHAPTER 6 - SURFACE PROBE SIGNAL ANALYSIS

6.1 INTRODUCTION 83
6.2 EDDY CURRENT SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS 83

6.2.1 Defect Signal Amplitude 83

6.2.2 Defect Signal Phase 85

6.3 EFFECT O F MATERIAL VARIATIONS AND DEFECTS IN A

FlNITE THICKNESS 87
6.4 COIL IMPEDANCE CHANGES WITH DEFECTS 90
6.4.1 Surface Defect Measurement 90
6.4.2 Subsurface Defect Measurement 90

6.5 COIL IMPEDANCE CHANGES WITH OTHER VARIABLES 91

6.5.1 Ferromagnetic Indications 91
6.5.2 Electrical Resistivity 93
6.5.3 Signals from Changes in Sample Surface Geometry 93

6.6 CALIBRATION DEFECTS 94

6.7 SUMMARY 97
 -
CHAPTER 7 'TESTING O F TUBES AND CYLINDRICAL COMPONENTS
PAGE

7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 PROBES FOR TUBES AND CYLINDRICAL COMPONENTS

7.2.1 Probe Types

7.2.2 Comparing Differential and Absolute Probes
7.2.3 Directional Properties
7.2.4 Probe Inductance
7.2.5 Probe-Cable Resonance
IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAMS
7.3.1 Solid Cylinders
7.3.1.1 Sensitivity in C e n t r e of a Cylinder

7.3.2 Tubes
7.3.3 Characteristic Frequency for Tubes
7.3.4 Computer Generated Impedance Diagrams
CHOICE O F TEST FREQUENCY
7.4.1 Test Frequency for Solid Cylinders
7.4.2 Test Frequency for Tubes

PROBES FOR DETECTING CIRCUMFERENTIAL CRACKS

SUMMARY
WORKED EXAMPLES
7.7.1 Calculate f / f g t o operate a t knee location, for a cylinder
7.7.2 (a) Calculate o p t ~ m u mtest frequency for tube inspection
(b) Determine operating point for above frequency
(c) Calculate frequency t o discriminate ferromagnetic indications
CHAPTER 8 - TUBE TESTING - SIGNAL ANALYSIS

8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 EDDY CURRENT SIGNALS
8.2.1 Defect Signal Characterisitics
8.2.2 Effect of Test Frequency
8.2.3 Calibration Tubes and Simple Defects
8.2.4 Vectorial Addition and Defects a t Baffle Plates
8.2.5 Tube Inspection at Tubesheets
8.2.6 Testing Tubes with Internal Surface Probes
ANOMALOUS EDDY CURRENT SIGNALS

8.3.1 Ferromagnetic Inclusions and Deposits

8.3.2 Conducting Deposits
 PAGE

8.4 MULTIFREQUENCY EDDY CURRENT TESTING

8.4.1 Background
8.4.2 Multif requency Testing of Dented Tubes
8.5 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 9 - METALLURGICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTING FERROMAGNETIC
MATERIALS

9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

9.2.1 Factors Affecting Resistivity

9.2.2 Material Sorting by Resistivity

9.3 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

9.3.1 Magnetic Hysteresis

9.3.2 Magnetic Permeability
9.3.3 Factors Affecting Magnetic Permeability
9.4 TESTING MAGNETIC MATERIALS
9.4.1 Simplified Impedance Diagrams
9.4.2 Impedance Diagrams
9.4.3 Material Sorting by Magnetic Permeability
L 9.4.4 Testing for Defects in Magnetic Materials
9.5 SUMMARY

9.6 WORKED EXAMPLES

9.6.1 Calculate Conductivity

9.6.2 Calculate Magnetic Permeability
9.6.3 Calculate Standard Depth of Penetration
CHAPTER 10 - SUPPORTING INFORMATION

10.1 NOMENCLATURE
10.2 DEFINITIONS
10.3 ABBREVIATIONS FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING TERMS
10.4 REFERENCES
10.5 INDEX
 CANADIAN GENERAL STANDARDS BOARD
ADVANCED MANUAL FOR:
EDDY CURRENT TEST METHOD
-
CHAPTER 1 SCOPE AND INTRODUCTION

1.1 SCOPE
This manual covers t h e principles of t h e eddy c u r r e n t method of nondestructive
testing including relevant electromagnetic theory, instrumentation, testing
techniques and signal analysis.
I t is intended t o act as;
- a source of educational material t o r>ersons who a r e seekine certificatiorl
-
according t o t h e requirements of 4 8 1 ~ ~ - 1 3~ e~r t i f i c a t i G nof ond destructive
Testing Personnel (Eddy Current Method), and
- as a guide and reference t e x t f o r educational organizations and training c e n t r e s
t h a t a r e providing o r planning courses of instruction in Eddy Current Testing.
Note t h a t t h e d e g r e e of scientific detail in this manual is primarily d i r e c t e d towards
Level I1 and Level 111 certification applicants. I t is assumed t h a t t h e reader is familiar
with basic electrical theory and t h e e l e m e n t s of algebra and calculus. Many suitable
textbooks a n d reference manuals a r e available to Level I applicants t o b e used prior
to o r in conjunction with this publication. T h e handbook referenced in itern 5 of
section 10.4 is particularly suited to t h e requirements f o r Level I expertise.
L
1%
. EDDY CURRENT TESTING
Eddy c u r r e n t testing (ET) is a nondestructive test technique based on inducing
electrical c u r r e n t s in t h e material being inspected and observing t h e interaction
between those c u r r e n t s and t h e material. Eddy c u r r e n t s a r e generated by
electromagnetic coils in t h e test probe, and monitored simultaneously by measuring
probe electrical impedance. Since it's a n electrornagnetic induction process, d i r e c t
electrical c o n t a c t with t h e sample is n o t required; however, t h e sample material has
t o b e conductive.
Eddy c u r r e n t testing is a versatile technique. It's mainly used for thin materials; in
thick materials, penetration constraints limit t h e inspected volume t o thin s u r f a c e
layers. In addition t o flaw inspection, ET c a n b e used t o indirectly measure
mechanical and metallurgical characteristics which c o r r e l a t e with e l e c t r i c a l a n d
magnetic properties. Also, g e o m e t r i c e f f e c t s such as thickness, curvature and probe-
to-material spacing influence eddy c u r r e n t flow and c a n b e measured.
T h e large number of potentially significant variables in ET is both a strength a n d a
weakness of t h e technique since effectsof otherwise trivial parameters c a n mask
important information o r b e misinterpreted. Virtually everything t h a t a f f e c t s eddy
current flow or otherwise influence probe impedance has t o b e taken into account t o
obtain reliable results. Thus, credible eddy current testing requires a high level of
operator training and awareness. I

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING

Electromagnetic testing - t h e interaction of magnetic fields with circulating
-
electrical curents had i t s origin in 1831 when M. Faraday discovered
electromagnetic induction. He induced current flow in a secondary coil by switching
a battery on and off. D.E. Hughes performed t h e first recorded eddy current t e s t in
1879. He was able t o distinguish between different metals by noting a change in
excitation frequency resulting frorn e f f e c t s of test material resistivity and magnetic
permeability.
Initially, t h e extreme sensitivity t o rnany material properties and conditions made ET
difficult and unreliable. Figure 1.1 illustrates this point. it took until 1926 before the
first eddy current instrument was developed t o measure sample thickness. By t h e end
of World War I1 further research and improved electronics made industrial inspection
possible, and many practical instruments were developed. A major breakthrough came
in t h e 1950% when Forster developed instruments with impedance plane signal
displays. These made i t possible t o discriminate between different parameters,
though the procedure was still empirical. During t h e 1960%progress in theoretical
and practical uses of eddy current testing advanced t h e technology frorn a n empirical
a r t t o an accepted engineering discipline.
During t h a t time, other nondestructive test techniques such a s ultrasonics and
radiography became well established and eddy current testing played a secondary
-
role, mainly in t h e aircraft industry. Recent requirements particularly for heat
-
exchanger tube inspection in t h e nuclear industry have constributed significantly t o
e
further development of ET as a fast, accurate and reproducible nondestructive t e s t
technique.

Until recently, eddy current testing was a technology where t h e basic principles were
known only t o researchers, and a l'black box" approach t o inspection was often fol-
lowed. The authors' objective in compiling this manual is t o draw upon research,
laboratory and industrial inspection experience t o bridge t h a t gap and thereby permit
t h e full potential of eddy current testing t o b e realized.
ORGAMZATION OF MANUAL
The presentation moves from theory (including a review of basic electrical concepts)
t o t e s t methods and signal analysis. Simplified derivations of probe response t o test
parameters a r e presented t o develop a basic understanding of eddy current t e s t
principles. Thus, eddy current signals a r e consistently illustrated on impedance plane
diagrams (the display used in modern eddy current t e s t instruments) and t o aid
explanation, t h e parameter "eddy current phase lagu is introduced.

Since probes play a key role in eddy current testing, technical aspects of probe design
a r e introduced with pertinent electrical impedance calculations. While knowledge of
basic electrical circuits is required for a complete understanding of eddy current t e s t
principles, a good technical base for inspection can still be obtained if sections of this
manual requiring such a background a r e skipped.
From an applications point of view, t h e material in this manual provides an inspector
with t h e necessary background t o decide:
1) what probe(s) t o use,
2) what t e s t frequencies a r e suitable,
3) what calibration defects or standards a r e required for signal calibration and/or
simulation,
4) what t e s t s a r e required t o differentiate between significant signals and false
indications,
5) how t o estimate depth of real defects.
To supplement theory, practical examples a r e presented t o develop proficiency in
performing inspections, and t o illustrate how basic principles a r e applied t o diagnose
real signals.

I t rnay b e useful t o review sections 10.1, 10.2 and 10.3 before continuing and t o refer
t o these sections a s necessary while reading this manual.
 FIGURE 1.1
Misinterpreted Signals
 -
CHAPTER 2 EDDY CURRENT FUNDAMENTALS
L
2.1 BASIC EQUIPMENT
Basic eddy current test equipment consists of a n alternating current source
(oscillator), a probe containing a coil connected t o t h e current source, and a
voltmeter which measures t h e voltage change across t h e coil, a s shown in Figure 2.1.

OSCILLATOR VOLTMETER

I
I
cuRR
/ - PROBE
MOVEMENT

"I it T: PLATE
PROBE

CRACK

FIGURE 2.1
Eddy Current Test Equipment

The oscillator must b e capable of generating a t i m e varying (usually sinusoidal)

current at frequencies ranging from about 1 kHz (1000 cycles per second) t o about
2 MHz (2,000,000 cycles per second). Oscillators which operate at higher or lower
frequencies, o r with pulsed currents, a r e used for specialized applications.
The coil within t h e probe is a n insulated copper wire wound onto a suitable form. The
wire diameter, t h e number of turns and coil dimensions a r e all variables which must
b e determined in order t o obtain t h e desired inspection results. Coil variables a r e
discussed in later chapters.
 Depending upon t h e type of inspection, a n eddy current probe can consist of a single
test coil, an excitation coil with a separate receive (sensing) coil, or a n excitation
coil with a Hall-effect sensing detector, as shown in Figure 2.2.

VOLTMETER VOLTMETER VOLTMETER

I OSCILLATOR
-0-
OSCILLATOR OSCILLATOR

, co
SENSING
1L

--

TEST ARTICLE TEST ARTICLE

I
COIL /
EXCITATION EXCITATION
COIL co 1L

(A) SELF- INIIUCTANCE (B) SEND-RECEIVE (C) MAGNETIC REACTION

FIGURE 2.2
Eddy Current Inspection Systems

The voltmeter measures charges in voltage across t h e coil which result from changes
in the electrical conditions and properties of t h e conducting material tested and/or
changes in relative position between t h e coil and t h e material tested. This voltage
change consists of a n amplitude variation and a phase variation relative t o t h e
current passing through t h e coil. The reason for amplitude and phase changes in this
voltage is discussed in Chapter 3.

GENERATION OF EDDY CURRENTS

Introduction
In this section t h e topic of the magnetic field surrounding a coil carrying current is
introduced together with t h e mechanism by which eddy currents a r e induced and how
they a r e measured.
Magnetic Field Around a Coil

Oersted discovered t h a t whenever t h e r e is an electric current, a magnetic field

exists. Consider electric current directed along a wire, a magnetic field is created in
such a direction t h a t if your right-hand thumb points in t h e direction of current, your
curled fingers point in t h e direction of t h e magnetic field. This is t h e "right-hand
rule".
Associated with a magnetic field is magnetic flux density. I t has the s a m e direction
as t h e magnetic field and its magnitude depends upon position and current. It is
.
therefore a field vector quantity and is given t h e symbol 8. Its units in t h e SI system
is t h e tesla (T) o r webers per square m e t r e ( ub / rZ )
The B-field distribution around a long straight wire is shown in Figure 2.3(a). In
Figure 2.3(b) t h e B-field in t h e axial direction of a single turn is shown as a function
of radius. As more windings a r e added, each carrying t h e same current, t h e flux
density rapidly increases and i t s associated distribution is altered.

(a) S t r a i g h t W i r e (b) S i n g l e T u r n C o i l
C m & Flowing into page

FIGURE 2.3
Magnetic Flux Distribution

Flux density varies linearly with electric current in t h e coil, i.e., if coil current
doubles, flux density doubles everywhere. The total magnetic f lux,@p,contained
within t h e loop is t h e product of B and t h e a r e a of t h e coil. The unit in t h e 51 system
for magnetic flux is t h e weber (Wb).
2.2.3 Equations Governing Generation of Eddy Currents

In any electrical circuit, current flow is governed by Ohm's Law and is equal t o t h e
driving (primary circuit) voltage divided by primary circuit impedance.

The eddy current coil is part of the primary circuit. The current passing through t h e
coil normally varies sinusoidally with time and is given by:

where , I , is the peak current value in t h e circuit and w (omega) is t h e frequency in

radiansls ( w equals2nfwhen f is frequency in hertz).

From Oersted's discovery, a magnetic flux ( exists around a coil carrying

.
current (see Figure 2.4) proportional t o t h e number of turns in t h e coil ( N p and the
current ( I p )

PROBE

(primary
circuit)

FIGURE 2.4
Coil Carrying Alternating Current Adjacent to a Test Sample

Faraday's Law states t h a t a voltage (V,) is created or induced in a region of space

when there is a changing magnetic field. When we apply this t o our coil,
 d@
where 2
dt is t h e r a t e of change in 4 with time.
P
Since coil current varies sinusoidally with time, total magnetic flux in t h e coil also
varies sinusoidally,
= @, sin(ut)
+P
where 4, is t h e magnetic flux corresponding t o I ,
The induced voltage a s described by equation 2.4 results in

which also varies periodically with time. If we bring t h e coil close t o a test sample,
Ohm's Law s t a t e s t h a t if there is a driving voltage ( V , ) and t h e sample's
impedance is finite, current will flow,

where I, ,
is current flowing through t h e sample, V is induced voltage and 2, is
t h e sample's impedance or opposition t o t h e flow of current.
These induced currents a r e known as eddy currents because of their circulatory paths.
According t o Lenz's Law, they, in turn, generate their own magnetic field which
opposes t h e primary field,

and
where 6~ is t h e equilibrium magnetic flux surrounding t h e coil in t h e presence of a
t e s t sample.
The flow of eddy currents results in resistive (Ohmic) losses and a decrease in
magnetic flux. This is reflected as a decrease in probe impedance. In equation form,

and

Equation 2.9 indicates a coil's impedance is a function of t h e magnetic field

surrounding i t and in turn t h e magnetic field is governed by induced current in t h e
specimen (equations 2.8 and 2.7). The relations between probe impedance and sample
properties will be derived in Chapter 3.
To summarize, flux is s e t up by passing alternating current through t h e test coil.
When this coil is brought close t o a conductive sample, eddy currents a r e induced. In
addition, t h e magnetic flux associated with the eddy currents oppose t h e coil's
magnetic flux, thereby decreasing n e t flux. This results in a change in coil impedance
and voltage drop. It is t h e opposition between t h e primary (coil) and secondary (eddy
 current) fields t h a t provides t h e basis for extracting information during eddy current
testing.
It should be noted t h a t if a sample is ferromagnetic, equation 2.9 still applies but t h e J
magnetic flux is strengthened despite opposing eddy current effects. The high
magnetic permeability of ferromagnetic materials distinguishes them from non-
ferromagnetic materials and strongly influences eddy current t e s t parameters.
Ferromagnetic specimen inspection is discussed in Chapter 9 and unless specified t h e
rest of t h e manual is restricted t o non-ferromagnetic materials.

2.3 FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF EDDY CURRENT FLOW

Eddy currents a r e closed loops of induced current circulating in planes perpendicular
t o t h e magnetic flux. They normally travel parallel t o t h e coil's winding and parallel
t o t h e surface. Eddy current flow is limited t o t h e a r e a of t h e inducing magnetic
field.
Test frequency determines depth of penetration into t h e specimen; a s frequency is
increased, penetration decreases and t h e eddy current distribution becomes denser
near t h e specimen's surface. Test frequency also a f f e c t s t h e sensitivity t o changes in
material properties and defects.
Figure 2.5(a) shows t h e algebraic relationships and Figure 2.5(b) t h e oscilloscope
display of eddy current and magnetic field distribution with depth into t h e specimen.
Both t h e eddy currents and magnetic flux g e t weaker with depth because of "skin
effect". In addition t o this attenuation, t h e eddy currents lag in phase with depth.
Eddy currentst phase lag is t h e key parameter t h a t makes eddy current testing a
useful NDT method. The parameters skin depth and phase lag a r e discussed in t h e
next section.

FIGURE 2.5
Eddy Current and Magnetic Flux Distribution With Depth Into a Conductor
SKIN EFFECT
Eddy currents induced by a changing magnetic field concentrate near t h e surface
adjacent t o t h e excitation coil. The depth of penetration decreases with t e s t
frequency and is a function of electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of
t h e specimen. This phenomenon is known as t h e skin e f f e c t and is analogous t o t h e
situation in terrestrial heat conduction where daily surface temperature fluctuations
a r e not appreciable below t h e earth's surface. Skin e f f e c t arises as follows: t h e eddy
currents flowing in t h e t e s t object at any depth produce magnetic fields which oppose
t h e primary field, thus reducing net magnetic flux and causing a decrease in current
flow a s depth increases. Alternatively, eddy currents near t h e surface can be viewed
a s shielding t h e coil's magnetic field thereby weakening t h e magnetic field at greater
depths and reducing induced currents.
The equation for flow of induced currents is

where J is current density, u is conductivity, IJ is magnetic permeability and ~2

is a differential operator of second order.
For a semi-inf inite (thick) conductor t h e solution t o t h e above equation is

where J,/ J, is t h e ratio of eddy current density J , at depth x t o t h e surface

density Jo , and e = 2.71 8 is t h e base of natural logarithms. B is given by x / 6
where 6 = ( ~ f l J 0- 1) 1 2 s
t h e standard depth of penetration (see next section).

Equation 2.12(a) can be separated into t w o components:

which describes t h e exponential decrease in eddy current density with depth, and

denoting t h e increasing t i m e or phase lag of t h e sinusoidal signal with depth.

2.4.1 Standard Depth of Penetration
Figure 2.6 illustrates t h e change in eddy current density in a semi-infinite conductor.
Eddy current density decreases exponentially with depth.
-

FIGURE 2.6
Eddy Current and Magnetic Flux Distribution With Depth in a Thick Plate

The depth at which eddy current density has decreased t o l/e o r 36.8% of t h e surface
density is called t h e standard depth of penetration. The word 'standard' denotes plane
wave electromagnetic field excitation within t h e t e s t sample (conditions which a r e
rarely achieved in practice). The standard depth of penetration is given by

, inches

where F is electrical resistivity in microhm-centimetres, f is test frequency in hertz,

and ur is relative magnetic permeability (dimensionless)*.

* See Chapter 9 for a description of electrical and magnetic properties. IJ ,' V A ,

incremental permeability, a t zero biassing magnetization flux.
 The skin depth equation is strictly t r u e only for infinitely thick material and planar
magnetic fields. Using t h e standard depth, 6 ,calculated from t h e above equation
makes i t a material/test parameter rather than a t r u e measure of penetration.
2.4.2 Depth of Penetration in Finite Thickness Samples
Sensitivity t o defects depends on eddy current density at defect location. Although
eddy currents penetrate deeper than one standard depth of penetration they decrease
rapidly with depth. At two standard depths of penetration ( 2 6 ) , eddy current
density has decreased t o ( 1/ c ) or 13.5% of t h e surface density. At three depths
( 3 6 ) t h e eddy current density is down t o only 5% of t h e surface density. However,
one should keep in mind these values only apply t o thick samples (thickness, t > 5 6 )
and planar magnetic excitation fields. Planar field conditions require large diameter
probes (diameter > 10t ) in plate testing or long coils (length > 5 t ) in tube
testing. Real test coils will rarely m e e t these requirements since they would possess
low defect sensitivity. For thin plate or tube samples, current density drops off less
than calculated from equation 2.12(b) as shown in Figure 2.7. For solid cylinders t h e
overriding factor is a decrease t o zero at t h e centre resulting from geometry effects
as shown in Fig. 2.7(c) and discussed in Section 7.3.1.
One should also note, t h a t t h e magnetic flux is attenuated across t h e sample, but not
completely. Although t h e currents a r e restricted t o flow wihtin specimen boundaries,
t h e magnetic field extends into t h e air space beyond. This allows t h e inspection of
multi-layer components separated by a n air space.

0 .2 4 .8 .B 1.0
-t
1.

(a) PLATE (LARGE COIL. 0 > 101)

---
-EQUATION 2 I 2 (b) 1, = EDDY CURRENT OENSITY AT SURFACE
ACTUAL
J ,OR J , = EDDY CURRENT DENS l T I AT LOCAT ON
l
r OR r BELOW THE SURFACE
r t

PLATE GEOYETRY 1 1

0 .2 4 .6 .8 1.0
- I
TUBE U ( O ROO GEOMETRY
r0
( r , =O FOR ROO)
(c) ROD (ENCIRCLING COIL. t >S rp)

HGURE 2.7
Eddy Current Distribution With Depth in Various Samples
 The sensitivity t o a subsurface d e f e c t depends on t h e eddy current density at t h a t
depth, i t is therefore important t o know t h e effective depth of penetration. The
effective depth of penetration is arbitrarily defined as t h e depth a t which eddy
current density decreases t o 5% of t h e surface density. For large probes and thick d
samples, this depth is about t h r e e standard depths of penetration. Unfortunately, for
most components and practical probe sizes, this depth will b e less than 3 S t h e eddy
currents being attenuated more than predicted by t h e skin depth equation. The e f f e c t
of probe diameter on t h e decrease in eddy current density o r defect sensitivity with
depth is discussed in Section 5.3.1.
2.4.3 Standard Phase Lag
The signal produced by a flaw depends on both amplitude and phase of t h e currents
being obstructed. A small surface defect and large internal defect c a n have a similar
e f f e c t on t h e magnitude of test coil impedance. However, because of t h e increasing
phase lag with depth, t h e r e will be a characteristic difference in t h e test coil
impedance vector. This e f f e c t allows location and extent of a defect to b e
determined.

Phase lag is derived from equation 2.12(c) for infinitely thick material. I t represents
a phase angle lag of x / Gradians between t h e sinusoidal eddy currents at t h e surface
and those below t h e surface. i t is denoted by t h e symbol 8 (beta) and is given by:
radians

or B = x / b x 57 degrees (2.14b)

where x is distance below t h e surface in t h e s a m e units a s 6 .

90s i n (wt)

57"
1
I

I
1 1 4O
1
-p (DEGREES)

p = -g
X
x 5 7 , DEGREES

FIGURE 2.8
Eddy Current Phase Lag Variation With Depth in Thick Samples
 When x is equal t o one standard depth of penetration, phase lag is 57" or one radian.
This means t h a t t h e eddy current flowing below t h e surface, a t one standard depth of
L penetration, lag t h e surface currents by 57'. At two standard depths of penetration
they lag t h e surface currents by 114.O. This is illustrated in Figure 2.8.

2.4.4 Phase Lag in Finite Thickness Samples

For this samples, eddy current phase decreases slightly less rapidly with depth than
stated above. See Figure 2.9(a), (b) and (c) for the plots of phase lag with depth for a
plate, tube, and cylinder, respectively. The phase lag illustrated in these plots does
not change significantly with coil diameter or length. For thick samples and practical
probe sizes, equation 2.14 is sufficiently accurate.

(a) FLATE

( c ) ROO
-Pa'Pr
-
---
PLATE GEOMETRY

TUBE AN0 ROO ( I , = 0 ) GEOMETRY

= PHASE WITH OEPTH I, OR r,RELATIVE

1 0 SURFACE CURRENT
ACTUAL CURVES
I

CALCULATED. E O U A T l O N 2 . 1 4 ( b )
1

FIGURE 2.9
Eddy Current Phase Lag in Various Samples
Phase lag can be visualized as a shift in t i m e of t h e sinusoidally varying current
flowing below t h e surface. This was illustrated in Figure 2.5. Phase lag plays a key
role in the analysis of eddy current test signals. I t will b e used throughout t h e manual .-
t o link theory and observations. I t should not b e misinterpreted or confused with t h e
phase angle between voltage and current in AC theory. Both t h e voltage and current
(and magnetic field) have this phase shift or lag with depth.

SUMMARY

Eddy current testing is based on inducing electrical currents in t h e material being

inspected and observing t h e interaction between these currents and t h e material.
This process occurs a s follows: When a periodically varying magnetic field intersects
a n electrical conductor, eddy currents a r e induced according t o Faraday's and Ohm's
Laws. The induced current (known a s eddy currents because of their circulatory
paths) generate their own magnetic field which opposes t h e excitation field. The
equilibrium field is reduced resulting in a change of coil impedance. By monitoring
coil impedance, t h e electrical, magnetic and geometrical properties of t h e sample
can be measured. Eddy currents a r e closed loops of induced current circulating in
planes perpendicular t o t h e magnetic flux. They normally travel parallel t o t h e coil's
winding and parallel t o t h e surface. Eddy current flow is limited t o t h e a r e a of the
inducing magnetic field.
Depth of penetration into a material depends on i t s electrical resistivity, magnetic
permeability and on t e s t frequency. The basic equation of ET is t h e standard depth of
penetration given by

where p is electrical resistivity, microhm-centimetres;

f is test frequency, hertz;
and is relative magnetic permeability , dimensionless.
IJ,

It s t a t e s t h a t in thick materials eddy current density decreases t o 37% of t h e surface

density a t a depth of one standard depth of penetration. In most eddy current tests,
especially with surface probes, t h e actual eddy current density (at a depth equal t o
t h a t calculated by equation 2.13a) is much less than 37%.
Eddy currents also lag in phase with depth into t h e material. Phase lag depends on t h e
same material properties t h a t govern depth of penetration and is given by
B = x/6 = x , radians (2.14a)
50-

where x is distance below surface, mm.

Phase lag is t h e parameter t h a t makes i t possible t o determine t h e depth of a defect.
It also allows discrimination between defect signals and false indications. It is t h e key
parameter in eddy current testing.
2.6 WORKED EXAMPLES
2.6.1 Standard Depth of Penetration and Phase Lag

PRoBLEM:(a) Calculate t h e standard depth of penetration in a thick 304 sst

sample, a t a test frequency of 100 kHz.

(b) Determine t h e eddy current phase lag at a depth of 1.5 mm in

304 sst at 100 kHz.

SOLUTION: 304 sst properties: P = 72 microhm - centimetres

and Mr - 1

(a) from equation 2.13(a),

Therefore t h e standard depth of penetration is 1.3 mm.

(b) from equation 2.14(b),
8 = x / b x 5 7

=-
1.3
x 57 - 6 4 degrees

Therefore t h e phase lag is 64 degrees.

 CHAPTER 3 - ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND PROBE IMPEDANCE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Eddy current testing consists of monitoring t h e flow and distribution of eddy currents
in test material. This is achieved indirectly by monitoring probe impedance during a
test. An understanding of impedance and associated electrical quantities is therefore
imperative for a fundamental appreciation of eddy current behaviour.
The first two sections review t h e electrical quantities important in eddy current
testing. This is followed by presentation of a model of a test coil coupled t o test
material and i t s equivalent electrical circuit. The equivalent circuit approach permits
derivation of simplified impedance diagrams t o show t h e e f f e c t of test and material
parameters on probe impedance in graphical form. Once t h e simple impedance
diagram concepts of this chapter a r e understood, t h e more complex diagrams of
subsequent chapters should present little difficulty.
3.2 IMPEDANCE EQUATIONS AND DEFWITIONS
All information about a sample is obtained through changes in electrical
characteristics of t h e coil/sample combination. Therefore a basic understanding of
electrical quantities is important for eddy current inspection.
RESISTANCE: (symbol: R, units: ohm, R)
Opposition t o t h e flow of electrical current is called resistance. It is
constant for both direct and alternating current. The electrical -
component is called a resistor.
V = IR Ohm's Law (3.1)
where, V is voltage drop across resistor (volt), and
I is current through resistor (ampere)

INDUCTANCE: (symbol: L, units: henry, H)

The property of a n electric circuit by virtue of which a varying
current induces an electromotive force in t h a t circuit (self) or in a
neighbouring circuit (mutual) is called inductance. The electrical
component is called an inductor.
total flux linkages
L = current through coil
where, N is number of coil turns
Op is magnetic flux (weber)
I is current (ampere)
kl is a geometric factor
2
A is coil's planar surface a r e a (arm )
a is coil's axial length (mm)

The self-inductance of a coil is proportional t o coil windings squared ( N~ ) and

planar surface a r e a (A), and inversely proportional t o coil length (It) .
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE: (symbol: XL, units: ohm, nj
Opposition t o changes in alternating current flow through a coil is
called inductive reactance.

X L = WL (3.4a)
or = 2 ~ f L (3.4b)
*L
where, f is frequency of alternating current (hertz), and w is angular
frequency (radiansfsecond)

CAPACITIVE REACTANCE (symbol: X c , units: ohm, R)

Opposition t o changes in alternating voltage across a capacitor is
called capacitive reactance.
Eddy current coil capacitive reactance is normally negligible.
However, capacitance can be important when considering impedance
of probe cables (Section 5.9 and 7.2.5).

where, C is capacitance (farad)

IMPEDANCE: (symbol: 2, units: ohm, !J)
The total opposition t o alternating current flow is called
IMPEDANCE. For a coil,

121 (3.6)

and

where 12 1 is magnitude of 2, and is phase of Z (described in next section).

SINUSOIDS, PHAX)RS AND ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
.4
In a direct current (DC) circuit, such as a battery and light bulb, current and voltage
a r e described completely by their respective magnitudes, Figure 3.l(a). Analysis of
alternating current (AC) circuits is more complex. Since voltage and current
amplitude vary with time, t h e phase (or t i m e delay) relationship between them must
also be taken into account. A typical A C circuit, an inductor in series with a resistor,
is presented in Figure 3.l(b). This is a simplified model of a probe assembly: t h e
inductor is t h e reactive part of t h e assembly (coil) while t h e resistor models both coil
wire and cable resistance. Figure 3 . l k ) shows voltage across t h e inductor ( V L )
leads t h e current (I) by 90, while voltage across t h e resistor ( V R ) is in phase with
current. Since t h e current is common t o both inductor and resistor, i t is possible t o
use current as a point of reference. Hence, we deduce t h e voltage across t h e inductor
leads t h e voltage across t h e resistor by 90'.
If one measures t h e voltage drop, V T , across both t h e inductor and resistor, we
find V T leads current ( o r V R ) by an angle less than 90, a s shown in Figure 3.l(d).
To evaluate t h e t o t a l voltage V T , we add vectorially t h e separate voltages V R and vL,

where j is a mathematical operator (rotates a vector CCW by 90)

or V T I R e i n ( w t+O) + j IuL s i n ( w t +~ / 2 ) (3.9b)
4

Representing voltage waveforms as in Figure 3.l(d) or equation 3.9(b) can be both

t i m e consuming and confusing. A simpler voltage representation is available by means
of phasor diagrams. In phasor diagrams t h e voltage is represented by i t s peak value
(amplitude) and phase shift ( 0 ) relative t o t h e current. The two terms in equation
3.9(b) both contain a n amplitude and phase shift s o they can be represented by
phasors. The first term's amplitude is IR and i t s phase shift is 0. The amplitude of
t h e second t e r m is I w L and i t s phase shift is / 2 or 90'. Each phasor can be
represented by a n arrow starting at t h e origin. The phasorts amplitude is indicated by
t h e length of t h e arrow OP and t h e phase shift by t h e direction of t h e arrow, see
Figure 3.l(e). Phasors a r e displayed graphically with t h e resistive component
( V R ) , having a phase shift 8 = 0 , along t h e horizontal axis. As e increases t h e

shift 8 -
phasor rotates counter-clockwise. The reactive cornponent ( V ) , having a phase
90, will be represented along t h e vertical axis.
Current is common t o both voltage components and since V I E , t h e voltage graph of
Figure 3.l(e) can be converted t o a n impedance graph display, a s in Figure 3.1 (f). If
this approach is applied t o eddy current testing, i t is found t h a t any changes in
resistance or inductive reactance will cause a change in the position of t h e end of t h e
vector (point P) which represents t h e total impedance vector.
 DIRECT CURRENT

1' "R
V = 1R

I CURRENT AND VOLTLBE C U I I

(4) DIRECT CURRENT C I R C U I T

ALTERNATING CURRENT

CURRENT MUST BE DESCRIBED BY

AMPLITUDE AND PHASE

P VL LEADS I r v 90'

( b ) ALTERNATING CURRENT C I R C U I T

I NOUC 1 I VE
REACTANC
WF,

FIGURE 3.1
Representation of D i m t Current and Altanating Current Circuit Parameters
 To obtain t h e reactive and resistive components from this graph requires knowledge
of trigonometry.
Reactive component: XL= WL = 121 sin e (3.10)
Resistive component: R = 121 c o s 8 (3.11)
Amplitude of impedance: IZI = dlt2 + xL2
Phase angle: 3 = A r c t a n XL/R (3.7)

Note t h e x axis component represents pure resistance (phase shift = 0) while t h e y

axis component represents pure inductive reactance (phase shift = + 90). In these
calculations i t is assumed coil capacitance is negligible.

3.4 MODEL OF PROBE IN PRESENCE OF TEST MATERIAL

The test probe contains a coil which when placed on o r close t o a t e s t sample can b e
considered as t h e primary winding of a transformer. The field c r e a t e d by alternating
current in t h e coil induces eddy currents in t h e test sample which acts as a single
turn secondary winding, N g = 1 Figure 3.2(b). Eddy currents align to produce a
magnetic field which tends t o weaken t h e surrounding n e t magnetic flux 4 p *
according to Lenz's Law. #E

,-------a
I
-- SECONDARY
' V
s RECEIVE COIL

FIGURE 3.2
Model of a Coil with Test Object
 There a r e two methods of sensing changes in t h e secondary current, I s .The
"impedance method" of eddy current testing consists of monitoring t h e voltage drop
across t h e primary coil ( v p ' I p Z p ) The impedance is altered by t h e
load of t h e secondary of t h e transformer. Therefore, changes in secondary resistance, Rs ,
,
or inductance L can be measured a s changes in v
P
The "send-receive1' method of eddy current testing uses two coils. Eddy current flow
in t h e sample is altered by defects and these variations a r e detected by monitoring
t h e voltage across a secondary receive coil, see Figure 3.2(c).

3.5 SIMPLIFIED IMPEDANCE DIAGRAMS

3.5.1 Derivation of Probe Impedance for Probe/Sample Combination
We now consider how changes in t h e test sample a f f e c t coil impedance on t h e
impedance graph display.
From the previous section t h e probe and t e s t sample can b e modelled a s a
transformer with a multi-turn primary (coil) and single turn secondary (sample),
Figure 3.3(a). This circuit can be simplified t o an equivalent circuit where t h e
secondary circuit load is reflected as a resistive load in parallel with t h e coil's
inductive reactance, Figure 3.3(b). This circuit is an approximate model of a real coil
adjacent t o a conductor. I t is assumed t h a t all of t h e magnetic flux from the primary
coil links t h e t e s t sample; t h e coupling is perfect (100%). I t is also assumed that there
is no skin depth attenuation or phase lag across t h e sample thickness.

( c ) EQUIVALENT SERIES C I R C U I T

FIGURE 3.3
Equivalent Circuits
The equivalent circuit concept can b e used t o obtain simplified impedance diagrams
applicable t o eddy current testing. These diagrams serve as a n introduction t o t h e
more detailed diagrams which include variations caused by t h e skin effect. The
coilfsample circuit model can be transformed into t h e simpler series circuit by t h e
following mathematical manipulations. The load resistance R, can b e transfered
from t h e secondary back t o t h e primary winding b e multiplying i t by t h e turns ratio
squared, ( N / N 1 , Figure 3.3(b).
The total impedance of this parallel circuit can b e evaluated and transformed into a n
equivalent series circuit a s follows:

where z1 = N~R,

and 22 '~XO,
w h e r e Xo- wLo, c o i l inductive reactance in air.

~ N
8
x~0 R
Therefore I

P np2 n P + j x o
which transforms t o

This can be viewed as a series combination, in t h e primary circuit, of resistance RL

and inductive reactance X p or

The series circuit in Figure 3.3(c) is therefore fully equivalent t o t h e parallel one of
Figure 3.3(b). Rp can b e considered a s coil wire and cable resistance while Z p - R L + j x p
is t h e total impedance of t h e probefsample combination.

When t h e probe is far from t h e sample (probe in air), R, is very large and by
substituting R , into equation 3.12a results in
RL-0, Xp-Xo and Z p m X 0
 The above results can b e obtained by removing component N ~ R , from
Figure 3.3(b), since R a m OD implies an open circuit.
L
One last transformation in t h e equation is required before impedance graphs can be
Co -
obtained. Equation 3.12(a) c a n be simplified by setting
XoG

where G - 1/ N
2
is equivalent circuit conductance.
Substitution in 3.12(a) yields

Normalizirrg with respect t o X o , the coil's inductive reactance when far removed
from the sample (coil in air) results in

By varying C,, in equation 3.13, from 0 t o infinity t h e impedance curve of

-
L'

Figure 3.4 is obtained. The impedance locus is t h a t of a semi-circle with center a t X / x =, %

and R L / X o 0 ; i t s radius is 112. With t h e help of equation 3.13 and Figure 3.4,
impedance changes can be related t o changes in t h e sample characteristics.

NORMAL l ZED R E S I STANCE

FIGURE 3.4
Impedance Graph Display
3.5.2 Correlation Between Coil Impedance and Sample Properties
The e f f e c t of test parameter variations on probe impedance c a n be derived from
equation 3.13. Each paramater is substituted in turn into C o-X ,/N;R,; if a n
increase in t h e parameter results in a n increase in C,, t h e operatlng point (position
on impedance diagram) moves DOWN t h e impedance curve, if Co decrease, t h e
operating point moves UP t h e impedance curve. These correlations a r e useful in
obtaining a qualitative appreciation of t h e e f f e c t of t h e various test parameters. It is
also useful t o know t h a t probe/sample e f f e c t s can b e derived from t h e simple
equivalent parallel circuit where t h e sample is t r e a t e d as a resistor in parallel with
a n inductor (coil). The complete e f f e c t can then b e obtained by adding t h e e f f e c t of
'phase lag', which will be t r e a t e d in l a t e r chapters.
Study of equation 3.13 reveals t h e following:
I. An increase in R E results in a decrease in Co.. Therefore a n increase in
resistance t o eddy current flow moves t h e operatmg point, P, UP t h e impedance
curve (along t h e semi-circle), see Figure 3.5(a).

where, P is electrical resistivity, 1 is eddy current flow distance and A is cross-

sectional a r e a t o current flow.

Therefore, p - c o n s t a n t x RE

An increase in electrical resistivity will move t h e operating point UP t h e

impedance curve. The opposite is t r u e f o r a n increase in electrical conductivity.
See Figure 3.5(a).
3. For thin wall tubes o r plates of thickness t,

and for constant probe o r t u b e diameter, D, and coil width, w,

An increase in t u b e wall (or plate thickness) will move t h e operating point

DOWN t h e impedance curve, see Figure 3.5(b).
4. Co - 2
uLo/NpRs = c o n s t a n t x U

f o r constant sample properties.

An increase in test frequency will move t h e operating point DOWN t h e
impedance curve, see Figure 3.5k).
5. Lo - c onstant x D ;
or tube diameter squared.
probe inductance increases proportional t o probe

Also R , - pn D / t w -
Substituting Lo and R into C o -
c o n s t a n t x D , for constant thickness, t, and coil width, w.
w L ~ / N ~ R results
, in C o - c o n s t a n t x D.
An increase in probe diameter or tube drameter will move t h e operating point
DOWN t h e impedance curve, see Figure 3.5(d).
6. In t h e equivalent circuit derivation perfect coupling was assumed for sake of
simplification. However, it can be shown t h a t when mutual coupling between
coil and sample is decreased, t h e impedance point t r a c e s smaller semi-circles
a s C increases from 0 t o infinity, see Figure 3.5(e).

@
f!L
DSURFACE
PROBE
.L,

DECREASING F I L L FACTOR
OR INCREASING L I F T - O F F

0 0.5 (e) /X(

(dl

FIGURE 3.5
Simplified Impedance Diagrams
SUMMARY
d
The impedance method of eddy current testing consists of monitoring t h e voltage
drop across a test coil. The impedance has resistive and inductive components; t h e
impedance magnitude is calculated from the equation

1 , ohms

and t h e impedance phase is calculated from

0 = Arctan wL -
R degrees (3.7)
The voltage across t h e t e s t coil is V = IZ where I is t h e current through t h e coil and Z
is t h e impedance.
A sample's resistance t o t h e flow of eddy currents is reflected a s a resistive load and
is equivalent t o a resistance in parallel t o t h e coil inductive reactance. This load
results in a resistive and inductive impedance change in t h e test coil. Coil impedance
can be displayed on normalized impedance diagrams. These a r e two-dimensional plots
with t h e inductive reactance displayed on t h e vertical axis and resistance on t h e
horizontal axis as in Figure 3.6.

NORMAL l ZEO
l NDUCTANCE
REACTANCE

NORMAL1 ZED R E S I STANCE, RL

-
4 7

FIGURE 3.6
Impedance Graph Display
 With this display we c a n analyze t h e e f f e c t of sample and test parameters on coil
impedance. The equivalent circuit derivation of coil impedance is useful for a
qualitative understanding of t h e e f f e c t of various t e s t parameters. I t is valid only for
non-ferromagnetic material and for t h e condition of no skin depth attenuation o r
phase lag across t h e sample. (Ferromagnetic materials will be covered in Section
9.4).
Note t h a t all t e s t parameters result in a semicircle display as they increase o r
decrease. A resistance increase t o t h e eddy current flow or increase of sample's
electrical resistivity moves t h e operating point UP t h e impedance diagram, i.e.,
increase in coil inductance and a change in coil resistance.

An increase in a sample's electrical conductivity, thickness o r tube diameter, moves

t h e operating point DOWN t h e impedance curve. An increase in t e s t frequency or
probe diameter also moves t h e operating point DOWN t h e impedance curve. Although
not shown in t h e above figure, a decrease in fill-factor or increase in lift-off results
in a decrease in semicircle radius and smaller change in coil impedance.
In some test requirements it is advantageous t o operate at specific locations on t h e
impedance diagram. By choosing t h e appropriate t e s t parameters this is usually
possible.
3.7 WORKED EXAMPLES
Probe Impedance in Air
PROBLEM: An eddy current t e s t is carried out at a test frequency of 50 kHz. Coil
resistance is 15 ohms while i t s inductance is 60 microhenries.
a) What is t h e inductive reactance of t h e test coil?
b) What is the impedance of t h e test coil?
c) What is t h e angle, fl ,between t h e total impedance vector and t h e
resistance vector?

SOLUTION:
a) XL
XL -- 2 nfL
18.8 ohms
-(2 n ) ( S O x lo3) (60 x )

= Arctan Arctan -
18 8 = A r c t a n
15
8 = 51.4 d e g r e e s
 Probe Impedance Adjacent t o Sample
PROBLEM: An eddy current test is carried out on brass using a surface probe at 4
50 kHz. Coil resistance in air is 15 ohms and i t s inductance in air is 60
microhenries. Probe impedance with t h e probe on t h e brass sample is
measured as z p = 24.5 ohms and 0 = 35 degrees.

Calculate: a) X , inductive reactance

and b) ItL, resistive load

SOLUTION: a) X = Z sine
P P
= 2 4 . 5 sin 3 5 ' - 1 4 . 1 ohms
b) RL = Z c o s e
P R~~
-
= 2 4 . 5 c o a 35' - 1 5 . 0 = 5 . 1 ohms
3.7.3 Voltage - Current Relationship
PROBLEM: For t h e above probe impedance problem calculate voltage drop across
t h e probe if test current is 100 milliamperes.
SOLUTION: Probe impedance 1 2 1 = 24.5 ohms
Ohm's Law states t h a t V = 11'2 I

theref ore, v = (0.10) (24.5) = 2.45 volts.

Voltage across t h e probe is 2.45 volts.

 CHAPTER 4 - INSTRUMENTArnN

4.1 INTRODUCTION
All t h e information about a test part is t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e test coil through t h e
magnetic field surrounding it. T h e impedance eddy current method monitors voltage
drop across t h e primary coil, V p I p Z p ; as coil impedance changes s o will t h e
voltage across t h e coil if current remains reasonably constant. The send-receive eddy
c u r r e n t method monitors voltage developed across a sensing coil (or Hall e f f e c t
d e t e c t o r ) placed close t o t h e excitation coil, see Figure 2.2.
In most inspections, probe impedance (or voltage) changes only slightly as t h e probe
passes a d e f e c t , typically less t h a n 1%. This small change is difficult t o d e t e c t by
measuring absolute impedance or voltage. Special instruments have been developed
incorporating various methods of detecting and amplifying small impedance changes.
T h e main functions of a n eddy current instrument a r e illustrated in t h e block diagram
of Figure 4.1. A sine wave oscillator generates sinusoidal current, at a specified
frequency, t h a t passes through t h e test coils. Since t h e impedance of t w o coils is
never exactly equal, balancing is required t o eliminate t h e voltage difference
between them. Most eddy current instruments achieve this through an AC bridge or
by subtracting a voltage equal t o t h e unbalance voltage. In general they c a n t o l e r a t e
a n impedance mismatch of 5%. O n c e balanced, t h e presence of a d e f e c t in t h e
vicinity of o n e coil c r e a t e s a small unbalanced signal which is then amplified.

r----

1
Q
DsCa METER

TRANSFORMER

FIGURE 4.1
Block Diagram of Eddy Curtent Instrument
 Since t h e sinusoidal unbalance voltage signal is too difficult and inefficient t o
analyse, i t is converted t o a direct current (DC) signal retaining t h e amplitude and
phase characteristics of t h e A C signal. This is normally achieved by resolving t h e AC .&
signal into quadrature components and then rectifying them while retaining t h e
appropriate polarity. In general purpose instruments, these signals a r e normally
displayed on X-Y monitors. Simpler instruments, such a s crack detectors, however,
have a meter t o display only t h e change in voltage amplitude. To decrease electrical
instrument noise, filtering is used at t h e signal output; however, this decreases t h e
frequency response and thereby restricts t h e inspection speed.
The most troublesome parameter in eddy current testing is lift-off (probe-to-
specimen spacing). A small change in lift-off c r e a t e s a large output signal. The
various methods used t o decrease this e f f e c t a r e discussed in t h e individual sections
on specific eddy current instruments.

BRIDGE CIRCUITS

Most eddy current instruments use a n A C bridge t o sense t h e slight impedance

changes between t h e coils or between a single coil and reference impedance. In this
section t h e important characteristics of bridge balance a r e discussed.
4.2.1 Simple Bridge Circuit
A common bridge circuit is shown in general form in Figure 4.2, t h e a r m s being
indicated a s impedance of unspecified sorts. The detector is represented by a
voltmeter. Balance is secured by adjustments of one or more of t h e bridge arms.
Balance is indicated by zero response of t h e detector, which means t h a t points A and
C a r e a t t h e same potential (have t h e s a m e instantaneous voltage). Current will flow u
through t h e detector (voltmeter) if points A and C on t h e bridge arms a r e a t different
voltage levels (there is a difference in voltage drop from B t o A and B t o C). Current
may flow in either direction, depending on whether A or C is a t higher potential.

FIGURE 4.2
Common Bridge Circuit
If t h e bridge is m a d e up of four impedance arms, having inductive r e a c t a n c e and
resistive components, t h e voltage from R t o A must equal t h e voltage from B t o C in
both amplitude and phase f o r t h e bridge t o b e balanced.
At balance,

and 11Z3 - I ~ Z ~
from which t h e following relationship is obtained:

Equation 4.1 states t h a t t h e r a t i o of impedances of one pair of adjacent a r m s must

equal t h e r a t i o of impedances of t h e o t h e r pair of adjacent a r m s f o r bridge balance.
If t h e bridge was made up of four resistance arms, bridge balance would occur if t h e
magnitude of t h e resistors satisfies equation 4.1 (with 2 1 replaced with R l,etc.).
However, if t h e impedance components a r e eddy current probes consisting of both
inductive r e a c t a n c e and resistance, t h e magnitude and phase of t h e impedance
vectors must satisfy equation 4. I.

In practice, this implies t h e r a t i o of inductive r e a c t a n c e of o n e pair of adjacent a r Ins

must equal t h e r a t i o of inductive r e a c t a n c e of t h e o t h e r pair of adjacent arms; t h e
s a m e being t r u e f o r t h e resistive component of impedance.
Figure 4.2 and equation 4.1 can b e used to illustrate t h e characteristics 'figure 8'
signal of a differential probe. If

1 Z3
G' ' Zqs point C is at a higher potential than point A.

This implies t h a t when 1 increases (i.e., coil moving across a d e f e c t )

with ~2,236 Z4constant, t h e bridge voltage unbalance increases, a n d t h e opposite
happens when Z3 increases. I t is this bridge unbalance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t results
in a plus-minus o r 'figure 8' signal a s t h e differential probe moves across a localized
defect. This signal occurs independent of whether t h e t w o coils a r e wound in
opposition o r in addition.
Typical Bridge Circuit in Eddy C u r r e n t Instruments
Figure 4.3 illustrates a typical A C bridge used in eddy current instruments. I t is
similar t o t h e bridge in Figure 4.2 e x c e p t f o r t w o additional arms. In this bridge t h e
probe coils a r e placed in parallel with variable resistors. The balancing, o r rnatching
of voltage vector phase and amplitude, is achieved by varying these resistors until a
null is achieved. Potentiometer R 2 balances t h e reactive component of t h e coils t o
make the phase angle of each coil circuit equal. Potentiometer R balances t h e
resultant voltage with a n equal voltage amplitude t o null t h e instantaneous voltage
between R 1 and R 2 *
 FIGURE 4.3
Typical Bridge Circuit Used in Eddy Current Instruments

The inductive voltage drop across each coil is equalized by controlling the current
passing through t h e coils. This is done by varying potentiometer R2. However, when
t h e test coil inductance differs significantly from reference coil inductance,
potentiometer 1 2 will have t o be rotated t o one extremity. This means less current
passes through one coil making i t less sensitive than t h e other coil. When this occurs, 4
a distorted (unsymmetrical) signal results if a differential probe is used. In addition,
t h e common cable lead carries t h e unbalanced current, resulting in cable noise,
especially if t h e cable is not properly shielded and grounded.
In t h e Figure 4.3 circuit, t h e output voltage for large ( > 10% ) off-null (of f-balance)
conditions is a nonlinear function of t h e change in coil impedance. However, for
defect detection, close to balance, this discrepancy is small.
Bridge Circuit in Crack Detectors
Portable eddy current instruments a r e often used t o inspect for surface defects. A
typical crack detector circuit is shown in Figure 4.4. An oscillator supplies a n
alternating current t o a n AC Bridge, containing a single eddy current probe coil a s
one arm of t h e bridge. A capacitor is connected in parallel with t h e coil so t h e L-C
(inductance-capacitance) circuit is near resonance. When t h e coil is placed on a t e s t
sample, t h e bridge is unbalanced and t h e pointer on t h e meter swings off-scale. The
bridge can be balanced by adjusting potentiometer R .
 FIGURE 4.4
Simplified Circuit of Crack Detector

4.3 RESONANCE CIRCUIT AND EQUATIONS

L
Probe-cable resonance must b e considered when operating at high t e s t frequencies
and/or using long probe cables. In addition, crack detectors a r e purposely designed t o
operate close t o resonance. This section contains basic information about resonant
(tuned) circuits.
If a capacitor is connected in parallel with t h e test coil (inductor), there is a unique
frequency at which t h e inductance-capacitance (L-C) circuit resonates. At this
frequency t h e circuit is said t o b e tuned. Under this condition t h e output voltage, for
a given rneasurement, is maximum. A capacitor in parallel with the eddy current
probe converts t h e circuit of Figure 3.3(c) t o t h a t of Figure 4.5.

FIGURE 4.5
Parallel L C Circuit
At resonance,

hence 2 -- when R - 0

If resistance, R, is negligible compared to Xp and X c resonance occurs when

Since w = 2 n f , resonant frequency is

where L is coil inductance in henries and C is c a b l e c a p a c i t a n c e in farads.

When resistance, R, is significant,

\ /
X
where Q.- ,qualityfactor.
R

The resonant frequency of a practical parallel resonant circuit ( R f 0) is t h e

frequency at which t h e reactive power of t h e inductance and c a p a c i t a n c e a r e equal,
o r t h e t o t a l impedance appears as pure resistance.

EDDY CURRENT INSTRUMENTS

General instrument functions were described using t h e block diagram of Figure 4.1. In
this section specific instruments a r e covered. I t answers t h e questions: What is t h e
test frequency? How is lift-off compensated for? How i s balancing achieved? What
t y p e of outputs do they have?
General Purpose Instrument (Impedance Method)
Figure 4.6 shows a typical eddy c u r r e n t instrument with various control functions.
FREQUENCY control sets t h e desired t e s t frequency. Frequency is selected by
continuous control o r in discrete s t e p s from about 1 kHz t o 2 MHz. The coils'
impedances a r e normally balanced using a n AC bridge circuit. These bridges require
t w o coils on adjacent bridge a r m s such as a r m s No. 2 and No. 4 in Figure 4.3. Coil
impedance must b e compatible with internal bridge impedance.
 CARBON STEEL

HONEL

SST TYPE 304

LEAD

BRASS
ALUMINIUM
\ STORAGE MONITOR
COPPER

OUTPUT 0SELECTO(I
FREQUENCY

PROBE
CONNECTOR

FIGURE 4.6
Typical Eddy Current Instrument With Storage Mcmitur

Most bridges can tolerate a coil impedance between 10 and 200 ohms. The
BALANCING controls, labelled X and R in some instruments, a r e potentiometers
R~ and ~2 in Figure 4.3. They match coil impedance t o achieve a null when the probe
is in a defect f r e e location on t h e t e s t sample. Some instruments have automatic
balancing.
The bridge output signal amplitude is controlled by t h e GAIN control. In some
instruments i t is labelled a s SENSITIVITY. It controls the amplifier of t h e bridge
output signal, shown in Figure 4.1, and therefore does not a f f e c t current going
through t h e probe. However, some instruments control amplification by varying
current through t h e coils. This is undesirable because i t could cause coil heating, and
when testing ferromagnetic materials t h e magnetization level changes, resulting in
signal distortion and non-repeatable signals.
Following amplification of the bridge unbalance signal, t h e signal is converted t o
direct current signals. Since t h e AC signal has both amplitude and phase i t is
converted into QUADRATURE X and Y components. The quadrature components of
t h e bridge output a r e generated by samplin t h e sinusoidal signal at two positions 90"
f
apart (one-quarter wave) on t h e waveform o r by using electronic multipliers). The
DC voltage values (amplitudes) constitute t h e X and Y quadrature components. If
phase is taken relative t o t h e resistive voltage component, then t h e X quadrature
component i s R (orvR)
~ and t h e Y component, xL(orVL), in equation 3.12(b) or Figure
3.4. We now have a n efficient way of analyzing bridge unbalance signals.
 Eddy current instruments do not have a phase reference. To compensate for this, they
have a PHASE SHIFT control (phase-discrimination control). Normal impedance
diagram orientation with inductive reactance displayed vertically (+ Y) and resistive w
horizontally (+ X) can b e obtained experimentally. This is achieved by adjusting t h e
PHASE control until t h e signal from a probe approaching a f e r r i t e sample (high IJ and
very high P ) displays a vertical (+ Y) signal indicating a n increase in probe inductive
reactance, s e e Section 5.5.6 f o r examples. PHASE control can also be used t o
minimize t h e e f f e c t of extraneous signals such as lift-off. The X-Y signal pattern is
rotated until t h e lift-off signal is horizontal (X). Thus any vertical (Y) channel signal
indicates defects, thickness variations, etc., with little e f f e c t from probe wobble.

The output signal is normally filtered internally t o decrease instrument or system

noise. This decreases frequency response of t h e instrument and reduces t h e maximum
inspection speed; at faster inspection speeds signal distortion results. Instruments can
have a frequency response of 30 t o 1000 Hz, although 100 t o 300 Hz is most common.
At 300 Hz, t h e maximum attainable tube inspection speed, t o d e t e c t a n abrupt defect
without signal distortion, is about 0.25 m/s.
Signals a r e commonly displayed on X-Y storage monitors with t h e X component on
t h e horizontal axis and t h e Y component on t h e vertical axis. The writing speed or
frequency response is greater than 1 kHz for a storage CRT.
Analysis of recorded signals is normally done visually. The storage monitor display in
Figure 4.6 shows t h e change in coil impedance as a surface probe was placed on
various test samples illustrating t h e e f f e c t s of resistivity, permeability and lift-off.
In t h e "impedance" method of eddy current testing, t h e flow of eddy currents is
monitored by observing t h e e f f e c t of their associated electromagnetic fields on t h e 4
electrical impedance of the inspection coil(& This impedance includes coil wire and
cable resistance.

Coil wire and cable resistance increase linearly with temperature according t o

where a is temperature coefficient of resistance

and AT is change in temperature.
If the probe and/or cable experience a change in temperature during inspection, t h e
output signal from t h e eddy current instrument changes; this is normally referred t o
a s temperature drift.

4.4.2 Crack Detectors

A typical crack detector circuit was shown in Figure 4.4. Crack detector probes
contain only one coil, with a fixed value capacitor in parallel with t h e coil t o form a
resonant circuit. At this condition t h e output voltage, for a given change in coil
impedance, is maximum. The coil's inductive reactance, X L , must be close to t h e
capacitive reactance, xC
100 ohms.
. In most crack detectors this is in t h e range of 20 t o
Crack detectors t h a t operate at o r close t o resonance do not have selectable test
frequencies. Crack detectors for non-ferromagnetic, high electrical resistivity
materials such as Type 304 stainless steel typically operate between 1 and 3 MHz;
those for low resistivity materials (aluminum alloys, brasses) operate at lower
frequency, normally in t h e 10 t o 100 kHz range. Some crack detectors for high
resistivity materials can also be used t o inspect ferromagnetic materials, such as
carbon steel, for surface defects. Normally a different probe is required; however,
coil impedance and test frequency change very little.

WITH L I F T - O F F = 0 . 1 mm

PROBE W I T H L I F T - O F F = O mn
METER

OU TPU T

SAMPLE W I T H D E F E C T
/

OSCILLATOR FREQUENCY, -f

fr
FIGURE 4.7
Meter Output with Varying Oxillator Frequency

Crack detectors have a meter output and three basic controls: balance, lift-off, and
sensitivity. BALANCING control is performed by adjusting t h e potentiometer on t h e
adjacent bridge arm, until bridge output is zero (or close t o zero). GAIN control
(sensitivity) adjustment occurs at t h e bridge output. The signal is then rectified and
displayed on a METER. Because the signal is filtered, in addition t o t h e mechnical
inertia of the pointer, t h e frequency response of a meter is very low (less than
10 Hz). LIFT-OFF CONTROL adjusts t h e test frequency (by less than 25%) t o operate
slightly off resonance. In crack detectors t h e t e s t frequency is chosen t o minimize
t h e e f f e c t of probe wobble (lift-off), not t o change the skin depth or phase lag. The
set-up t o compensate for probe wobble c a n be described with t h e help of Figure 4.7.
Frequency is adjusted by trial-and-error t o obtain t h e same output signal on t h e
meter with the probe touching t h e sample and at some specified lift-off (normally
0.1 mm). At this frequency a deep surface d e f e c t will give a different reading on t h e
meter, a s shown in Figure 4.7.
However, t h e meter output is a complex function of signal phase and amplitude, and
cannot b e used t o reliably measure depth of real defects. Nor can they b e used t o
distinguish between real and false indications such a s ferromagnetic inclusions.
 Material Sorting and Conductivity Instruments
Material sorting, or conductivity instruments, have a precalibrated meter output and
have a unique way of compensating for lift-off. Instruments for sorting of high
-
resistivity materials (Type 304 stainless steel) use a fixed, high test frequency
normally between 200 and 500 kHz, and those for low resistivity materials (aluminum
alloys), a low test frequency, between 20 and 100 kHz. They incorporate AC bridges
and normally have two coils (one as reference). Coil impedance is in t h e range of 20
t o 100 ohms. They either have bridge balancing o r a zeroing control, t o keep t h e
signal on scale. GAIN CONTROL or sensitivity adjustment occurs at t h e bridge
output. The signal is then rectified and displayed on a METER.
LIFT-OFF compensation is normally pre-set. Figure 4.8 explains how t h e probe-
wobble (lift-off) signal is eliminated. The bridge is purposely unbalanced (by pre-set
internal adjustment)" such t h a t t h e unbalance point, P, is at t h e c e n t r e of curvature
of t h e lift-off impedance locus, AB. The instrument m e t e r reads a voltage
proportional t o t h e distance, PB' or PAt, from t h e chosen unbalance point t o the
impedance curves. The amplitude of this voltage remains constant with probe wobble
but changes significantly for wall thickness (and resistivity) variations. In f a c t any
signal t h a t traces an impedance locus different from lift-off will change meter
output.

PRESET UNBALANCE

AIR

V E S l STANCE

FIGURE 4.8
Unbalanced Bridge Method Showing Selection of Operating Point

* This is achieved by subtracting a signal equal t o OP from t h e signal OA.

 With this type of instrument only t h e magnitude of t h e impedance change is
measured. This instrument is effective f o r conductivity and wall thickness
measurement (and deep defects) and is simple to operate. I t has only two basic
controls: balance and sensitivity.

4.5 SEND-RECEIVE EDDY CURRENT SYSTEMS

The "send-receive" eddy current method eliminates t h e temperature drift sensed by
general purpose instruments. The flow of eddy currents is monitored by observing t h e
e f f e c t of their associated electromagnetic fields on t h e voltage induced in a n
independant coil(s), Figure 4.9. The excitation o r primary coil is driven with a
sinusoidal current with constant peak-to-peak amplitude t o obtain a constant
magnetomotive force,

7r
EXClTATION COIL RECEIVE COILS

RLARGE

TEST ARTICLE

FIGURE 4.9
Send-Receive Circuit
This makes t h e excitation ma netic flux @ independent of primary coil resistance.
f
The secondary or receive coil s) is c o n n e d d t o a high input impedance amplifier,
hence t h e induced voltagev, is not affected by receive coil resistance. 4

The wire resistance of both t h e excitation and receive coils can change, because of
temperature, without affecting t h e output signals; temperature drift has thus been
eliminated. Temperature independence makes this method useful for measuring
resistivity, wall thickness and spacing between components. It has no significant
advantage over t h e impedance method for d e f e c t detection, except in t h e through-
wall transmission system discussed in Section 5.4.
Hall-Effect Detector

Most send-receive circuits consist of one excitation (or driver) coil and one or more
receive (or pick-up) coils.
However, the induced magnetic flux 0, can be measured with a Hall-ef f e c t detector
rather than by monitoring t h e induced voltage V, across a pick-up coil, s e e Figure
2.2b and 2 . 2 ~ .

FIGURE 5.10
Hall Detector Circuit

The induced voltage in a pick-up coil is proportional t o t h e t i m e r a t e of change of t h e

magnetic flux and theref ore is proportional t o t h e test frequency,
 T h e Hall d e t e c t o r instead responds to t h e instantaneous magnitude of t h e magnetic
flux, @,
This means t h e output voltage is independent of test frequency, making it useful f o r
low frequency inspection (especially if t h e d e t e c t o r h a s t o b e small).
The Hall d e t e c t o r works as follows: When d i r e c t current is passed through a Hall
element, voltage (electric potential) is produced, perpendicular t o current flow, see
Figure 4.10. This voltage is proportional t o t h e component of magnetic flux
perpendicular to t h e element and t h e e l e m e n t s u r f a c e area. This voltage is NOT f r o m
a change in e l e m e n t resistance. Hall e l e m e n t s as small as 1 rnm square a r e
com mercially available.
4.5.2 Send-Receive Coils and Lif t-Of f Compensat ion
General purpose "send-receive" instruments a r e similar to "impedancew instruments,
as described in Section 4.4.1. The main difference is t h e method of balancing because
of t h e different coil configuration. Most send-receive circuits consist of o n e
excitation coil and t w o receive coils positioned symmetrically inside o r outside t h e
excitation coil. They c a n either b e differential where both coils sense t h e test
specimen o r absolute where only one coil senses t h e test specimen, as shown in Figure
4.9. Although coil impedance is not important in send-receive instruments, t h e
induced voltage is a function of number of windings and test frequency. Therefore
their inductive r e a c t a n c e tend t o b e similar t o coils used in impedance instruments.
T h e sensing coils a r e wound in opposition s o t h e excitation field induces n o n e t
voltage in t h e receive coils when they both s e n s e t h e s a m e material. In t h e presence
of a d e f e c t , t h e voltage changes as e a c h coil moves over it. Figure 4.9 illustrates a
s u r f a c e reflection type probe where both excitation and pick-up coils a r e on t h e s a m e
side of t h e test sample. However, t h e excitation coil and pick-up coils c a n b e placed
on opposite sides of t h e sample; t h e method is r e f e r r e d t o as through-wall
transmission. The t w o methods a r e compared in Section 5.4.
T h e output signals in most send-receive instruments a r e t h e quadrature components
of t h e secondary voltage. However, in s o m e special purpose instruments, o n e output
signal is proportional t o amplitude and t h e o t h e r t o phase of t h e secondary voltage
(relative t o primary voltage). They compensate f o r LIFT-OFF as follows: if coil-to-
sample spacing varies t h e r e is a large change in amplitude of t h e secondary voltage
but l i t t l e change in phase. The phase shift between t h e secondary and primary
sinusoidal voltages is measured at a voltage level V, slightly larger t h a n zero,
Figure 4.11. A t this voltage t h e sinusoidal voltages have t h e s a m e phase s h i f t f o r z e r o
lift-off as for maximum (perhaps 0.1 mm) lift-off. The voltage discriminator in t h e s e
phase-shif t measuring eddy c u r r e n t instruments trigger on t h e V, voltage point,
and therefore, t h e output signal f o r lift-off between 0 and 0.1 mm is minimized.
Measurement of resistivity, wall thickness o r d e e p d e f e c t s can b e made without lift-
off noise.
 PROBE SIGNAL, L I FT - Off =0

PROBE SIGNAL, LIFT -OFF =0.i am

PROBE SIGNAL, DEFECT I N TEST ARTICLE

FIGURE 4.11
Secondary Voltage Waveform f o r Various Test Conditions

4.6 MULTIFREQUENCY EQUIPMENT

The eddy current NDT method is sensitive to many test parameters, making i t very
versatile. However, o n e is usually only interested in a single parameter such as
defects. Insignificant p a r a m e t e r s such as changes in electrical o r magnetic
properties, t h e presence of d e n t s o r support plates in t u b e inspection and lift-off in
surface probe inspection c a n mask d e f e c t signals. T h e multifrequency eddy c u r r e n t
method was developed t o eliminate t h e e f f e c t of undesirable parameters.
The response t o various anomalies changes with test frequency. This allows a means
of discriminating against unimportant changes. In multifrequency instruments, t w o or
more frequencies a r e used simultaneously (through t h e s a m e coil(s)). Coil current
consists of t w o o r m o r e superimposed frequencies, i.e., t h e coil(s) is excited with
more than o n e t e s t frequency simultaneously. A three-f requency multif requency
instrument acts t h e s a m e way as t h r e e s e p a r a t e (single-frequency) eddy current
instruments. Band-pass f i l t e r s s e p a r a t e t h e signals at e a c h frequency. T h e
discrimination o r elimination process is accomplished by combining t h e output signals
(DCsignals) from individual frequencies in a manner similar to simultaneous solution
of multiple equations. T h e elimination of extraneous signals is achieved by matching
t h e signal at t w o test frequencies and subtracting. This process is continued f o r o t h e r
unwanted signals using o t h e r test frequencies until t h e final output consists of only
t h e d e f e c t signal. A discussion of inspection results with multi-frequency is covered
in Section 8.4.
 Multifrequency instruments have t h e same controls and functions as general purpose
"impedance" type instruments, described in Section 4.4.1, with the addition of mixing
modules. These modules a r e used t o combine or substract the output signals from
each combination of frequencies.
4.7 PULSED EDDY CURRENT EQUIPMENT
Faraday's Law states that eddy currents a r e induced in a conductor by a varying
magnetic field. This magnetic field can be generated by passing sinusoidally varying
current through a coil. However, the current can be of other waveforms such a s a
train of pulses. This method works only on t h e send-receive principle where t h e flow
of eddy currents is monitored by observing t h e e f f e c t of their associated
electromagnetic fields on t h e induced voltage of t h e receive coil(s). The voltage pulse
is analyzed by observing its amplitude with time, Figure 4.12.

To compensate for LIFT-OFF, t h e voltage is sampled a t a preset time, t 1 When

t h e waveform is triggered (measured) a t time t 1, t h e voltage for zero lift-off and
maximum lift-off is t h e same, whereas t h e voltage waveform in the presence of a
defect is different. This method is quite similar t o t h e send-receive method described
in Section 4.5.3. Therefore, by measuring t h e voltage a t t h e appropriate crossing
point, lift-off effects can be drastically decreased.

DEFECT I N TEST ARTICLE

1

FIGURE 4.12
Voltage Across a Pulsed Eddy Current Pick-Up Cod as a Function of Time
The pulsed eddy current method offers another advantage. The pulsed driving current
produces an inherently wideband frequency spectrum, permitting extraction of more
selective information than can b e determined from t h e test specimen by a single d

frequency method. IJnfortunately, t h e r e is at present no commercially available

instrument t h a t operates on this principle.
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
Two old methods used t o measure large coil impedance variations (greater than 5%)
a r e t h e ELLIPSE and SLIT methods. These methods analyse t h e AC signal directly on
an oscilloscope (without converting i t t o DC). They were mainly used for material
sorting. They a r e obsolete methods and a detailed description is not warranted in this
manual; a full description is contained in Reference 5.
Another technique, MODULATION ANALYSIS, is also described in Reference 5. It
works on t h e same principle as "frequency spectrum analysis" where a discrete
frequency component of a waveform can b e analysed without interference from lower
o r higher frequency noise. The inspection must b e performed at constant speed (in
fact i t only works if t h e r e is relative motion between coil and sample). It is used in
production-line testing at speeds up t o 2 m/s or higher. It is a very specialized and
complicated method and a detailed description is not warranted in this manual.
RECORDING EQUIPMENT
During inspection, ed-dy current instruments and recording equiprnent a r e typically
connected as in Figure 4.13. The eddy current signal is monitored on a storage CRT
(cathode ray tube) and recorded on X-Y and two-channel recorders. Recording on a n
FM t a p e recorder for subsequent playback is also common. -
The important characteristic of these recording instruments is FREQUENCY
RESPONSE, or speed response, which limits inspection speed. Section 4.4.1 indicated
general eddy current instruments have a frequency response of 100 t o 300 Hz,
limiting t h e inspection speed t o 0.25 m/s. To b e compatible, recording instruments
must have t h e s a m e or higher frequency response.
 X-Y
STORAGE
MON l TOR

I
INSTRUMENT
x? Yy I PROBE

1
.

#b

r
6 o o f 0
X Y x ; y X Y
X-Y RECORER 2-CHANNEL FM TAPE

- CHA#T RECORDER
- RECORDER

FIGURE 4.13
Block Diagram of Eddy Current Monitoring Equipment

X-Y Recorders
Signal analysis for signal discrimination and defect depth estimation is normally done
on X-Y signal patterns. The CRT storage monitors have a frequency response of at
least 1 k H z and therefore do not restrict maximum inspection speed. However, t o
obtain a permanent visual record of t h e signal, i t must b e recorded on X-Y recorders.
The fastest recorders have a speed of response of 8 H z for small signals. This
drastically limits inspection speed if used on-line. I t is therefore only used in t h e
laboratory or t o record playback from t a p e recorders (this is done by recording at t h e
highest tape speed and playing back at t h e lowest, a factor of 8:l for most t a p e
recorder). One solution t o on-line recording of X-Y signals is t o paragraph t h e CUT
display; however, this is not practical for recording many signals.
Another solution is t o use storage monitors with hard copy (paper output) capability.
These exist commercially but require custom-made control units. They have a
frequency response of 1 k H z or higher.
Strip Chart Recorders
Recording X and Y signal components against t i m e is useful in locating d e f e c t s and
determining their length.
Common two channel ink-pen s t r i p chart recorders have a speed response of
approximately 100 Hz. At maximum inspection speed (0.25 m/s) t h e recorded signal
4
will decrease in amplitude and b e slightly distorted.
Ink-ejection strip c h a r t recorders have a speed response of 1 kHz. These recorders
a r e not readily available in North America and use a lot of paper.
Ultraviolet light recorders have a speed response higher than 1 kHz, but require
special paper. These recorders a r e rarely used in eddy current testing.
F M Tape Recorders
Tape recorders allow storage of eddy current signals (on magnetic tape) for
subsequent retrieval. They have a frequency response proportional t o recording speed.
The lowest recording speed is 24 mm/s (15/16 ips) giving a frequency response of
300 Hz, and t h e fastest, 380 mm/s (15 ips), will respond t o 4.8 kHz.
Frequency Response
Eddy current instruments and recording instrumentation have limited frequency
response. This means they require finite t i m e to respond to a n input signal.
Frequency response, sometimes called speed of response, is defined as t h e frequency
a t which t h e output signal falls to 0.707 (-3 dB) of t h e maximum input signal.
A test coil with a n effective sensing width w passing over a localized d e f e c t a t a
speed s will sense t h e point defect for a duration of w/s seconds. This signal is
approximately equal t o one wavelength with a frequency
f - s/w hertz (4.6)

where s is speed in mm/s and w is width in mm.

For example, a t a probe speed of 0.5 m/s and probe sensing width of 2 mm,
f = 250 hertz. If t h e instrumentation has a frequency response of 250 hertz, t h e
output signal is reduced to 0.707 t h e input signal and t h e X-Y signal is distorted. If
t h e instrumentation frequency response is 500 hertz, t h e output signal decreases only
slightly. For this example, t h e eddy current instrument should have a frequency
response equal t o o r greater than 500 h e r t z t o obtain undistorted signals. Or
inversely, if t h e instrument frequency response is only 250 hertz, t h e maximum
i n s p e c t i o ~speed should b e reduces t o 0.25 m/s.
SUMMARY

Basic eddy current equipment consists of a n alternating current source (oscillator),

voltmeter and probe. When t h e probe is brought close to a conductor or moved past a
defect, t h e voltage across t h e coil changes and this is read off t h e voltmeter. The
oscillator sets t h e t e s t frequency and t h e probe governs coupling and sensitivity t o
defects.
 For effective purchase or use of a n eddy current instrument, t h e following
information is needed:
(a) type of instrument: impedance, send-receive, crack detector, etc.
(b) type of outputs: single (meter) or quadrature (X-Y)component outputs
(c) t e s t frequency
(d) type of lift-off compensation.
Most eddy current instruments use a n AC bridge for balancing but use various
methods for lift-off compensation. Send-receive instrument should b e used for
accurate absolute measurements in t h e presence of temperature fluctuations.
Multifrequency instruments can b e used t o simplify defect signals in t h e presence of
extraneous signals.
Eddy current instruments and recording equipment have a finite frequency response
limiting t h e inspection speed t o normally 0.25 m/s.
Most instruments tolerate probe impedance between 10 and 200 ohms.
Crack detectors operate close t o coil-cable resonance. The resonant t e s t frequency is
given by
f
r = 1/2lrfi (4.4a)
where L is coil inductance in henries and C is cable capacitance in farads. The lift-
off signal is minimized by adjusting t h e frequency (slightly off resonance) until zero
and a small probe lift-off gives zero output signal. High test frequencies a r e normally
used t o inspect for shallow defects in high resistivity or ferromagnetic materials.
Low test frequencies a r e used for detecting deep defects or inspecting g o d
conductors. Crack detectors have a meter output, and cannot b e used t o reliably
measure defect depth.

4.11 WORKED EXAMPLES

4.1 1.1 Impedance at Resonance
PROBLEM: In a parallel L-C circuit, inductance is 80 x henries,
capacitance is 5 x low9 farads and resistance is negligible.
Calculate (a) resonant frequency, (b) inductive reactance and (c)
capacitive reactance.

SOLUTION:
(b) I n d u c t i v e Reactance, XL = 2 r f L (3.4b)

= 2 n x 2 5 2 x 1 0 3 x 80 x = 1 2 6 . 5 ohm.
X~

(=) C a p a c i t i v e Reactance, Xc l/ZnfC (3.5)

1
I = 1 2 6 . 5 ohms
3
2n x 252 x 1 0 x 5 x
 -
CHAPTER 5 TESTING WITH SURFACE PROBES

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The goal of this chapter is t o present a practical approach t o eddy current inspections
using surface probes. The emphasis is on t e s t variables such as test frequency, probe
size and type; these a r e normally t h e only variables a n inspector has at his control.
These selections a r e usually determined by skin depth considerations, defect size, and
probe size.
Impedance graphs and t h e Characteristics Parameter a r e included because they a r e
tools t h a t an inspector should not b e without. A thorough understanding of impedance
graphs is essential t o manipulate t e s t conditions t o minimize and/or t o cope with
undesirable test variables. Erroneous conclusions a r e often made by persons who do
not have a working knowledge of impedance graphs.

The scope of t h e approach t o an eddy current inspection can be very broad; a

successful outcome usually depends on t h e proper approach. When planning a n
inspection t h e first questions t h a t must b e answered before proceeding are; For what
type of defects is t h e inspection being conducted? If t h e expected defects a r e crack,
how big a r e they? Do they have directional properties? What is t h e minimum
acceptable defect size? Does t h e material have ferromagnetic properties? Other
variables will, of course, influence t h e test but these questions must b e answered in
order t o select a n appropriate probe size and t e s t frequency.

5.2 SURFACE PROBES

L
The eddy current probe plays two important roles: i t induces eddy currents, and
senses t h e distortion of their flow caused by defects. Sensitivity t o defects and other
variables in t h e t e s t article can b e affected by probe design. This is achieved by
controlling direction of eddy current flow, by controlling t h e coil's magnetic field,
and by selecting an appropriate coil size. The e f f e c t s of undesirable material
variations and/or variations in probe t o t e s t article coupling (lift-off) can often be
decreased by using multiple coils.
A surface probe, as t h e name implies, is used for inspecting surfaces, f l a t o r
contoured, for defects or material properties. Defects can b e either surface or
subsurface. (Surface defects a r e those t h a t break through, or originate at t h e surface
- typically cracks, voids, or inclusions: a subsurface defect does not break t h e surface
and is therefore not visible).
Other names used for variations of surface probe designs a r e pancake probe, f l a t
probe, spring probe or coil, spinning probe, and pencil probe.

5.2.1 Probe Types

Simple Probes
Surface probe designs can vary frorn a simple, single coil attached t o lead wires, t o
complex arrangements, a s shown in Figure 5.1. Most eddy current instruments require
two similar coils t o satisfy their AC bridge network a s discussed in Chapter 4. If only
one coil senses t h e test rnaterial, it is a n absolute probe; if both coils sense t h e test
 FIGURE 5.1
Surface Probes

material, i t is a differential probe. The simple probe in Figure 5.l(a) is therefore

undesirable because a second coil o r electrical device with similar impedance will be
necessary for bridge nulling. An exception would b e in t h e use of Crack Detectors;
these instruments operate with an internal balancing circuit (see Section 4.2.3).
A better arrangement is shown in t h e pencil probe of Figure 5.l(b). This probe
incorporates a second coil (reference) mounted far enough from t h e test article t h a t
i t will not be influenced by it. The two coils have t h e s a m e impedance when t h e probe
is balanced in air, but will change relative t o each other when t h e t e s t coil is coupled
t o a sample. However, t h e degree of coupling is usually small because of t h e inherent
small size of pencil probes s o t h e coils still match well enough f o r most instruments
over a reasonable frequency range. The probe shown has f e r r i t e cores; ferrite is used
for three reasons:
1. higher inductance frorn a given coil size,
2. small surface a r e a in contact with t h e material,
3. t h e coil can be further from t h e contact surface providing greater wear
protection.
A further improvement in reference coil arrangement is shown in Figure 5.l(c); it is
attached t o a disc whose properties a r e similar t o t h e test material. With this
arrangement t h e relative impedance of the two coils will not be affected by t e s t
frequency.
The probe shown in Figure 5.l(d) is a spring loaded type designed t o minimize lift-off.
The shoe provides a broad area for squarely positioning t h e probe on a f l a t surface,
while t h e spring maintains probe contact at constant force.
Figure 5.l(e) shows a probe used for inspecting large diarneter tubing. The probe can
be rotated and/or moved axially. The design shown incorporates a replaceable wear
cap.
Other Probe Designs
A multi-coil array a s shown in Figure 5.2(a) is useful for inspecting tubes. This type
of probe could detect defects that would not be detected by a conventional
circumferential coil (discussed in Section 7.5).

(8)
D l FFERENTI AL SURFACE PROBE
.
YULT 1 SURFACE CO I L PROBE

F ERROMICNET l C

COYPENSATING

FIELD

GAP PROBE L l FT OFF COYPENSATIN6 PROBE

FIGURE 5.2
Special Surface Probes

A gap probe, Figure 5.2(b), uses ferromagnetic material t o shape t h e magnetic field.
The field is confined by t h e core causing eddy currents t o flow in circular loops
perpendicular to t h e flux lines.
.4 differential configuration is shown in Figure 5.2k); t h e two coils a r e placed side-
by-side. Both coils have high sensitivity t o localized variations but tend t o cancel out
t h e effect of lift-off, gradual material variations, o r ambient temperature changes.
A lift-off compensating probe is shown in Figure 5.2(d); this probe combines t h e
signals from two coils t o effectively r o t a t e t h e defect signal relative t o t h e lift-off
signal. Therefore, even on Vough" surfaces, shallow defects can b e detected.

EST ARTICLE

(DRIVER COIL)
RECEIVER C O l L

PICK-UP COILS
(WOUND OPPOSING
EACH O T H E R )

TEST TEST ARTICLE

ART ICLE
ELECTRICAL CONNECT IONS
DRIVER C O l L

(b)

FIGURE 5.3
Send-Receive Probes

Send-Receive Probes
Figure 5.3(a) shows a through-transmission probe arrangement. Current flowing in the
SEND coil produces a magnetic field, part of which is transmitted through t h e t e s t
article. The field is detected by t h e RECEIVER coil, inducing a voltage. There will be
no signal variation from t h e receiver coil when a defect-free test article is moved
anywhere between t h e two coils as long as t h e coil-to-coil spacing remains constant.
Figure 5.3(b) shows a reflection-type probe arrangement. The probe consists of a
large send coil which generates a field, and two small receiver coils wound in
opposite directions, as mirror images t o one another, as shown in Figure 5.3k). With
 t h e probe in air, n e t output is zero. However, if one end is placed near a test article,
t h e field differs a t t h e two ends, and a n e t voltage appears across t h e two coils.
L
5.2.2 Directional Properties
Eddy currents are closed loops of induces current circulating in a plane perpendicular
t o t h e direction of magnetic flux. Their normal direction of travel is parallel t o t h e
coil winding and parallel t o the surface. See Figure 5.4.Pancake t y p e surface probes
a r e therefore insensitive t o poor bonding of coatings and flaws parallel to t h e surface
of a sample.

SURFACE CRACK I EDDY CURRENTS

\ *.yiy!Z
I
1 'rCCfZI
LLYINAR CRACK

TEST PLATE
. ;
I
EOOY WRREWT FLOWS PARALLEL TO COIL IIWDIWGS
POOR S E l S l T l V l l V TO LlYlNAllOWS

SURFACE CRACK

ZERO S E N S l l l V l N LOW S E N S I l I V l W Y A X l Y W SEWS1 T I V l T Y

AT CENTRE OF COIL PARALLEL TO WIYOI~CS ACROSS WINDINGS

FIGURE 5.4
D i r e c t i d Properties of a Surface Probe

When testing for flaws such as cracks, i t is essential t h a t t h e eddy current flow be a t
a large angle (preferably perpendicular) t o t h e crack t o obtain maximum response. If
eddy current flow is parallel t o t h e defect there will be little or no disruption of
currents and hence no coil impedance change.
When testing for flaws parallel t o t h e surface, such a s laminations, a horseshoe
shaped probe (a gap probe with a very large gap) may have reasonable sensitivity.
5.2.2.1 Sensitivity at Centre of a Coil
Probe impedance changes with coil diameter, as will be discussed further in Section
5.5. A simplified derivation of this diameter e f f e c t is derived below, for t h e case of
no skin depth attenuation o r phase lag and long coils. From Faraday4s Law,
The magnetic flux density, 8,is approximately constant across a coil's diameter,
hence
6 - BA

where r is radial distance from centre of probe;

therefore,

Resistance t o flow of current is proportional t o flow path length and resistivity and
inversely proportional t o cross-sectional area, Ac,

= 2nrp = Znrp
Rs u n i t depth x u n i t width
AE
Rs u r

Since I8 - V8/Z by Ohm's Law

and Z = I'R: + Cull - . It8 at low test frequency

and no skin depth effect,
therefore.

or I8 u r
since a - I from Lenz's Law, i t follows
6s 8

that 6B a r
 Therefore, eddy current flow and its associated magnetic flux a r e proportional t o
radial distance from t h e centre of a coil. Hence no current flows in t h e c e n t r e (r = 0)
and there is no sensitivity t o defects at t h e c e n t r e of a coil.
Probe Inductance
I

The factor governing coupling and induced voltage in test material is t h e magnetic
flux surrounding t h e coil. The total magnetic flux ( $p ) is proportional t o probe
.
inductance (L) and current (I), i.e., @ a L I In most eddy current instruments
excitation current is kept reasonably eonstant (in t h e milliampere range) but probe
inductance could vary by a factor of one thousand. The most important aspect of
inductance is that probe impedance, which is a function of inductance, must be
compatible with t h e instrument and signal cable,

z 1 * and B - Arctan X~ -
R

where XL = 2 7f L when f is in hertz, L in henries and R is coil wire resistance in

ohms.
- --

TABLE 5.1 SURFACE COIL IMPEDANCE

Do = 1.6 mm Do = 3.2 mm Do = 6.3 mm Do = 12.7 mm Do = 25.4 mm

L = 0.27 M H L = 0.54 p H L = 1.1 VH L = 2.1UH L = 4.3 pH
R = 0.2 n R=o.1~ R = 0.05 0 R = 0.02n R = 0.01 R
N = 21
L 40 AWG 34 AWG 28 AWG 22 AWG 16 AWG
(0.080 mm) (0.16 mm) (0.32 mm) (0.64 mm) (1.3 mm)
L = 1.5 L = 3.0 L = 6.1 L = 12 L = 24
R = l R = 0.5 R = 0.3 R = 0.1 R = 0.06
N = 50
43 AWG 37 AWG 31 AWG 25 AWG 19 AWG
(0.056 mm) (0.1 1 mm) (0.23 mm) (0.45 mm) (0.91 mm)
L = 5.8 L = 12 L = 23 L = 47 L = 94
R = 4 R=2 R = l R = 0.5 R = 0.3
N = 98
46 AWG 40 AWG 34 AWG 28 AWG 22 AWG
(0.040 mm) (0.080 mm) (0.16 mm) (0.32 mm) (0.63 mm)

L = 11 L = 23 L = 45 L = 90 L = 180
R=9 R = 3 R=2 R = 0.9 R = 0.5
N = 136
48 AWG 41 AWG 36 AWG 29 AWG 23 AWG
(0.031 mm) (0.071 mm) (0.13 mm) (0.29 mm) (0.57 mm)
- -

L = 24 L = 49 L = 97 L = 195 L = 390
R = 17 R =8 R=4 R =2 R=1
N = 200
L 49 AWG 43 AWG 37 AWG 31 AWG 25 AWG
(0.028 mm) (0.056 mm) (0.11 mm) (0.23 mm) (0.45 mm)
The self-inductance of a long coil (solonoid) can b e calculated from t h e equation
(5. la)

Lo is self-inductance in henries
where vr is relative permeability of c o r e (normally = 1.0)
A is coil's planar surface area, m i 1 1 imc t r c s
L is coil length, millimetres.
This formula is a good approximation for coils of lengthidiameter ratio greater than
10.

For a short coil, end e f f e c t s will reduce inductance because of lower flux at coil
ends. The N~ term remains since N e n t e r s in N 4p(total number of flux linkages) and
again since 4 itself is proportional t o N. The following approximate equation can b e
used t o calcurate inductance of short coils:

Do Di
where 7 is mean coil radius
+

4 * nm

and K = 0.112 (2!L+Do + Di), m m

Most eddy current instruments will operate over a fairly broad range of probe
impedance (and probe inductance) without substantial reduction in signal-to-noise
ratio and signal amplitude. An instrument input impedance of 100 ohms is typical,
although any impedance between 20 and 200 ohtns is generally acceptable, unless test
frequency is too close t o probe-cable resonance; see Section 5.9. Exact probe
inductance calculations a r e therefore not essential. To facilitate impedance
calculations, Table 5.1 has been prepared. This table lists coil inductance and
resistance (with probe away from test material) for various outside diameters and
number of coil turns, keeping both t h e inside diameter and coil length equal t o 0.2
times t h e outside diameter. Wire diameter is chosen t o fill available coil cross-
sectional space. Using this table and t h e knowledge t h a t inductance,

where N is number of turns of wire and 6 is average coil diameter, one can usually
make a reasonable estimate of wire size and number of turns required t o achieve a
particular inductance.
 ( a ) L I F T -OFF OISTANCE (mm)

( b ) SUBSURFACE DEFECT DEPTH (mm)

FIGURE 5.5
Decrease in Sensitivity with
(a) Lift-off (b) Defect Depth
PARAMETERS AFFECTING SENSITIVITY TO DEFECTS
During eddy c u r r e n t inspection o n e must b e a w a r e of t h e limitations of t h e technique J
a n d should t a k e maximum advantage of its potential. Although sensitivity to d e e p
s u r f a c e d e f e c t s is excellent, sensitivity t o d e e p subsurface d e f e c t s is very poor. A
subsurface d e f e c t only 5 m m f r o m t h e s u r f a c e is considered very d e e p f o r eddy
c u r r e n t test purposes.

There a r e t w o f a c t o r s t h a t contribute t o this limitation. T h e skin d e p t h e f f e c t causes

eddy currents t o a t t e n u a t e with d e p t h depending o n t h e material properties and test
frequency. This e f f e c t is normally minor and c a n b e controlled (within limits) by
reducing test frequency. The predominant e f f e c t (rarely mentioned) is t h e d e c r e a s e in
magnetic flux, and consequently eddy c u r r e n t density, with depth because of t h e
small d i a m e t e r of most practical probes. O n e c a n increase penetration by increasing
probe diameter, but as a consequence sensitivity t o short d e f e c t s decreases. One
could optimize sensitivity if d e f e c t length is known; however, t h e maximum depth of
detectabili t y is still very small. IJnlike ultrasonic inspection where a d e f e c t is
d e t e c t e d many transducer diameters away, eddy c u r r e n t testing is limited t o
d e t e c t i n g d e f e c t s at a d e p t h of less t h a n o n e probe diameter. I t is this e f f e c t of probe
d i a m e t e r t h a t limits rnost volumetric eddy c u r r e n t inspection t o materials less t h a n
5 mrn thick. In following subsections, limitations a r e discussed and empirical
examples presented.
Sensitivity with Lift-off and D e f e c t Depth
There is a d e c r e a s e in sensitivity t o d e f e c t s as a coil is moved away from t h e surface.
This is caused by t h e d e c r e a s e in m a g n e t i c flux density with distance resulting from
finite probe diameter. Figure 5.5(a) shows t h e e x t e n t of this d e c r e a s e for t h r e e
probes of different diameters. Note, for example, t h e sensitivity of t h e smallest
probe (5 m m diameter) decreases a f a c t o r of four when moved about 1 mrn from t h e
surf ace.
This loss of sensitivity with distance also apply t o d e f e c t s in a solid, in addition t h e r e
will be a d e c r e a s e d u e to skin d e p t h attenuation.

Figure 5.5(b) illustrates t h e d e c r e a s e in si nal amplitude with subsurface d e f e c t depth

f
without skin depth a t t e n u a t i o n (solid lines a n d with skin depth a t t e n u a t i o n (dashed
lines). With large skin depths (low test frequency) t h e d e c r e a s e in subsurface d e f e c t
sensitivity with d e p t h is similar to t h e d e c r e a s e in sensitivity with distance for
surface d e f e c t s shown in Figure 5.5(a). This im lies magnetic flux density decreases
with distance from t h e coil in air as in a solid /'without skin depth attenuation).
A t a typical t e s t frequency, where o n e skin d e p t h equals d e f e c t depth ( 6 = 2 m m
for t h e dashed lines in Figure 5.5(b)), a f u r t h e r decrease, by about a f a c t o r of t h r e e ,
in signal amplitude at x = 2 m m is a t t r i b u t e d t o skin depth attenuation. This occurs
since at o n e skin depth eddy c u r r e n t density is 37% of s u r f a c e eddy c u r r e n t density.
T h e decrease in d e f e c t sensitivity with d e p t h in a f i n i t e thickness sample, without
skin d e p t h attenuation, is approximately t h e s a m e as in a n infinitely thick sample.
However, with skin depth attenuation, d e f e c t sensitivity decreases less rapidly than
t h e dashed lines in Figure 5.5(b); t h e c u r v e would fall somewhere in between t h e
dashed and solid lines.
 In general, t h e decrease in defect sensitivity with depth is determined by probe size
rather than skin depth attenuation. Since most defects a r e not much longer than
L sample thickness, one cannot use probes with coil diameter much larger than sample
thickness (because of loss in sensitivity with defect length, Figure 5.6). Eddy current
testing with surface probe is therefore normally limited t o thicknesses less than
5 mm.
5.3.2 Effect of Defect Length
Eddy current flow is limited t o t h e a r e a of t h e inducing magnetic field which is a
function of coil geometry; defect sensitivity is proportional t o coil diameter in a
surface probe, and t o gap width in a horseshoe probe. As a general rule, probe
diameter should be equal t o or less than t h e expected defect length. The e f f e c t of
probe diameter and defect length is shown in Figure 5.6. For example, when defect
length equals probe diameter, t h e signal amplitude ranges from one-third t o two-
thirds of the amplitude for an infinitely long crack depending on probe diameter and
test frequency.
The sensing a r e a of a probe is t h e a r e a under t h e coil plus a n extended area due t o
.
t h e magnetic field spread. The effective diameter, D e f f of a probe is
approximately equal t o t h e coil diameter, D, , plus four skin depths,

At high frequencies the 4 6 term will be small and t h e sensing diameter can be
assumed t o be about equal t o coil diameter, but at low t e s t frequencies t h e rnagnetic
field spread can be significant. In this case it is common t o use ferrite cups t o
contain t h e field. This results in a concentrated field without affecting depth of
penetration.
 -
, ,
, 1 m PROBE O l l U E T t R

1.3 m PROBE O l l Y E T E R

I MHz = 0.36 Rm
C

r g 8 ~ ~ o= 1.16
~ ~ mz
C 0
W

I I I I I I I 1 I I
0 2 4 6 8 10 I2 14 16 18 20 22

FIGURE 5.6
Effect of Defect Length

COMPARISON BETWEEN SURFACE AND THROUGH-WALL INSPECTION

The major limitation of conventional eddy current methods is lack of penetration.

Figure 5.7(a) illustrates typical results obtained with t h e conventional eddy current
method, where t h e probe is placed on one side only of a 4 mm thick, 100 m m
diameter tube. Test frequency is 30 kHz and skin depth, 6 = 1 7 m m Note t h e
drastic decrease in signal amplitude and t h e significant phase rotation of t h e defect
signals with depth. A defect has t o be long and very d e e p before i t can b e picked up
from t h e opposite side of t h e tube wall. This decrease in sensitivity with depth is due
t o both finite probe s i t e and skin depth attenuation.
Figure 5.703) illustrates typical results obtained with through-wall transmission
equipment where excitation and receive coils were located directly opposite each
other across t h e wall. The probes were conventional absolute pancake type surface
probes. The output signal appears a s a 'figure 8' because t h e signal was filtered
(differentiated).
 I
r

JURFPCE
5UPFACE

75% FRO'.
~~~
I\ ,
/INSIDE
TUBE
ROTATION

SURFACE
GROOVE
\'
>URFACk

OUTSIDE
S U R F A C E SROOVE

1voir
1
L

O.D. SLIRFACE 25% 50% 75% I . D . SURFACE

GROOVE GROOVE
A M F L I T U O E OF D E F E C T S I G N A L , Y C O U P O N E N 1

0 D . GROOVE \ 25% 50% I . D . GQOOVE

v 0.8 DEEP
3.3 "'F DEEP qm

!3 mm L o r 6 HOLES. 0.8 rc ~ I A . 13 mm LONG 13 LONG

X-Y DISPLAY OF DEFECT SICNALS

(a) Conventional Surface Probe Results

25% 50% 75%

O,D, v I,D,
GROOVE HOLES GROOVE

A M P L I T U D E OF DEFECT S I G N A L S , Y COMPONENT X-Y DISPLAY OF DEFECT S IGNALS

(FILTERED)

(b) Through- Wall Transmission Results

FIGURE 5.7
Comparing Conventional and Through-Wall Transmission Techniques
 The Y-amplitude presentation in Figure 5.7(b) shows d e f e c t signal amplitude does not
change significantly with d e f e c t depth. It is important t o n o t e t h e phase of t h e
signals does not change with d e f e c t d e p t h when using t h e through-transmission
method a s shown in t h e X-Y display.

5.5 IMPEDANCE GRAPH DISPLAY

Impedance graphs a r e a n indispensable a i d in eddy current inspections. An
understanding of t h e s e graphs provides a n o p e r a t o r a clear picture of all variables and
t h e ability for appropriate action t o minimize e f f e c t s of adverse conditions.

All information a b o u t t h e test a r t i c l e is t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e test coil via t h e magnetic

field. The variation of t h e magnetic flux, 4 , with t i m e induces a voltage, V, across
t h e test coil which, by Faraday's Law, depends on t h e magnitude and r a t e of change
of $ and on t h e number of turns in t h e coil, N

= - LdI/dt since 4 = LI/N.

The variation in amplitude and phase of t h i s voltage vector indicates t h e condition of

t h e test article. The voltage vector c a n b e resolved into t h e t w o quadratures, in-
phase V o , and out-of-phase V g o .
Since V = IZ a n d I is k e p t approximately
constant, t h e voltage graph c a n b e replaced with t h e impedance graph, as discussed in
Section 3.3.

Impedance depends not only on t e s t a r t i c l e variables but also on probe parameters. 4

The probe parameters a r e coil diameter, number of turns, length, and c o r e material.
The instrument parameter t h a t a f f e c t s impedance is test frequency (since
f a d $ / d t ) . To overcome t h e necessity of plotting impedance graphs for e a c h
t e s t coil, probe impedance is normalized. The graphs c a n t h e n b e used t o study t h e
e f f e c t of t e s t a r t i c l e variations without dependence of probe details.

T h e inductive r e a c t a n c e component is normalized by dividing by t h e product of

frequency and coil inductance ( w L o when t h e probe is away from test material (in
air).

where w is angular frequency, radians/second

L is inductance, henries
Lo is inductance of coil in air, henries
XL is reactance, ohms
Xo is r e a c t a n c e of coil in air, ohms
 I
A IR
TEST A R T I C L E
l NDUCT IVE
REACTANCE

ART'IC L E
{ AIR
I \

-
wL
WLo

u RES l STANC
I ROC I

( a) BEFORE NORMALI Z4T I ON (b) AFTER NORMALI ZAT 1ON

FIGURE 5.8
Coil Impedance Display

The resistive component is normalized by subtracting coil wire and cable resistance,
R D C , a n d t h e n d i v i d i n g by wLo ,

where R L is coil resistive load due t o eddy currents in t e s t material.

The normalized components X / X o a nd R / X a r e dimensionless and independent
4 4
of both coil inductance and coi wire and c a b e resistance. Changes in t h e normalized
parameters indicate variations in eddy current flow into t h e test article only. Figure
5.8 displays probe impedance before and a f t e r normalization. Changes in t h e t e s t
article a r e reflected by a change in impedance point P. Figures 5.9 t o 5.1 1 a r e
normalized coil impedance graphs, produced by computer simulation, showing the
change in the point P for the following sample variables: electrical resistivity
permeability, and thickness. Figures 5.12 and 5.13 show e f f e c t s of test frequency and
coil diameter.
 1.6 ----
- CONSTANT PERCIEIBILITY. p ,
CONSTANT R E S I S T I V I T Y , P

,1 . 2
U
p - 700rtl.cm
U

g
w
N
1.0 p - 170

p = 53

P p ' 1.7

'1.12 (COPPER I FREQUENCY ' 5 0

LIFT-OFF ' 0
LIFT-OFF. THICK PLATE

NORCULIZED RESISTANCE NORCULILED RESl STANCE

FIGURE 5.9 FIGURE 5.10

Impedance Graph-Resistivity Effect Impedance Graph-Permeability Effect

0.9
\ FREQUENCY, k H z

0.04
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
NORWLIZED RESISTANCE
N O R W L I Z E D RESISTANCE

FIGURE 5.11 FIGURE 5.12

Impedance Graph-Thickness Effect Impedance Graph-Frequency Effect
5.5.1 Effect of Resistivity
Figure 5.9 shows t h e e f f e c t of electrical resistivity f o r a range of conducting
materials. The impedance point moves up t h e curve with increasing resistivity.
Impedance points for s t e p changes in coil t o test article spacing between zero and
infinity a r e also included. Note t h a t a small increase in spacing (lift-off) produces a
large impedance change. This results from decreased magnetic flux coupling t o t h e
sample. There would be a relatively larger e f f e c t on t h e impedance of a small coil
than on t h e impedance of a large coil for t h e s a m e change in spacing.
5.5.2 Effect of Per meability
Note in Figure 5.10 there is a large impedance increase for a small increase in
permeability. Small permeability changes c a n obscure other test variables.

5.5.3 Effect of Thickness

Figure 5.1 1 t r a c e s t h e impedance point path a s sample thickness decreases from
infinity t o zero. As t e s t material becomes thinner, causing increased resistance t o
eddy currents, t h e impedance point moves up t h e curve. This was also t h e c a s e in t h e
resistivity graph, Figure 5.9. This implies t h a t any condition causing an increase in
resistance t o flow of eddy currents, cracks, thinning, alloying elements, temperature,
etc., will basically move t h e impedance point up t h e curve towards t h e probe
impedance in air, X L / X , = l .
The impedance curve in Figure 5.1 1, from t h e knee down, makes a reversal swirl a s
t h e probe moves across a conductor with increasing thickness. This is due t o skin
depth and phase lag effects which overshadow a l l basic movements of t h e impedance
point.
5.5.4 Effect of Frequency

Figure 5.12 shows t h e e f f e c t of test frequency (an instrument parameter). As

frequency is increased, eddy currents a r e sampling a thinner layer close t o t h e
surface (skin depth effect, discussed in Chapter 2). When frequency is decreased eddy
currents penetrate deeper into t h e material and t h e impedance point moves up the
curve.
Towards the upper end of t h e curve, impedance is mainly composed of resistance
which has a g r e a t dependency on temperature, both in t h e test article and in coil wire
resistance (although t h e l a t t e r does not appear on this normalized curve). I t is
therefore desirable, when possible, t o operate near t h e knee of t h e curve say,
20 t o 200 kHz in this example.

5.5.5 Effect of Probe Diameter

Figure 5.13 shows e f f e c t of coil diameter (a probe parameter). Note increasing coil
diameter moves t h e impedance point down t h e curve, similar t o increasing frequency.
When t e s t conditions dictate use of a low frequency, t h e operating point can often be
brought down t h e curve t o t h e desired knee region by increasing coil diameter
(provided test conditions will permit a large probe).
 11 1
LIFT-OFF
1-
7

rnm

Frequency = 50 kliz

FIGURE 5.13
Impedance Graph-Surface Coil Diameter Effect

5.5.6 Comparison of Experimental and Computer Impedance Diaprams

The impedance graphs shown in Figure 5.9 t o 5.12, produced by computer simulation,
can be verified using a standard eddy current instrument. Figure 5.14 shows probe
response t o various test variables: resistivity, permeability, lift-off, and test
frequency. The sold lines a r e output voltage t r a c e s generated by varying probe-to-
test article spacing (lift-off) from infinity t o contact with various conducting
samples, while keeping test frequency constant at 10 kHz, and again at 100 kHz. The
dashed lines, connecting t h e points when t h e probe was in contact with t h e samples,
were sketched in t o show t h e similarity between these graphs and t h e normalized
impedance graphs in t h e preceding section. Note t h a t t h e points move down t h e curve
with increasing conductivity and also with increased frequency. For example, t h e
operating point for 304 sst moved from t h e t o p of t h e impedance diagram at 10 kHz
t o near t h e knee a t 100 kHz.
 AIR

l N O U C T l VE INDUCT l VE
REACTANCE REACTANCE
SST

BRASS
f = I00 kHz

Cu

-
R RESISTANCE -
R RESISTANCE

wL0 wL0

(a) (b)

FIGURE 5.14
Probe Response to Variws Test Parameters at Two Frequencies

5.6 CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETER

In Section 5.5 impedance graphs were normalized t o make test article parameters
independent of probe properties such as inductance. Another method, proposed by
W.E. Deeds, C.V. Dodd and co-workers, combines frequency and probe diameter
with test material parameters, to form one characteristic parameter (2).
-
where
-r is mean coil radius
w is angular frequency
ur is relative magnetic permeability ( ~ 1 . 0for nonmagnetic materials) d
and a is e l e c t tical conductivity.

Using this characteristic parameter, one impedance graph c a n be plotted t o describe

four test parameters with P, a s t h e only variable.

1 .o

0.9
L I FT -OFF CONSTA
7 = COIL MEAN RAOlU
0.8

0.7
PERMEABILITY
0.6 u = ELECTRICAL
I! I\ I/ I CONDUCT l V l TY I

0 005 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35

NORMAL l ZED RES l STANCE

FIGURE 5.15
Impedance Diagram with Characteristic Parameter, PC

Consider Figure 5.15. The solid lines a r e generated by starting with P C equal t o zero
and increasing t h e value t o infinity (while holding coil t o t e s t article spacing
constant). The dashed lines a r e generated by starting with t h e coil infinitely far
away from t h e t e s t article and bringing t h e coil closer until it contacts (while holding
P C constant). Note t h e similarity between these curves and t h e impedance graphs
shown in preceding sections (the horizontal scale is twice t h e vertical scale).
The usefulness of t h e characteristic p a r a m e t e r is t h a t it provides a modelling
parameter. Conditions of similarity a r e m e t when

Test 1 Test 2

SPECIMEN 0-0

STORAGE
OSCl LLOSCOPE
0 l SPLAY

NOMENCLATURE

\ Rs
V
I
VOLTAGE
- CURRENT
w - ANGULAR FREQUENCY
(W = 2 w f )

Lo PROBE INDUCTANCE
I N AIR
R,, - PROBE W l RE L CABLE
OC RESISTANCE
R, - SRCIMEN AC RSISTANCE
SUBSCRI PTS :
T TOTAL
L -
INDUCTANCE
R .
RESISTANCE
P -
PRIMARY
S -
SECONDARY

FICURE 5.16
Coil Impedance/Voltage Display
T e s t conditions with t h e s a m e P, value have t h e s a m e operating point o n t h e
normalized impedance graph. If, for example, test a r t i c l e resistivity measurements
were required (for checking consistency of alloying e l e m e n t s f o r instance), t h e best
accuracy would b e achieved by operating n e a r t h e k n e e of t h e c u r v e w h e r e t h e r e is
good discrimination against lift-off. (Equation 5.4 does n o t include skin d e p t h e f f e c t s ,
which may b e a n overriding consideration).
To o p e r a t e a t t h e k n e e position in Figure 5.15 a probe diameter and frequency
combination a r e selected such t h a t P c. 5 1 0 . T h e value of P in equation 5.4 is
given in SI units; we c a n use t h e followmg version using more familiar units.

where
-r is t h e mean radius, mrn
f is frequency, H z
p is electrical resistivity , micohm-cent i m e t r e
( v, 1 for nonferromagnetic material)

I t should b e noted t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a r a m e t e r , P C , m u s t b e used in conjunction

with Figure 5.15 (obtained analytically); i t cannot b e used to obtain Figure 5.15.
DEFINITION OF "PHASE" TERMINOLOGY

This section a t t e m p s to clarify t h e concept of phase. T h e voltageJirnpedance graphs,

presented in Section 5.5, a r e used as a link between impedance diagrams and t h e
display on a n eddy c u r r e n t instrument monitor.
In eddy c u r r e n t work t h e most confusing a n d o f t e n incorrectly used t e r m is PHASE. w
P a r t of t h e problem arises because of t h e existence of t w o eddy c u r r e n t methods, coil
impedance and send-receive. In this section a n a t t e m p t is made t o clarify s o m e of t h e
multiple uses of the word.
Figure 5.16 shows t h e impedance of a probe touching test material. The t w o a x e s
represent t h e quadrature components, v a n d V R, of voltage across a coil. In t h e
t
absence of real numbers, t h e a x e s c a n a so b e c o n s ~ d e r e das t h e normalized
p a r a m e t e r s oL/wLo and R L / wL,.
T h e following list summarizes uses of t h e t e r m PHASE. O n e o r Inore of t h e s e a r e
o f t e n used without a d e q u a t e explanation because t h e t e r m will have a colloquial
meaning.
1. ol, - Arctan
voltage vector.
-
WL
L
, angle between t o t a l voltage vector and resistive

NOTE: An impedance bridge measures amplitude of t h e impedance vector

Z and t h e angle Q where t h e resistance includes %c This vector could
therefore not b e shown on Figure 5.16. (It is shown on t h e impedance
diagram in Figure 5.8(a)).
2. AO1. Change in phase o f normalized resultant voltage vector as probe is moved
over a defect.
 3. 0 , . Phase between secondary voltage (induced voltage) and primary voltage
(excitation voltage). Send-receive instruments measure secondary voltage.
4. AO,, Change in phase of secondary voltage as probe is moved over a defect.
This is approximately t h e phase measured by some send-receive eddy
current instruments without X-Y outputs.
5. G3, Phase between t h e voltage signals obtained from LIFT-OFF and a crack o r
void. I t is related t o PHASE LAC 0 explained bel0w.(0~ is about double
t h e phase lag.)
o 3 is used t o estimate defect depth during ET.
6. B, PHASE LAG (not shown in Figure 5.16) of eddy currents below the surface
relative t o those a t the surface. It was derived in the eddy current density
equation Chapter 2, i.e. 6 = x/6 for semi-infinite plates, where x is
the distance below the surface and 6 is in radians.
7. 0 Many eddy current instruments have a PHASE knob by which t h e entire
4' impedance voltage plane display can b e rotated. It is common practice t o
r o t a t e t h e display t o make LIFT-OFF horizontal. (on a n eddy current
instrument display, absolute orientation of inductive and resistive axes
rnay be unknown).

8. 0). Phase between inductive voltage and current in a circuit; 8

5
- gom

5.8 SELECTION OF TEST FREQUENCY

L 5.8.1 Inspecting for Defects

The first question t h a t must b e answered before proceeding with an inspection is: For
what type of defects is t h e inspection being done? If t h e defects a r e cracks: What is
t h e smallest defect t h a t must b e detected? Are t h e cracks surface or subsurface?
Are they likely t o be laminar cracks or normal t o t h e test surface? A single general
inspection procedure t o verify t h e absence of any and a l l types of defects of ten has
little merit. Inspections often require two o t more test frequencies and/or different
probes t o accurately identify defects.
Test, f requency can be selected without knowledge of t h e character is tic parameter,
P, ,or t h e operating point on t h e impedance graph. I t should be chosen for good
discrimination between defects and other variables. The most troublesome variable is
LIFT-OFF variations, so separation of d e f e c t s from lift-off is t h e forernost
consideration.
Only t h e skin depth equation has t o be used,

A t e s t frequency where 6 is about equal t o t h e expected defect depth provides good

phase separation between lift-off and d e f e c t signals. Figure 5.17 illustrates t h e
display on an eddy current instrument monitor as a probe passes over surface and
 L I F T -OFF /
SURFACE CRACK

SUBSURFACE

2 5 9-
INCREASING
VOlO ( A )

SUBSURFACE
VOID ( 8 )

\ L I F T -OFF

\ SUBSURFACE
SUBSURFACE
VOlD ( A )
X - Y DEFECT SIGNALS
SURFACE VOID ( 0 )
CRACK

FIGURE 5.17
Typical Response Signals for Two Types of Defects

subsurface defects. Test frequency is such t h a t 6 equals depth of deepest defect, and
instrument controls a r e selected such t h a t a signal from lift-off is horizontal. Note
t h e difference in signal amplitude and angle relative t o lift-off of subsurface voids A u
and R. This results from skin depth attenuation and phase lag.

If, during inspection, a signal indicating a defect is observed, t e s t frequency may be

altered t o verify whether t h e signal represents a real defect o r t h e e f f e c t of another
variable. This discussion is expanded in t h e next chapter under Signal Analysis.

5.8.2 Measuring Resistivity

Resistivity can be measured a t small localized areas or by sampling a larger volurne
of a test article t o determine bulk resistivity. The volume of material interrogated
depends on probe size and t e s t frequency. For bulk measurements a large probe would
b e used and a low frequency t o maximize penetration. The skin depth equation is
again used t o estimate depth of penetration at t h e t e s t frequency.
Electrical resistivity measurement is a comparative technique; reference samples of
known resistivity must b e used for calibration. Variables t h a t a f f e c t t h e accuracy of
resistivity measurement a r e lift-off, temperature, and chan es in t h e flow of eddy
'i
currents in t e s t articles not related t o electrical resistivity such as cracks, thickness
and surface geometry).

For best discrimination between resistivity and other variables t h e operating point on
a n impedance graph should b e considered. Figure 5.12 illustrated t h e e f f e c t of test
frequency on normalized probe impedance. At t h e top of t h e graph the angle,
between lift-off variations and t h e resistivity curve, is small. Moving down t h e curve
t h e angle, separating t h e two variables, increases towards t h e knee with no
appreciable change beyond that. However, small lift-off variations, at t h e bottom of
t h e curve, produce a large impedance change. The best operating point is somewhere
between t h e two extremes, near t h e knee of t h e impedance curve.

FIGURE 5.18
Resistivity Measurement and t h e Impedance Graph

Figure 5.18 shows t h e method of manipulating test conditions t o best deal with lift-
off. Figure 5.18(a) shows t h e resistivity impedance curve with a frequency and probe
selected t o operate near t h e knee. Figure 5.18(b) is a n enlarged section of t h e curve
rotated so lift-off signals a r e approximately horizontal. This is t h e view on an eddy
current instrument monitor.

Next consider temperature effects. First, test article resistivity will be a function of
temperature so test sample and standards should b e at uniform temperature. A
greater potential error is in probe wire resistance, R E . The coil wire resistance is a
part of t h e probe impedance circuit, so variations in temperature which affect coil
resistance will appear as an impedance change. For greatest accuracy, t h e inductive
reactance, X L ,should be large compared t o coil wire resistance; X L / % ~ > 50
is desirable.

Obviously this condition is not easily satisfied at low t e s t frequencies where inductive
reactance is low. One solution is t o use a large diameter probe cupped in ferrite. The
large diameter and ferrite cup will both increase X L / R E .
Another solution is t o use a Send-Receive instrument. Such an instrument has a high
input impedance, sensing only voltage changes in t h e receive coil. Coil wire
resistance is insignificantly small in comparison t o instrument impedance and
therefore has no effect.
Consider next t h e e f f e c t of changes in eddy current path not related t o electrical
resistivity. If t h e t e s t is supposed t o be a measurement of electrical resistivity,
thickness should not influence t h e signal. The skin depth equation must again be used.
Test article thickness should b e equal t o o r greater than three skin depths, t 2 3 8 ,
t 23 x 0 , rum

or
- r 2-22500 , Hz
2
t
where t is thickness, p is resistivity in microhm-centirnetres, and f is frequency

Other sources of signals a r e edge e f f e c t s and surface geometry. When t h e t e s t

article's edge is within t h e probe's magnetic field, a n increase in resistance t o eddy
current flow will be detected. Edge e f f e c t can b e reduced by probe design, such a s a
ferrite cupped probe, or by increasing t e s t frequency.
If t h e surface of t h e test article is contoured, t h e magnetic flux coupling will differ
f torn that of a flat surface and a correction factor may be required.

Cracks or voids a r e usually less of a problem. The signal frorn a crack will be very
localized whereas resistivity variations a r e usually more gradual. The best procedure
t o determine if a localized signal is from a change in resistivity is t o rescan with a
smaller probe at higher and lower frequency (at least three times and one third t h e
t e s t frequency). The angle between t h e signals frorn lift-off and resistivity should
vary only slightly whereas t h e angle between lift-off and defect signals will increase
with frequency.
An example of resistivity variations in a zirconium alloy, due t o a change in oxygen
concentration, is shown in Figure 5.19.
 TEST ARTICLE WIDTH

( 3 5 cm)

X ,VOLTS

(a) X -Y OISPLAY OF C O l L IMPEOANCE FROM

CHANGE I N ELECTRICAL R E S I S T I V I T Y

(b) MOD1 F l ED C -SCAN D l SPLAY l NG Y -COY PONENT

OF C O l L IMPEDANCE VECTOR FROM A CHANGE
I N ELECTRICAL R E S I S T I V I T Y

FIGURE 5.19
Eddy Current Signals from a Change in Electrical Resistivity m the
Surface of a Zr-Nb Test Article. Test Frequency = 300 kHz.

5.8.3 Measuring Thickness

Test frequency should be chosen s o 'lift-off' and 'change in thickness' signals are
separated by a 90' phase angle, see Figure 5.20(a). This frequency can be calculated
using the skin depth equation. A reasonable approximation for thin sections is
obtained when

which converts to

f = 1.6 p/t2 , kHz (5.7a)

 where 6 is skin depth, mm
t is test article thickness, mm
P is electrical resistivity, p 8 a n
f is frequency, kHz
Pr is relative permeability (u, = 1 for nonferromagnetic material).
In testing thick material, this equation can similarly be used t o choose a test
frequency t o separate lift-off and subsurface defect signals by 90'. Equation 5.7(a)
can be used by replacing t with x,

where x is depth of subsurface defect.

EDDY CURRENT INSTRUMENT MONITOR DISPLAY

I ' MONl TOR

OISIL1Y

FIGURE 5.20
Thickness Measurement and the Impedance Graph

Conventional thickness measurement is t o display t h e lift-off signal horizontal (along

t h e X axis) and use t h e vertical signal (along t h e Y axis) t o measure thickness, see
Figure 5.20(b). If t h e signal on t h e instrument monitor is s e t t o move from right t o
left a s t h e probe is moved away from t h e test article, a vertical movement up or
down denotes decreasing and increasing thickness respectively.

5.8.4 Measuring Thickness of a Non-Conducting Layer on a Conductor

An insulating layer will not conduct eddy currents so measurement of its thickness is
essentially a lift-off measurement (provided i t is non-ferromagnetic), i.e. t h e
distance between t h e coil and test article. At high test frequency a small variation in
 lift-off produces a large change in probe impedance a s shown in t h e impedance graph
of Figure 5.9.
To minimize t h e signal from variations in t h e base material, t h e test should therefore
be done at t h e highest practical frequency. The maximum frequency would b e limited
by probe-to-instrument impedance matching, cable resonance problems and cable
noise.

The measurement is a comparative technique so standard reference thicknesses must

be used for calibration.

5.8.5 Measuring Thickness of a Conducting Layer on a Conductor

Measurement of t h e thickness of a conducting layer on a conducting t e s t article can
b e done provided t h e r e is a difference in electrical resistivity ( Ap) between t h e
two. The measurement is essentially t h e s a m e a s t h e thickness measurement
described in Section 5.8.3. There is one important difference; variables in t h e base
plate, in addition t o t h e variables in t h e layer, will affect t h e signal.

Figure 5.21(a) shows a computer simulation of a layer thickness measurement. The

model shows t h e magnitude and direction of variables when attempting t o measure a
layer (clad 11, nominally 0.75 mm thick, with resistivity P = 3 uf2.cm on a base
(clad 2) with resistivity 5 ufl. cm. The plot is part of a normalized impedance graph.
In addition t o material property variables, t h e parameter of space (gap) between t h e
layers is shown a s well a s t h e e f f e c t of an increase in test coil temperature. At
10 kHz, t / 6 is 0.8 and, a s predicted, t h e angle separating signals from lift-off and
layer (clad 1) thickness is about 90'. Unfortunately, so a r e t h e signals from test coil
temperature, gap, and resistivity of the base (clad 3). Some of these parameters can
b e discriminated against a t higher and/or lower t e s t frequencies.

R I Y C E O F V I R l I B L E S SHOWN I N C O W P U T O R P L O T S

r~0Yt"c.l .
I0 **I
101

FIGURE 5.21
Computer Simulation of a Multi-Layw Sample
PROBE-CABLE RESONANCE
Probe-cable resonance must b e considered when operating a t high test frequencies
and/or using long signal cables, e.g., frequencies greater than 100 kHz and cables
longer than 30 m. Most general purpose eddy current instruments cannot operate at
or close t o resonance.
Probe-cable resonance can be modelled as shown in figure 4.5. In simple terms,
resonance occurs when inductive reactance of t h e coil equals capacitance reactance
of t h e cable, i.e. when

where w is angular frequency, in radianstsecond. L is coil inductance in henries and

C is t o t a l cable capacitance in farads.

Transforming this equation and substituting w- 2rr f shows resonance occurs when
frequency is

This approach is sufficiently accurate for most practical applications. A more

rigorous approach t o resonance is presented in Section 4.3.
Resonance is apparent when a probe and cable combination, which balances a t a low
frequency, will not balance as frequency is increased. At t h e approach of resonance,
t h e balance lines on t h e eddy current storage monitor will not converge t o a null.
The two blancing (X and R) controls will produce nearly parallel lines rather than t h e
normal perpendicular traces, on t h e storage monitor. A number of steps can b e taken
t o avoid resonance:
1. Operate a t a test frequency below resonance, such that f is less than r
2. Select a probe with lower inductance. (Since f , is proportional t o 1/
inductance must b e decreased by a factor of four t o double resonant frequency).
3. Reduce cable length or use a cable with lower capacitance per unit length (such
a s multi-coax cables). This will raise t h e resonance frequency since capacitance

4.
is proportional t o cable length and f , is proportional t o I/ /F:
Operate a t a t e s t frequency above resonance, such that f is greater than 1. 2 f r 0
However, above resonance t h e sensitivity of all eddy current instruments
decreases rapidly with increasing frequency because capacitive reactance
( X ,=I / w C) decreases, and current short circuits across t h e cable, rather
than passing through t h e coil.
5.10 SUMMARY

Test probes induce eddy currents and also sense t h e distortion of their flow caused by
defects. Surface probes contain a coil mounted with i t s axis perpendicular t o t h e test
specimen. Because i t induces eddy currents t o flow in a circular path i t can be used
t o sense all defects independent of orientation, as long as they have a component
perpendicular t o t h e surface. It cannot b e used t o d e t e c t laminar defects.
For good sensitivity t o short defects, a small probe should be used; probe diameter
should be approximately equal or less than t h e expected length. Sensitivity t o short
subsurface defects decreases drastically with depth, even a 'thint 5 mm sample is
considered very thick for eddy current testing.
The analysis of eddy current signals is t h e most important and unfortunately t h e most
difficult task in a successful inspection. A thorough understanding of impedance
graphs is essential t o manipulate test conditions t o minimize undesirable test
variables. The characteristic parameter for surface probes is used t o locate the
operating point on t h e impedance diagram. I t is given by

where is mean coil radius, mm; f is t e s t frequency, Hz; and p is electrical

resistivity, microhm-centimeters.
The criterion for defect detection with impedance plane instruments is phase
discrimination between lift-off noise and d e f e c t signals. Test frequency is chosen
such t h a t 'lift-of ft and 'change in wall thickness' signals a r e separated by a 90" phase
angle. This can be derived from t h e following equation:
2
f -1.6plt ,kHz (5-7)

where t is sample thickness, mm.

If inspection is performed a t high t e s t frequencies and/or with longcables, i t is
desirable t o operate below probe-cable resonance frequency. This is norrnally
achieved by using a probe of sufficiently low inductance.
To optimize test results, t h e inspector has control over probe size and test frequency.
In choosing probe diameter t h e following must b e considered:

operating point on impedance diagram

probe inductance and resistance
sensing a r e a
sensitivity t o d e f e c t length
sensitivity t o d e f e c t depth
sensitivity t o lift-off
sensitivity changes across coil diameter (zero at centre)
sensitivity changes with f e r r i t e core o r cup.
Choice of test frequency depends on:
(a) depth of penetration
(b) phase lag
 (c) operating point on impedance diagram
(d) inductive reactance
(e) probe-cable resonance

5.11 WORKED EXAMPLES

5.11.1 Effective Probe Diameter
PR0BLEM:Determine sensing diameter of a 5 mm probe when
(a) testing 316 stainless steel ( P = 7 2 microhrn-centimetres) a t
2 MHz,
and
(b) testing brass ( P = 6 . 2 microhm-centimetres) a t 10 kHz.

SOLUTION:

Characteristic Parameter
PROBLEM: If a n available probe had coil dimensions of 10 mm outer diameter
resistivity measurements of a zirconium alloy ( P
centimetres).
-
and 4 mm inner diameter, determine t h e best frequency for
5 0 ~nicrohrn-

SOLUTION: The best frequency for resistivity measurenents is when t h e

operating point is at t h e knee location on t h e impedance diagram.
This occurs when t h e characteristic parameter P ,110. Using
equation 5.5,
PC - 7.9 x 10
4
j2
-4 1 0 . 0 + 4.0 150 = lO

therefore, f = 50 kHz.
(This calculation places no emphasis on skin depth effect, which may
be a n overriding consideration).
 -
CHAPTER 6 SURFACE PROBE SIGNAL ANALYSIS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing and preventive maintenance inspection of "flatw components with
surface probes is one of t h e oldest and most important applications of eddy current
testing. Manufacturing inspection of small steel components for defects and hardness
is almost exclusively performed by eddy current methods. For safety reasons and
preventive maintenance (savings on replacement costs and downtime) inspection of
aircraft components for cracks and h e a t t r e a t m e n t effects has been performed since
commercial aircraft first went into service. Eddy current testing is one of t h e most
effective NDT methods for t h e above applications because i t doesn't need couplants,
i t is fast, and 100% volumetric inspection is of ten possible.
This chapter describes how t o maximize signal-to-noise by proper choice of test
frequency and minimizing ttlift-offtt noise. Emphasis is given t o signal analysis and
how t o recognize and discriminate between defect signals and false indications. An
a t t e m p t is made throughout this chapter t o illustrate discussions with real or
simulated eddy current signals.
6.2 EDDY CURRENT SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS
Defect Signal Amplitude
A defect, which disrupts eddy current flow, changes test coil impedance as t h e coil is
scanned past a defect. This condition is showm pictorially in Figure 6.1 which
portrays eddy currents induced by a surface probe in a defective plate. Eddy currents
flow in closed loops as illustrated in Figure 6.lta). When a defect interferes with t h e
normal path, current is forced t o flow around o r under i t o r is interrupted completely.
The increased distance of t h e distorted path increases t h e resistance to current just
a s a long length of wire has more resistance than a short length,
Eddy currents always t a k e the path of least resistance; if a defect is very deep but
short, current will flow around t h e ends; conversely, if a defect is very long
(compared t o t h e coil diameter) but shallow, t h e current will flow underneath. In
summary, defect length and depth (and width t o some degree) increase resistance t o
eddy current flow and this, in turn, changes coil impedance. (The e f f e c t of defect
size on flow resistance in tube testing is derived in Section 8.2.1).
In terrns of t h e equivalent coil circuit of a resistor in parallel with a n inductor and its
associated semi-circular impedance diagram (Section 3.51, a defect moves t h e
operating point up t h e impedance diagram. Increasing resistance in a test article
changes both probe inductance and resistance.
In t h e preceding discussion t h e defect was considered t o disrupt t h e surface currents
closest t o t h e coil. Consider t h e difference between surface and subsurface defects.
When a surface probe is placed over a deep crack of infinite length, t h e surface
currents must pass underneath t h e defect if they are t o form a closed loop, see
Figure 6.2(a). This is not t h e case with subsurface defects as shown in Figure 6.2(b).
Although t h e void in this picture is not as far from t h e surface as t h e bottom of the
crack, t h e void may not b e detected. Eddy currents concentrate near t h e surface of a
conductor, and therefore, tests a r e more sensitive t o surface defects than internal
defects.
 I
EMVCURRENTS
TEST PLATE
TEST PLATE

I \ I EDOV CURRENT OlSTDRTlOU

AT CRACK

(b) EDDY CURRENTS TAKE THE PATH OF LEAST RESISTANCE

UNDER OR AROUND A DEFECT

EDDY CURRENTS FLOW I N CLOSED PATHS. A DEFECT

INTERFERES WITH THE NOKUAL PATH

FIGURE 6.1
Eddy Currents in a Defective Plate

The skin depth equation helps in t h e understanding of this phenomenon. In Chapter 2

i t was shown t h a t current density decreased with distance from t h e surface in t h e
following proportions:
- 63% of the current flows in a layer equivalent in thickness t o t h e skin depth, 6 ,
- 87% flows in a layer equivalent t o t w o skin depths, 2 6 ,
- 95% flows in a layer equivalent t o three skin depths, 3 6 .

SURFACE C O I L

w
'"-/'7
/
TEST PLATE

,,/
role

U
I
rr
Y
=
=w
-
YI
C
0 =
I a
L
C
w n
rr

-
C Y
YI 0

( a ) EDDY CURRENT FLOW UNDER A CRACK (b) EDDY CURRENT FLOW AROUND A
S U B S U R F A C E role

FIGURE 6.2
Eddy Current Flow in t h e P r e r a m of (a) Surface and (b) Subsurface Defect
Since only 5% of the current flows at depths greater than t h e 3 6 there is no
practical way t o d e t e c t a subsurface defect at this distance from t h e surface. But in
t h e case of a long surface defect 3 6 or greater in equivalent depth, most of t h e
current is flowing under t h e defect. Surface cracks will be detected and depth can be
estimated even if eddy current penetration is a small fraction of t h e defect depth.
Once eddy currents a r e generated in a metal surface, they will follow t h e contour of
a crack because a potential is set-up about t h e crack.
Defect Signal Phase
From t h e above description one cannot predict a d e f e c t signal in detail, only i t s
relative amplitude and direction on t h e impedance diagram. A more complete
explanation requires inclusion of phase lag. Consider t h e cross section of a surface
probe a s shown in Figure 6.3(a). This pictorial view shows t h e distribution of magnetic
field magnitude and phase around a coil as derived by Dodd(2). The solid lines a r e
contours of constant magnetic field strength; t h e dashed lines represent constant
phase. Since t h e magnetic field and induced eddy currents have approximately t h e
same phase, t h e dashed lines will also represent t h e phase ( B ) of t h e eddy currents.
Amplitude drops off exponentially with distance and eddy current flow increasingly
lags in phase (relative t o eddy currents adjacent t o t h e coil) both with depth and with
axial distance from t h e coil. Skin depth e f f e c t occurs in both radial and axial
directions.

Figure 6.3(a) permits an approximate derivation of eddy current signals for the
shallow surface, subsurface and deep surface defects illustrated. One needs t o
establish a reference phase direction as starting point; the LIFT-OFF direction is
convenient and can be defined a s t h e signal resulting from increasing t h e space
between t h e coil and t e s t article, starting from t h e point when t h e space is minimum.
The signal or e f f e c t of defects can be imagined as t h e absence of eddy currents which
were flowing in t h e area before t h e defect existed at this location. As t h e defects
approach t h e coil from positions 0 t o 5 in Figure 6.3(a), the signal on t h e eddy current
storage monitor moves from point 0 t o 5, tracing t h e curves illustrated in Figure
6.3(b). This procedure is reasonably straight forward for shallow surface and
subsurface defects since they a r e localized and only intersect one phase and
amplitude contour a t any given position. For t h e deep defect one has t o divide t h e
defect into sections and determine weighted average values for amplitude and phase
at each position.

The shallow surface defect in Figure 6.3(b) has a large component in t h e lift-off
direction; primarily its approach signal makes i t distinguishable from lift-off. As
defect depth increases, signals r o t a t e clockwise due t o increasing phase angle. The
-
angle indicated in Figure 6.3(b) is not t h e value calculated from the phase lag
equation,

where k? is phase lag (radians), x is distance of defect below t h e surface (mm) and 6 is
skin depth (mm).

The angle between lift-off and defect signals is about 2 8 .

Although probably not
strictly true, one can imagine defect phase angle as t h e sum of a lag from t h e coil t o
the defect and t h e same lag back t o t h e coil.
 DEEP DEFECT

SHALLOW D E F E C T

SUBSURFICE DEFECT

DEFECT P O S I T l O N

\
DEEP CEFECT

SUBSURFACE
OCFECI

SHALLOW D E F E C T

LIFT - OFF

FIGURE 6.3
Derivation of Eddy Current Signal Appearance for Three Types of Defects
 The foregoing discussion assumes t h a t t h e d e f e c t is a t o t a l barrier t o t h e flow of
current. Although this assumption is valid f o r rnost c r a c k s o r discontinuities, s o m e
c r a c k s a r e partial conductors. Fatigue cracks, f o r m e d when t h e test a r t i c l e is under a
tensile stress, c a n become tightly closed when s t r e s s is released. The result is t h a t
s o m e fraction of eddy currents could b e conducted across t h e c r a c k interface and t h e
magnitude of t h e coil impedance change d u e to t h e d e f e c t will b e less. The phase lag
argurnent is still valid; a d e e p c r a c k will still b e distinguishable from a shallow c r a c k
by t h e shape of t h e eddy current signal, but t h e sensitivity t o such a c r a c k will b e
reduced because of smaller amplitude.
6.3 EFFECT OF MATERIAL VARIATIONS AND DEFECTS IN A FINITE THICKNESS
For each test, one must decide o n t h e test frequency t o use and o n t h e phase setting.
The conventional way of s e t t i n g phase on a n eddy c u r r e n t instrument is t o display t h e
"lift-off" signal horizontally (on t h e X-axis) with t h e impedance point moving from
right-to-left as t h e probe is raised. All material variables will then display a n eddy
current signal at a n angle clockwise to t h e lift-off signal.

LIFT-OFF 1 . 5 mm I
p = 72 p a cm 2.0 mm
pr = 1 .O

L I FT -OFF L I FT 4 F F

FREQUENCY = 1 0 kHz FREQUENCY = 5 0 kHz FREQUENCY = 2 0 0 kHz

FIGURE 6.4
Probe Response t o Various Test P a r a m e t e r s at Three Frequencies

Discrimination between d e f e c t s and o t h e r variables is accomplished through p a t t e r n

recognition and varying test frequency. Figure 6.4 displays t h e change in coil
impedance loci for various parameters at different test frequencies. The e l e c t r i c a l
resistivity ( A D ) signal angle, relative t o lift-off, increases only slightly a s frequency
 FIGURE 6.5
Computer Simulation of Probe Response to Various Test Parameters
is increased, whereas a change in plate thickness ( A t ) signal angle continually
increases with frequency. The angle, between t h e signal from lift-off and plate
thickness change, equals about t w i c e t h e phase lag across t h e plate thickness. The
signal from a change in magnetic permeability ( A u of t h e plate is approximately
90" to t h e lift-off signal at low frequency and decreases only slightly with increasing
frequency.
Figure 6.5(a) illustrates a computer simulation of coil response t o various test
parameters. The simulation is based on t h e s a m e probe and test sample used i n t h e
previous figure. Comparison of these t w o figures reveals computer simulation gives
very realistic results.
Note at 50 kHz t h e increase in magnetic permeability signal (Au ) is t o t h e right of
t h e electrical resistivity signal for t h e 7 m m probe. F o r t h e 25 mm probe at 50 kHz i t
is t o t h e l e f t of t h e d p signal. As t h e operating point moves down t h e impedance
c u r v e with increasing probe diameter, a resistivity signal r o t a t e s CW relative t o a
permeability signal. Note also t h a t t h e permeability signal is not perfectly parallel t o
t h e inductive r e a c t a n c e axis. This is d u e t o t h e skin depth and phase lag changing
with permeability, rotating t h e signal CW.

During general inspection for all parameters in a thin plate test frequency is normally
chosen such t h a t 'lift-off' and 'change in p l a t e thickness' signals a r e separated by 90
on t h e impedance plane. This frequency is empirically derived by s e t t i n g ratio
between plate thickness and skin depth equal t o approximately 0.8,

Substituting in equation 2.1 3 yields

f = 1.6 plr2 , kHz

where p is electrical resistivity (microhm-centimetres), and t is plate thickness
(mm).
This frequency h a s been proven in practice on various conductivity samples and
various probe diameters. The 90' phase angle increases only slightly with increasing
probe diameter, see Figure 6.5(b). All d e f e c t signals (from surface o r subsurface
defects) will fall inside this 90" band. Shallow defects, c r a c k s o r pits, on t h e opposite
side of t h e plate will produce a signal whose angle approaches t h a t of wall thickness,
i.e 90". Shallow d e f e c t s on t h e s u r f a c e nearest t h e probe will produce a signal whose
angle is close t o t h a t of lift-off.
The t w o methods of discriminating between d e f e c t s and o t h e r variables, p a t t e r n
recognition and varying test frequency, complement each other. Consider signal
p a t t e r n behaviour d u e to nominal wall thickness and resistivity variations. These
variables normally change gradually along a sample. Whereas cracks, pits, and
subsurface voids o r inclusions exhibit a s t e p change. Discrimination between t h e s e
variables is enhanced by analyzing t h e i r behaviour at different test frequencies, a s
shown in Figures 6.4 and 6.5. An e x t r e m e l y important point t o remember is t h a t a l l
d e f e c t s will fall between t h e 'lift-off' signal angle a n d t h e 'decrease-in-wall-
thickness' signal angle regardless of frequency. (For practical applications t h i s
s t a t e m e n t is valid; however, t h e signal from a shallow d e f e c t with length g r e a t e r
than a probe diameter may dip slightly below t h e lift-off signal).
 CAL lBRAT l ON
CRACKS

SAMPLE: p = 50 p a cm

*
p, = 1 ' 0 0

CRACK
CRACK 2 mm DEEP NOTCH
2 m DEEP NOTCH

LIFT -OFF LI FT -OFF

I
0.5 mm DEEP NOTCH 0 . 5 mm DEEP NOTCH

FREQUENCY = 50 kHz FREQUENCY = 300 kHz

FIGURE 6.6
X-Y Display of Coil Impedance Vector from Calibration Grooves
and a Real Crack. Estimated Depth = 1.3 mm.

6.4 COIL IMPEDANCE CHANGES WITH DEFECTS

6.4.1 Surface Defect Measurement
Figure 6.6 illustrates t h e method used t o predict depth of surface defects. Pattern
recognition is used where coil impedance response from t h e defect is compared with
calibration defects. To estimate defect depth by pattern recognition, t h e real and
calibration d e f e c t signals must be comparable in amplitude. This can b e achieved by
changing t h e gain of t h e display (normally by decreasing t h e calibration defect
signals). Defect depth is estimated by interpolation.
Amplitude of defect signals is not a reliable parameter for estimating defect depth.
Amplitude is affected by length and t h e degree of contact across t h e two interfaces
(e.g., crack closure). Whereas t h e coil impedance locus (the X-Y display of coil
impedance) depends mainly on t h e integrated response with depth of t h e eddy current
phase lag.

6.4.2 Subsurface Defect Measurement

Signals from subsurface defects, Figure 6.10(b), have a n average phase angle relative
t o lift-off of approximately 2 B where 0 is t h e phase lag of t h e eddy currents at
 d e p t h x. This signal is similar t o a change in wall thickness signal and i t s phase was
denoted by 0 3 in Figure 5.16.
L
6.5 COIL IMPEDANCE CHANGES WITH OTHER VARIABLES
Ferromagnetic Indications
In eddy current testing t h e test coil is sensitive to many test parameters. O n e
variable t h a t o f t e n causes problems is magnetic permeability. A t common test
frequencies o n e c a n easily mistake a signal d u e to increased permeability
(ferromagnetic indication) for a serious defect. T h e following discussion briefly
outlines t h e problem and shows how one c a n differentiate between d e f e c t s and
ferromagnetic indications.

I t is generally recognized t h a t magnetic saturation is required f o r eddy current

testing of ferromagnetic alloys. Conversely, saturation is not usually employed when
testing %on-magnetic" alloys such as austenitic stainless s t e e l s and nickel base
alloys. Unfortunately, t h e s e alloys a n d a n y alloys containing iron, nickel o r cobalt
c a n display variations in magnetic permeability. This is caused by t h e strong
dependence of magnetic properties on metallurgical variables such as composition,
grain size, thermal processing, cold work, contamination and segregation.
The following a r e examples of ferromagnetic indications in nominally nonmagnetic
alloys which have been encountered:
- Ferromagnetism associated with manufacturing d e f e c t s in Inconel 600
extrusions (possibly from chromium depletion at t h e surface).
- Ferromagnetism associated with EDM calibration grooves in Type 304 stainless
steel.
- Permeability variations occuring in austenitic stainless s t e e l castings probably
d u e t o segregation (or possibly contamination).
- Ferromagnetic inclusions in zirconium alloys resulting from pick-up during
forming.
- Magnetite (Fe 3 0 4 1 deposits on h e a t exchanger tubes due to s t e e l corrosion
somewhere e l s e in t h e cooling system.
T h e f i r s t t w o types of d e f e c t s would h a v e made d e f e c t depth predictions seriously
inaccurate, and t h e last t h r e e t y p e s of ferromagnetic indications could have been
mistaken f o r d e f e c t s such as c r a c k s o r pitting.
Some of t h e anomalous ferromagnetic indications listed above could b e suppressed by
saturating t h e test a r e a with a permanent magnet possessing a flux density of a few
kilogauss. If saturation is not possible (or incomplete) t h e r e is another way t o
determine if a n indication is due to a d e f e c t o r a magnetic effect. The method
involves retesting at a much lower frequency. I t is illustrated in Figure 6.7 for t h e
case of a surface probe passing over d e f e c t s and a ferromagnetic inclusion.
At typical t e s t frequencies (100-500 kHz) there is little phase separation between t h e
signal from defects and magnetic inclusions. As test frequency is reduced, t h e
operating point moves up t o t h e impedance curve and defect signals r o t a t e a s shown.

FERMlYADlET lC
FERRWIAGIIET I C

NOTCH

2 m DEEP

LIFTOFF
0.5 m DEEP

-
I00 hHZ

2 nm OEEP
FERRO

\c,
' L 0.
0.5 m OEEP

FIGURE 6.7
Coil Impedance/Voltage Display at Three Frequencies

The important point t o note is t h a t relative t o lift-off, defect signals r o t a t e CCW

whereas t h e magnetic inclusion signal rotates CW and approaches 90' at low
frequency (approximately 10 kHz or lower for t h e above probe and sample). On t h e
impedance diagram of Figure 6.7 t h e direction of t h e ferromagnetic signal would not
vary appreciably with frequency; increased permeability primarily increases coil
inductance.
-
When a magnetic inclusion is not on t h e surface if i t is subsurface o r on t h e opposite
-
side of a thin test plate t h e r e is t h e added complication t h a t t h e angle of t h e signal
will be rotated relative t o t h e angle of a ferromagnetic indication on t h e surface
adjacent t o t h e coil. This arises from phase lag across t h e plate thickness. The
previous approach of retesting a t reduced frequency will also serve t o distinguish
between defects and magnetic inclusions. If t h e phase of t h e signal from t h e
indication increases t o 90 relative t o 'lift-off', i t is a ferromagnetic anomaly; if i t
decreases t o nearly 0, i t is a defect.
 To summarize:
(a) Many nominally %on-magnetic" alloys can exhibit ferromagnetic proper ties and
almost any alloy can pick-up magnetic inclusions or contamination during
manufacture or service.
(b) At normal eddy current test frequencies magnetic indications will often appear
similar t o defects
(c) Magnetic indications can b e distinguished from defects by retesting at a
reduced test frequency.
6.5.2 Electrical Resistivity

Electrical resistivity is a material parameter which, unlike a defect, usually varies

over significant area. However, if i t is localized, and t h e eddy current signal is small,
i t could be be mistaken for a small defect. The best means of distinguishing the two
is t o rescan with a smaller probe a t h e s a m e test frequency, at t h r e e times t h e test
frequency, and a t one third the t e s t frequency. Unlike a defect signal, the angle
between resistivity and lift-off changes little with frequency. See impedance graph in
Figure 5.9.
As with the detection of any signal source, resistivity is affected by skin depth. At
high frequency, when skin depth is small, there will b e greater sensitivity t o surface
resistivity variations. At lower test frequency, eddy currents penetrate deeper into
t h e material so t h e measurement will represent a larger volume.
6.5.3 Signals from Changes in Sample Surface Geometry
Abrupt changes in surface curvature result in eddy current signals as probes traverse
L them. I t causes changes in coupling creating a large lift-off signal and t h e curvature
also changes eddy current flow distribution creating a n effective resistance change,
yielding a signal at an angle t o t h e lift-off direction. The combined e f f e c t may b e a
complicated signal, a s shown in Figure 6.8. The appearance of this type of signal will
not change significantly when rescanned at higher and lower test frequency.
Such signals can be difficult t o analyze because they depend on how well t h e probe
follows complicated surface curvatures. Basically t h e direction of t h e impedance
change obeys t h e following rules when using surface probes:
- decreasing radius of curvature on an external surface, e.g., ridge, produces a
change in t h e direction of increasing resistivity,
- decreasing radius of curvature of a n internal surface, e.g., groove, produces a
change in t h e direction of decreasing resistivity.
Figure 6.8(a) illustrates t h e signal as a probe traverses a shallow groove (decrease in
surface radius) on t h e internal surface of a 100 m m tube. Figure 6.8(b) shows t h e
signal a s a probe traverses a f l a t (increase in surface radius). The t e s t was done with
a 9 mm diameter probe at a test frequency of 300 kHz.
 1 VOLT

I H

1 VOLT

(a) W l DE SHALLOW GROOVE ( b ) LOCAL F L A T SPOT

FIGURE 6.8
X-Y Display of Surface Coil Impedance for Internal Surface Variations
in a 100 m m Diameter Tube

CALIBRATION DEFECTS
Analysis of eddy current signals is, for t h e most part, a comparative technique.
Calibration standards are necessary for comparing signal amplitude and phase (shape) d
of unknown defects t o known calibration defects. Calibration signals a r e also used for
standardizing instrument settings, i.e., sensitivity and phase rotation.
Existing national specifications and standards only supply broad guidelines in choice
of t e s t parameters. They cannot b e used t o establish reliable ET procedures for most
inspections. Figure 6.9 shows a calibration plate proposed by t h e authors for general
application. The e f f e c t of t h e following can b e established using this plate:
1. Varying Electrical Resistivity
2. Varying Thickness
3. Surface Geometry (Curvature)
4. Defect Length for Constant Depth
5. Defect Depth for Constant Length
6. increasing-subsurface Defect ~ k for
e Constant Defect Depth
7. Increasing Distance of Subsurface Defects from t h e Surface with Constant
Defect Size
8. Varying Thickness of a Non-conducting Layer (lift-off)
9. Varying Thickness of a Conducting Layer
1 0. Ferromagnetic Inclusions
 I I I I 1 I I

on ~CoNoucrlNc

0.2 m 1.0 mm 0.1 I""

0.1 m 0.5 m .05 "m

0.05 m 0.1 m .Dl I""

tat FRONl SIDE

FIGURE 6.9
Calibration Standard
More than one calibration plate would be required t o cover a complete range of
materials. A group of three would normally suffice, comprising base materials:
aluminum alloy, p-4
P -74 uR. cm.
a.
cm; bronze, p = 2 5 W .
cm ;and Type 316 stainless steel,

Figure 6.10(a) illustrates eddy current signals obtained with a n absolute surface probe
from some of t h e calibration block defects. Figure 6.10(b) illustrates signals fro:n t h e
s a m e defects using a differential surface probe, similar t o t h a t in Figure 5.2(c).

0 . 5 mm DEEP
4 mm DEEP 4 mm DEEP

LIFT-OFF L I FT -OFF

SURFACE DEFECTS

0 . 7 mm DEEP
I 0 . 7 mm DEEP

LIFT-OFF

SUBSURFACE DEFECTS

FIGURE 6.10
Eddy Current Signals With (a) Absolute and (b) Differentia1 Surface Probes
6.7 SUMMARY

Defect signal amplitude is a function of d e f e c t length, depth and closure (if a crack).
Signal phase is primarily a function of defect depth. For volumetric inspection of thin
material t h e following t e s t frequency should b e used:
f = 1.6 p / t 2 , kHz (5.7)

where p is electrical resistivity, microhm-centimetre, and t is wall thickness, mm.

At this frequency there is good discrimination between defects and lift-off signals
but not between defects and ferromagnetic signals. Magnetic indications can be
distin uished from defects by retesting at reduced frequency. Defect signals rotate
'i
CCW approaching 0') whereas ferromagnetic signals r o t a t e CW (approaching 90)
relative t o lift-off signals.
There a r e few national standards governing eddy current inspections with surface
probes. For effective inspection, a calibration block should simulate t h e test piece
and contain appropriate surface and substrate d e f e c t s along with ferromagnetic
inclusions. Basic knowledge of phase lag and impedance diagrams is also required for
reliable analysis of eddy current indications.
 -
CHAPTER 7 TESTING OF TUBES AND CYLINDRICAL COMPONENTS

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Tubes or rods up t o about 50 mm diameter can be inspected for defects with
encircling coils. Defect sensitivity in larger diameter components decreases because
t h e inspected volume increases while defect llvolume" remains t h e s a m e for a given
defect. For larger diameters, surface probes should b e used t o obtain higher defect
sensitivity, see Chapter 5.

The components can b e in t h e form of wire, bars or tubes and round, square,
rectangular or hexagonal in shape, as long as appropriate coil shapes a r e used.
Inspection is f a s t and efficient since a n encircling coil samples t h e complete
circumference of t h e component, allowing 100% inspection in one pass.
Defect detectability depends on disruption of eddy current flow. Therefore, t h e best
probe is t h e one which induces highest possible eddy current density in t h e region of
material t o be inspected, and perpendicular t o t h e defect.
When planning a n inspection, t h e following questions must first be answered:
- For what type of defects is t h e inspection t o b e performed?
- If cracks a r e expected, do they have directional properties?
- Does t h e material or components in close proximity have ferromagnetic
proper ties?
Once these questions have been answered one c a n decide on suitable probe design,
t e s t frequency and calibration standards. With t h e proper procedures one can
discriminate between defect signals and false indications as well a s determine depth
once a defect is located. These procedures a r e based on a knowledge of impedance
-
diagrams and phase lag.

7.2 PROBES FOR N B E S AND CYLINDRICAL COMPONENTS

Probe Types
Four common probe types for testing round materials a r e illustrated in Figure 7.1: (b)
and (d) a r e differential probes, (a) and (c) show absolute probes. Each type contains
two separate coils t o satisfy AC bridge circuit requirements, which is t h e typical
mode of operation of most eddy current instruments, see Chapter 4. These bridges
require matching coils on two separate legs of t h e bridge t o balance, thus permitting
amplification of t h e small impedance differences between t h e two coils. If t h e two
coils a r e placed side-by-side, both equally sensing t h e t e s t material, t h e probe is
"differentialt1. If one coil senses t h e test article, t h e other acting only as a reference,
t h e probe is absolute.
Figure 7.l(a) and (c) show effective designs for absolute probes; t h e piggy-back
reference coil is separated from t h e test article by t h e test coil and therefore
couples only slightly to t h e test article (fill factor < <1).
 r TUBE 1-- CENTERING D I S C S

REFERENCE C O l L

REFERENCE C O l L

(A) N C l R C L l N G PROBE. ABS LUTE

f P I G w - B A c K REFERENCE?

(D) INTERNAL PROBE, D l F F E R E N T I A L

( 0 ) E N C I R C L I N G PROBE, D I F F E R E N T I A L

FIGURE 7.1
Tube Probe Types

Coil Size
The best compromise between resolution and signal amplitude is obtained when coil
length and thickness equal defect depth. See Figure 7.2 for a labelled diagram of a
probe cross section.
As a general guideline for tube inspection, coif length and depth should approximately
equal wall thickness. However, t o improve coupling, a rectangular cross section with
thickness reduced t o one-half the length c a n b e used. For greater sensitivity t o srnall
near surface defects, coil length and thickness can both be reduced further.
Unfortunately this will result in a decrease in sensitivity t o external (far surface)
defects.
Coil spacing, in differential probes, should approximately equal defect depth o r wall
thickness for general inspections.
 - I: C O I L SPACING
-CI L C O I L WIDTH
/ / / A / / / / . / / J / / / / / / / / / / /
t 1

A
C O I L THICKNESS -TX.- -
D (AVERAGE COl L DIAMETER)
TUBE-COIL
t
CLEARANCE
///y//////////////////L
I

FIGURE 7.2
Probe Coil Nomenclature

For increased sensitivity t o near surface defects, spacing can b e reduced at t h e

expense of a reduction in sensitivity with distance from t h e coil.
Probe-to-tube clearance or gap should be as small a s possible. In most internal tube
inspections, a gap equal t o half t h e wall thickness is common. A larger gap (smaller
f ill-factor o r coupling) results in a small decrease in near surface defect resolution
and a large decrease in signal amplitude for a l l types of defects.
Comparing Differential and Absolute Probes
Absolute probes with a fixed reference coil a r e essential t o basic understanding. They
enable study of all physical properties of a test a r ticle by plotting characteristic
impedance loci.
When a n absolute coil signal is plotted as a function of distance (as t h e probe travels
along a tube axis) dimensional variations and discontinuities can be separated. See t h e
example of Figure 7.3(b). The signal is a function of effective cross-sectional a r e a of
eddy current flow, i.e., wall thickness in t h e case of tubes, and can b e analyzed like a
surface roughness t r a c e with t h e e x t r a advantage t h a t subsurface flaws can b e
sensed.

In tube testing with a n internal coil, absolute probe signals from defects and supports
a r e simple and undistorted; signals from multiple defects and defects under support
plates a r e of t e n vectorially additive.
Differential probes have two active coils usually wound in opposition (although they
could be wound in addition with similar results). When t h e two coils a r e over a flaw-
f r e e area of test sample, there is no differential signal developed between t h e coils
since they a r e both inspecting identical material. However, when first one and then
t h e other of t h e two coils passes over a flaw, a differential signal is produced. They
have t h e advantage of being insensitive t o slowly varying properties such a s gradual
dimensional variations and temperature: t h e signals from two adjacent sections of a
test article continuously cancel. Probe wobble signals a r e also reduced with this
probe type. However, there a r e disadvantages; t h e signals may b e difficult t o
interpret, even t o t h e extent of being misleading. Defect signals under support plates
can be extremely complicated. The signal from a defect is displayed twice: once as
t h e first coil approaches t h e defect and again for t h e second coil. The two signals
from a mirror image and t h e signal direction from t h e first coil must be noted. If a
flaw is longer than t h e spacing between t h e two coils only t h e leading and trailing
edges will be detected due t o signal cancellation when both coils sense t h e flaw
equally.

I
I I SUPPORT PLATE P O S I T I O N
I .

L SHOWING CORRODED AREA

a
OIFFERENTIbL COILS ABSOLUTE COIL

L
TRACE Wl TH L0SOLUTE PROBE

OISTINCE +
TRACE l l T H O l F F E R E N T l h L
PROBE
W ~ L LLOSS
I V COMPONENT

I C I

FIGURE 7.3
Eddy Current Y-Channel Recordings from a Brass Heat Exchanger Tube
OD = 26.9 mm, t=l.lmm, fgO = 21 kHz
An even more serious situation occurs with differential probes when t h e ends of a
flaw vary gradually; t h e defect may not b e observed at all. An example of this is
shown in Figure 7.3; this brass h e a t exchanger tube suffered general corrosion as well
a s localized corrosion on either side of a support plate. The gradual upward trend of
t h e Y-DISTANCE recording in Figure 7.3(b) shows t h e pronounced grooves a t A and B
a r e superimposed on a n a r e a of general wall thinning in t h e vicinity of t h e support
plate. Note t h e response of a differential probe t o t h e s a m e defect in Figure 7.3k).
The differential probe senses t h e localized grooves but t h e Y-DISTANCE recording
shows no indication of t h e gradual wall thinning which was apparent in Figure 7.3(b).
Table 7.1 compares advantages and disadvantages of t h e two probe types.
TABLE 7.1
COMPARISON OF ABSOLUTE AND DIFFERENTIAL PROBES
ADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES:
ABSOLUTE PROBES
respond t o both sudden and gradual - prone t o drift from temperature
changes in properties and dimensions instability
combined signals a r e usually easy t o - more sensitive t o probe wobble than
separate (simple interpretation) a differential probe
show total length of defects
DIFFERENTIAL PROBES
not sensitive t o gradual changes in - not sensitive t o gradual changes h a y
properties or dimensions miss long gradual defects entirely)
immune to drift from temperature - will only d e t e c t ends of long d e f e c t s
changes - may yield signals difficult t o
less sensitive t o probe wobble than a n interpret
absolute probe
Directional Properties
When inspecting for defects, i t is essential t h a t flow of eddy currents b e as
perpendicular a s possible t o defects t o obtain maximum response. If eddy currents
flow parallel t o a defect there will be little distortion of t h e eddy currents and hence
little change in probe impedance.
The eddy current flow characteristics of circumferential internal or external probes
a r e listed and illustrated in Figure 7.4.
 EOOV CURRENTS EOOV WRRENTS

EDOV CURRENTS FLOW IN CLOSEO rrrns - EOOV CURRENT FLOWS PARALLEL T O EOOV CURRENT FLOW OIYINISHES TO
L I M I T E O TO C O N W C T I N C M I T E R I A L C O I L WIMOINGS - NOT S E N S I T I V E ZERO AT THE C E N l R E Of A S O L I D ROO .
1 0 N R E L V C I R C U Y F E R E N T I I L CRACKS NO S E N S I T I V I T Y AT CENTRE

EOOV
.-. A

EDDY CURRENTS
CURRENTS

EDOV CURRENT FLOWS PARALLEL E:IOV CURRENTS CONCENTRITE WEIR THE

TO TUBE SURFACE NOT S E N S I T I V E SURFICE CLOSE TO THE C O I L - DEPTH
TO L A M I N A R SEPARATIONS. OF P E N E T R A l l O N I S COUTROLLEO BY TEST FREOUENCV

FIGURE 7.4
Directional Properties of Eddy Currents in Cylindrical Test Articles

In addition t o considerations of eddy current flow direction t h e following a r e

important:
- Magnetic flux is not bounded by t h e tube wall but will induce eddy currents in
adjacent conducting material, e.g. tube support plates in h e a t exchangers.
- Eddy current coils a r e sensitive t o ferromagnetic material introduced into a
coil's magnetic field. The ferromagnetic material need not be an electrical
conductor nor need i t form a closed path for eddy currents.
- Eddy currents coils a r e sensitive t o all material variations t h a t affect
conductivity or permeability.
7.2.4 Probe Inductance
The equations quoted in Section 5.2.3 t o calculate inductance for surface probes a r e
also used t o calculate inductance of probes for testing tubes and cylinders. The
important aspect of inductance is t h a t probe impedance, which is a function of
inductance, must be compatible with eddy current instrument and signal cables,

where XL -
2 'IF f L
resistance in ohms.
when f is in hertz and L in henries and R is coil wire
 TABLE 7.2 ENCIRCLING OR INTERNAL COIL IMPEDANCE

Do = 8.9 mm Do = 12.7 mm Do = 15.9 mm Do = 19.1 mm Do = 22.2 mm Wire Size

L = 6.1 Va L = 11 UH L = 15 un L = 20 ,,H L =25 UH 31 AWG

N = 25 (0.23 mm)
R = 0.3 R = 0.4 " R = 0.5 n R = 0.6 n R = 0.7 n

L = 23 L = 42 L = 59 L = 77 L = 96 34 AWG
N = 49 (0.16 mm)
R = l R = 1.5 R=2 R=2 R=3

L = 64 L = 110 L = 160 L = 210 L = 260 37 AWG

N=81 (0.1 1 mm)
R=3 R=5 R=6 R=8 R=9

L = 200 L = 360 L = 510 L = 660 L = 830 39 AWG

N = 144 (0.089 mm)
R=9 R = 14 R = 18 R = 22 R = 26

L = 490 L = 880 L = 1.24 mH L = 1.62 mH L = 2.02 m H 41 AWG

N = 225 (0.071 mm)
R = 24 R = 35 R = 45 R = 55 R = 64
Most eddy current instruments will o p e r a t e over a fairly broad range of probe
impedance without a substantial reduction in signal-to-noise ratio or signal
amplitude. An instrument input impedance of 100 ohms is typical, although a probe
impedance between 20 and 200 ohms is normally acceptable, unless t h e test
frequency is t o o close t o probe-cable resonance frequency, see Section 7.2.5. Exact
probe inductance calculations a r e therefore n o t essential.
To f a c i l i t a t e impedance calculations Table 7.2 has been prepared. This t a b l e lists coil
inductance and resistance (with probe i n air) f o r various diameters and w i r e sizes
while keeping coil cross section constant at 1.2 mm x 1.2 mm. (These dimensions a r e
fairly typical of t u b e wall thickness in h e a t exchangers). With t h e aid of this table,
and knowledge t h a t inductance is proportional t o t h e square of number of turns and
t h e square of mean coil diameter ( L a N 2-2 D ) , o n e c a n usually make a reasonable
e s t i m a t e of wire size and number of turns for a particular probe.
Probe-Cable Resonance
Probe-cable resonance must b e considered when operating at high test frequencies
and/or using long signal cables, e.g. frequencies over 100 kHz o r cables longer than
30 m. Most general purpose eddy c u r r e n t instruments cannot o p e r a t e at or close t o
resonance.
Probe-cable resonance can be modelled as shown in Figure 4.5. In simple terms,
resonance occurs when inductive r e a c t a n c e of t h e coil eauals capacitive r e a c t a n c e of
t h e cable, i.e. when

where w is angular frequency, radians/second

L is coil inductance, henries
C is t o t a l cable capacitance, f a r a d s
Transposing this equation and substituting w = 2nf shows resonance occurs wh
frequency is

This approach is sufficiently a c c u r a t e f o r most practical applications. A m o r e

rigorous approach t o resonance is presented in Section 4.3.

Resonance is apparent when a probe and c a b l e combination, which balances a t a low

frequency, will not balance as frequency is increased. At t h e approach of resonance,
t h e balance lines on t h e eddy c u r r e n t s t o r a g e monitor will not converge t o a null. The
t w o balancing (X and R) controls will produce nearly parallel lines, rather t h a n t h e
normal perpendicular traces, on t h e s t o r a g e monitor. A number of steps c a n b e taken
t o avoid resonance:

1. O p e r a t e at a test frequency below resonance, such t h a t f t,, is less than 0 . 8 f .

2. Select a probe with lower inductance. (Since f , is proport~onalto 1/ fi ,
inductance m u s t b e decreased a f a c t o r of four t o double t h e resonant
frequency).
 3. Reduce cable length o r use a cable with lower capacitance per unit length (such
as multi-coax cables). This will raise t h e resonance frequency since capacitance
is proportional t o cable length and f ,
is proportional to 1/ 8 , 4

4.. Operate at a test frequency above resonance, such t h a t f t, is greater than

1.2 f,.
However, above resonance t h e sensitivity of all eddy current instruments
decreases r a idly with increasing frequency because capacitive reactance
(X, = l/wC P decreases, and current short circuits across t h e cable rather
than passing through t h e coil.

7.3 IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAMS

Eddy current probe f o r testing cylindrical components differ mechanically f rorn those
for plate testing, but coil impedance can b e treated similarly for both test coil
configurations. The impedance display treatment introduced in Chapter 5 applies for
internal and external circumferential coils with t h e following changes:

i) Lift-off becomes "fill-factorn. Fill factor is a measure of coupling between t h e

coil and test object. In general, i t is t h e fraction of magnetic field t h a t crosses
t h e t e s t object; for a long coil, this is t h e fraction of the t e s t coil a r e a filled
with t e s t material. Fill-factor, (eta), is t h e ratio

(7. l a )
for an encircling coil,
and
f o r a bobbin type internal coil,
where -D0 is cylinder diameter
D is average coil diameter
and D~ is tube internal diameter

Fill-factor is always a quantity less than or equal t o one ( q < 1 . 0 ) For a coil
inside a tube t h e impedance change due t o decreasing is t h e s a m e as an increase in
D (with constant wall thickness). For a coil around a tube o r cylinder, decreasing 0
is t h e s a m e a s decreasing Do.

ii) Probe diameter in plate testing is replaced by tube o r cylinder diameter in ETof
cylindrical components. They have a similar e f f e c t on t h e operating point on
t h e impedance diagram.
Figure 7.5 summarizes t h e e f f e c t of test and material variables on a simple
semicircular impedance diagram. Note the similarity of changes in resistivity, test
frequency, diameter and fill-factor with t h e surface probe results of Figures 5.9 t o
5.13.
 - -.-.-

THIN . WALL TUBE

FREDUENCY ( 1 ) and

NORMALIZED RESISTANCE

FIGURE 7.5
Simplified Impedance Diagram of a Long Coil Around a Nan-magnetic Thin-wall
Tube Showing Effect of Test and Material Variables

Impedance diagrams presented in t h e literature a r e often only strictly valid for long
coils (much longer than material thickness), coil lengths for inspection a r e normally
only a fraction of material diameter. Decreasing coil length has a n effect similar t o
decreasing fill-factor, i t causes t h e impedance diagram t o be smaller than expected
(but similar in shape) from coil and t e s t material geometry. Following sections will
present impedance diagrams for tubes and solid cylinders. For simplicity a fill-factor
of unity will b e used.
7.3.1 Solid Cylinders
The impedance diagram for a solid cylinder (diameter, Do ) inside a long coil is
shown in Figure 7.6. As in Figure 7.5 an increase in test frequency or diameter moves
t h e operating point (the point on t h e impedance diagram t h a t specifies the
normalized inductive reactance and resistance of t h e test coil) down t h e curve while
a n increase in resistivity moves i t up t h e curve. This diagram applies t o both wires
and round bars.
 CREASING R E S I S T I V I T Y

DECREASING FILL-FACTOR

FIGURE 7.6
Impedance Diagram for a Solid Cylinder

The shape of impedance diagrams for cylinders differ markedly from a semicircle,
particularly at higher t e s t frequencies. The shape difference is due t o skin effect and
phase lag, factors which were not included in arriving at t h e semicircular shape in
Chapter 3. At high t e s t frequencies t h e curve approaches the X and Y axes at 45'.
In testing cylinders with a n encircling coil i t should be recognized t h a t sensitivity t o
defects a t t h e centre of bar or wire is zero, regardless of t e s t frequency. The reason
for this is illustrated schematically in Figure 7.7 which shows plots of eddy current
density across a cylinder. Defects have t o disrupt eddy current flow in order t o a f f e c t
probe impedance. I t is apparent from Figure 7.7 t h a t eddy current density is always
zero a t t h e centre of a cylinder resulting in no sensitivity t o defects.
 LOW FREOUENCI 8 0
> 2
4

FIGURE 7.7
Schematic of Eddy Current Distribution in a Cylinder
Surrounded by an Encircling Coil

7.3.1.1 Sensitivity in Centre of a Cylinder

It was stated in t h e previous section t h a t eddy current density in t h e centre of a
cylinder is zero and hence t h e r e is no sensitivity t o defects. The relationship of
current flow with depth into a cylinder is derived (very approximately) below, for t h e
case of no skin depth attenuation and long coils. From Faraday's Law,

The magnetic flux density, 8,is approximately constant inside a long coil, hence

@ = BA
= (B) ( n r 2 )
where r is radial distance from centre of cylinder;
therefore,

Resistance t o flow of current is proportional t o path length and resistivity and

inversely proportional t o cross-sectional area, Ac,

U s2 n r p= = 2nrp
*c
u n i t length x u n i t depth

Since by Ohm's Law

and Z = = I s a t low test irequency and no skin depth effect,

theref ore,

Therefore, eddy current flow is proportional t o radial distance from centre of a

cylinder. Hence no current flows at t h e centre (at r=O) and there is no sensitivity t o
defects.
I
7.3.2 Tubes

The impedance diagram for an extremely thin-wall tube with either an internal or
external circumferential coil is a semicircle. This shape is only obtained when wall
thickness, t, is much less than skin depth (t < < 6 ) , i.e. skin effect and phase lag a r e
negligible. This situation will rarely be encountered in practice, especially at
intermediate and high test frequencies, but t h e concept is useful since i t defines one
of t h e coil impedance limits.

With an external coil t h e other limit is defined by t h e impedance curve for a solid
cylinder (maximum possible wall thickness). The impedance diagram for any tube
tested with an external coil, hence, has t o lie between t h e two broken curves in
Figure 7.8, for example the solid line applies t o a tube with internal diameter 80% of

ENCIRCLING COIL

---
nu
u
z
u

--
,"
w

>
+
CVLINOER ( O i = 0 )
=
u
=
0 TUBE ( D , /OD = 0 8 )
-
D
.-
d
.

=
=
w
0

NORIALIZED R E S I S T Y C E

FIGURE 7.8
Impedance Diagram for a Tube with Encircling Coil Showing Effect
of Decreasing Wall Thickness

t h e outside diameter i.e., D i / D , -

0 . 8 . Tubes with D i / D , greater than 0.8
would lie t o t h e right of the solid line. The dotted lines in Figure 7.8 trace t h e shift in
operating point as wall thickness decreases (Do constant, D i increasing). Note the
spiral shape of the wall thickness locus. The thick wall end of the curve deviates from
a semicircle locus.

This is attributed t o phase lag across the tube wall and forms t h e basis for eddy
current signal analysis which will be treated in detail in Chapter 8.
 Figure 7.8 also illustrates t h e dependence of t h e terms "thick-wall" and "thin-wall" on
t e s t frequency. Near t h e top of t h e diagram (low frequency) a tube with D l / D o ' 0 - 8
qualifies a s thin wall, there is no phase lag across t h e tube wall, t <<6. Near t h e
bottom (high frequency) t h e same tube becomes thick-wall because thickness
becomes much greater than skin depth, for eddy current purposes the tube now
appears a s a solid cylinder.

When a tube is tested with an internal circumferential coil t h e impedance diagram

for a thin-wall tube remains semicircular but that for a thick-wall tube differs
markedly from a solid cylinder; compare Figures 7.8 and 7.9. The impedance locus for

N O W 1 L I Z E P RESISTANCE

FIGURE 7.9
Impedance Diagram for a Tube With Internal Coil Showing Effect
of Decreasing Wall Thickness

any given tube will again fall between t h e dashed curves a t intermediate frequencies
and approach t h e thin-wall curve a t low frequency and t h e thick-wall curve a t high
frequency as shown for tubes with D i / D o = 0.8 and 0.9. As in t h e previous
figure, a change in wall thickness produces a coil impedance change along t h e dotted
lines tracing a spiral shaped curve. Again, this departure from a semicircle is
attributed t o phase lag across t h e tube wall.

7.3.3 Characteristic Frequency for Tubes

Section 5.6 described how t h e Characteristic Parameter PC- f2 w ~ introduced

~ ,
by Deeds and Dodd, enables presentation of the effects of changes in r, w ,p and on
a single impedance diagram. This allowed test coil impedance t o be specified in terms
of a single quantity rather than four independent variables. One could use this
parameter in testing cylinders and tubes. However, most eddy current literature
refers t o a similar variable, t h e characteristic o r limit frequency, f usually
attributed t o Forster. I t differs from pc because probe radius, F, is replaced
with tube or cylinder dimensions.
By definition, f is t h e frequency for which t h e Bessel function solution, t o
Maxwell% magnefic field equations for a finite test object, equals one. (Bessel
functions a r e similar to, but more complex than trigonometric sine and cosine
functions). For a solid cylinder or thick-wall t u b e tested with a n encircling coil,
I
5.07~
fg 2 , kHz
"rDo

with P in microhm-centimetres and D o in millimetres.

For a thick-wall tube with an internal coil,

f
g
= s.oze
2
, kHz
"rDi

For a thin-wall tube with internal or external circumferential coils,

The ratio f / f defines t h e operating point on impedance diagrams. For non-

magnetic materials ( 1 , frequency ratio for cylinders and thick-wall tubes
tested with external coils is given by

where f is t e s t frequency in kilohertz.

For a thick-wall tube tested with a n internal coil,

For thin-wall tubes tested with internal or external coils,

f/fg - f~~tlS.07p
 5 0 1 1 0 CYLINDER ( E X T E 4 w L C O I L )
f / f , = f o o l / s or p

TWIN.@ALL TUBE
( I N T E R I A L I EXTERNAL C O I L S )
' / t o = f O , ' / S o1p

0 .? 0 4 0.6

NORMAL l ZED RESl STANCE

FIGURE 7.10
Impedance Diagrams f o r Tubes and Rods with Long Coils and Unity
Fill-factor Showing Variations of f/f Along Impedance Loci
g

Figure 7.10 shows impedance diagrams f o r thin-wall tubes, solid cylinders a n d thick-
wall tubes with values of f / f (from 0 t o infinity) on t h e curves. The impedance
plots a r e both different in shape and have drastically different f / f ratios. For
example, at t h e "knee" in t h e curves a thin-wall t u b e h a s f / f -1, for a cylinder
f / f g = 6 and a thick-wall t u b e has f / t g- 4
defining equations which contain 0 , , :D * and D t
.
These differences originate in t h e
.
T o find t h e operatin point
on an impedance diagram using frequency r a t i o o n e h a s t o know t h e geometry t u b e
o r cylinder). For tubes which do not satisfy t h e conditions f o r e i t h e r thin o r thick
f
wall, calculations of f I f is not possible e x c e p t near t h e t o p and bottom of
impedance diagrams where curves for intermediate wall tubes converge with t h e
thin-and thick-wall curves, respectively.
In addition t o defining operating point, frequency r a t i o c a n also b e used for
extrapolation o r scale modelling using t h e similarity condition. This condition states
if t w o objects have t h e s a m e f I f t h e n eddy c u r r e n t distribution is identical in
each. Hence if test frequency f 1 m e e t s test requirements for a r t i c l e No. 1, o n e
can calculate f for a r t i c l e No. 2 from t h e following:

For cylinders, 2 3
 for thin-wall tubes,
flDiltlP2 = f ~ ~ i 2 ~ 2 P l

and for thick-wall tubes (internal inspection),

7.3.4 Computer Generated Impedance Diagrams

As indicated in t h e previous section, exact analytical solutions (Bessel function

solutions) for impedance loci of test coils around or inside tubes a r e only possible for
limiting cases. These solutions have t h e additional drawback t h a t they are only
strictly true for long coils. An alternative was made available by C.V. Dodd and his
co-workers (2)at Oak Ridge National Laboratories. They developed computer
programs t o calculate coil impedance. These are valid for all coil lengths, internal
and external coils and all tube wall thicknesses. Such computer programs permit
paper experiments t o define operating point a s well at t h e effect of variations in coil
size and shape, resistivity, wall thickness and test frequency.

Figure 7.11 is an example of computer generated impedance display for a short

internal coil in an Inconel 600 tube at various test frequencies. Fill-factor and t h e
e f f e c t s of small changes in resistivity ( A p ) , wall thickness ( ~t ) and magnetic
permeability ( A p ) were examined a t each frequency. Note t h e similarity with t h e
impedance plots of Figure 6.5 obtained for a surface probe. The angular (phase)
separation between fill-factor, A p , A t and bu provides t h e basis for eddy
current signal analysis which will be treated in Chapter 8.

FIGURE 7.11
Computer Simulation of Probe Response to Various Test Parameters
7.4 CHOICE OF TEST FREQUENCY
T e s t frequency is o f t e n t h e only variable over which t h e inspector has appreciable
control. Material properties and geometry a r e normally fixed and probe choice is
o f t e n d i c t a t e d by test material geometry and probe availability. Choice of a suitable
test frequency depends on t h e t y p e of inspection. Testing for d i a m e t e r variations
normally requires maximum response t o fill-factor which occurs at high frequencies.
Testing for d e f e c t s requires penetration t o possible d e f e c t locations; s u r f a c e d e f e c t s
c a n be d e t e c t e d at higher frequencies than subsurface defects. Maximum penetration
requires a low frequency which still permits clear discrimination between signals
from harmless variations in material properties and serious defects. T h e above
f a c t o r s show choice of test frequency is usually a compromise.
Test frequency f o r Solid Cylinders
As discussed in Section 7.3.1, t h e sensitivity at t h e c e n t r e of a cylinder, with a n
encircling coil, is zero at all test frequencies. Therefore, t h e r e is no a d v a n t a g e in
using a very low test frequency t o increase penetration.
'vlaximum test sensitivity is obtained when t h e impedance diagram operating point is
near t h e knee of t h e curve. This condition occurs when f I f ' 6 At this point
balanced sensitivity to defects, resistivity and dimensions is obtained. A t this test
frequency, D ~ aI3.5. ~ Increasing t h e frequency r a t i o f I f g t o 15 o r 20
improves discrimination between surface d e f e c t s and fill-factor variations (probe
wobble), a t t h e expense of reduced sensitivity t o subsurface defects. Maximum
sensitivity t o diameter variations is obtained at higher test frequencies, f / f = 100
or more.
A frequency r a t i o lower than 6 will result in a decrease in phase l a g and t h e r e f o r e
less phase discrimination between d e f e c t s a n d fill factor. T o distinguish between
ferromagnetic variations (or inclusions) a n d defects, t h e operating point should b e on
t o p quadrant of t h e impedance diagram. A frequency r a t i o of approximately t w o
( 1f = 2) would achieve this.
7.4.2 Test Frequency f o r Tubes
When inspecting tubes for defects, t h e criterion to satisfy is (a) phase discrirninatiorl
between d e f e c t signals and o t h e r indications a n d (b) good phase separation between
internal and external d e f e c t signals. A test frequency, proven in practice on many
types and sizes of tubes, is t h e frequency f 9 0 which yields 90" phase separation
between f ill-factor variations (and internal d e f e c t signals) a n d external d e f e c t
signals. The frequency f go is empirically derived f r o m t h e ratio between thickness
a n d skin depth, slightly larger t h a n one,

and converts t o
fgo - 3p/t2 kilohertz (7 .4)

where p i s resistivity in microhm-centimetres and t is t u b e wall thickness in milli-

metres. This equation is valid for both internal and external coil inspection and is
roughly independent of t u b e diameter. A t f 9 0 , t h e r e is good sensitivity t o internal
and external d e f e c t s and l i t t l e sensitivity t o magnetite deposit and ferromagnetic
support plates.
T h e characterisitc frequency r a t i o f I f cannot b e used t o satisfy t h e criterion of
phase discrimination, because t h e f equation is n o t a function of phase lag. I t
would also b e wrong t o use i t for d e f e c t detection because i t is a function of tube
diameter. T h e l a t t e r would require d i f f e r e n t test frequencies for different diameter
tubes t o k e e p f 1 f constant.
If one desires t o distinguish ferromagnetic signals from o t h e r indications, t h e
operating point should b e on t h e t o p quadrant of t h e impedance diagram for thin-wall
tubing, Figure 7.10. This point is located by calculating t h e test frequency t o m a k e
.
t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c frequency ratio equal to o r less than 0 . 5 ( f / f 5 0 . 5 )
Inspection Standards and Specifications
A number of industrial codes cover eddy c u r r e n t t u b e inspection. The various ASTM
specifications a r e E-215 (aluminum alloys), E-243 (copper and copper alloys), E-426
(stainless steels) and E-57 1 (nickel alloys). None of t h e ASTM standards specify t e s t
frequencies, they sometimes present normal ranges such as 1 t o 125 kHz f o r
aluminum alloys. Such numbers a r e of l i t t l e use in deciding on a suitable test
frequency for a particular test. The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section
V, Article 8 (1980) specifies t e s t frequency in t e r m s of t h e angle between through-
wall and external d e f e c t indications from a calibration tube. The procedure specified
will normally yield a frequency higher than f g o ,perhaps as high as 2 f g b
Most calibration tubes consist of drilled holes of various diameters and/or various
depths from t h e external surface. Some calibration t u b e s have EDM (electric
discharge machining) notches in t h e circumferential a n d axial directions and on both
internal and external surfaces.
PROBES FOR DETECTING CIRCUMFERENTIAL CRACKS

A conventional internal circumferential (bobbin) probe induces a flow of eddy

c u r r e n t s parallel t o t h e coil windings and t h e r e f o r e circumferential in direction
(Figure 7.4). T o sense a defect, coil impedance must change; this will occur only if
t h e eddy current flow path is disturbed. Circumferential d e f e c t s parallel t o this
current, which present no a r e a perpendicular t o t h i s path, will therefore not b e
sensed.

FIGURE 7.12
-
(a) Probe No. 1 Multi-pancake Coil Probe
-
(b) Probe No. 2 Zig-zag Coil Probe
To d e t e c t circumferential defects t h e coil must induce currents at a n angle t o t h e
cracks. Two possible types of probes a r e (a) surface probes and (b) zig-zag probes.
Figure 7.12 shows examples of such probes. The surface probe induces currents in a
circular pattern whereas t h e zig-zag probe induces currents t o follow t h e 30" coil
-
angle. The probes shown in Figure 7.12 a r e differential. In t h e surface probe
configuration a multi-coil array is used; t h e four surface coils in each row a r e
connected in series and t h e two rows a r e connected differentially. A single absolute
surface coil c a n also b e used, provided t h e probe maintains contact with t h e tube
surface by spring force or other means (otherwise lift-off noise would be intolerable).
See Figure 7.13 for t h e cross section of a typical spring-loaded internal probe for
tube testing.

CABLE
CONNECTOR

REFERENCE SPRING
COIL

FIGURE 7.13
Spring Loaded Internal Surface Probe for Tube Inspections

A single surface probe is unquestionably t h e easiest t o use; signal analysis is discussed

in Chapter 6. The main disadvantage is t h e partial circumferential coverage;
multiple passes or helical scanning a r e necessary for 100% coverage. Another
disadvantage of t h e surface probe configuration (single or multiple) is t h e loss of
sensitivity with distance from t h e coil. If surface coils a r e small, a s will be t h e case
for most tube inspections, t h e reduction in sensitivity with distance from the surface
will be greater than with circumferential coils, see Section 5.3.1. The sensitivity t o
small localized defects originating frorn t h e outside surface could be a s much a s 10
times lower than t h e sensitivity t o internal defects. A zig-zag coil has less
attenuation t o outside defects, i t falls into t h e circumferential class in this respect.
Neither zig-zag nor surface coil probes will give uniform sensitivity around their
circumference. There will be peaks of maximum and minimum sensitivity depending
on t h e angle between eddy current path and defect orientation. This can best b e
visualized by considering a short circumferential crack passing over t h e coils: there
will b e areas, such as at t h e peaks of t h e zig-zag, where eddy current flow is almost
parallel t o t h e crack, resulting in poor sensitivity.
Figure 7.14 shows examples of signal response t o real circumferential fatigue cracks
with t h e probes discussed above.
 ( I ) MULTl -PANCAKE
COl L PROBE

(b) 216-ZAG
COIL PROBE
+

y +

-
(c) BOBBIN
m l L ROBE +
*
Y

FIGURE 7.14
Eddy Current Scans of Circumferential Cracks in Inconel Tubing
(Signal Amplitude Normalized to a 1.6 mm Diameter
Through Hole). f = 400 kHz.

7.6 SUMMARY
Test coils induce eddy currents and also sense t h e distortion of their flow caused by
defects. Encircling or bobbin probes have test coil(s1 mounted with their axes parallel
t o t h e tube or rod axis. Since t h e coils a r e wound circumferentially the induced eddy
currents also flow circumferentially. They cannot b e used t o detect circumferential
cracks, laminar defects, nor defects in the center of a rod.

As a general guideline for t u b e inspection, probe coil length, depth, and spacing (if
differential) should approximately equal wall thickness.
 An absolute bobbin probe (single test coil) should b e used f o r general in-service h e a t
exchanger inspection. However, f o r short localized defects, differential probes (two
test coils side-by-side) are normally preferred. -
Analysis of eddy c u r r e n t signals is t h e most important and unfortunately t h e m o s t
difficult task in a successful inspection. A thorough understanding of impedance
diagrams and e f f e c t of phase lag is needed t o manipulate test conditions t o minimize
undesirable test variables. T h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c Frequency for t u b e inspection is used
to l o c a t e t h e operating point on t h e impedance diagram. I t is given by

kHz
where p is electrical resistivity and D is t u b e internal diameter (for bobbin probe)
and e x t e r n a l d i a m e t e r (far encircling probe); t is t u b e wall thickness.

O n e needs t o know t h e operating point on t h e impedance diagram t o d e t e r m i n e

ef Eects of f ill-factor, e l e c t r i c a l resistivity, and magnetic permeability. T h e optimum
sensitivity t o f ill-factor is near t h e bottom of t h e impedance diagram, in t h e rniddle
for e l e c t r i c a l resistivity and at t h e t o p for magnetic permeability.
'When inspecting tubes for defects, c r i t e r i a t o satisfy a r e (a) phase discrimination
b e t w e e n d e f e c t signals and o t h e r indications and (b) good phase separation between
internal and external d e f e c t signals. For general purpose testing t h e frequency given
by
kHz
1
is used where t is wall thickness in mm. This frequency yields 90" phase separation
between internal and external d e f e c t signals and l i t t l e sensitivity t o magnetic
deposits and ferromagnetic support plates.
Special probes a r e needed t o inspect for circumferential c r a c k s o r d e f e c t s close t o
tubesheets. Single, spring loaded, s u r f a c e probes a r e effective.
7.7 WORKED EXAMPLES
7.7.1 PROBLEM: Calculate frequency t o o p e r a t e at t h e k n e e location of t h e impedance
diagram f o r a cylinder 5 mm in d i a m e t e r a n d e l e c t r i c a l resistivity
p = 1 0 rnicrohm-centimetres.

SOLUTION: f D&
O - 6
flfl 5.07p

6 x 5.07 x 10
therefore f
52
= 12 kHz
 7.7.2 (a)
L
PROBLEM:
D i - 1 0 . 2 m m , t = 1.1 mm
centimetres.
andp -
Calculate the t e s t frequency t o inspect Inconel 600 tubing with
98rnicrohm-

SOLUTION: Best test results a r e obtained when there is sufficient phase

separation between internal and external defect signals. A phase
separation of 90" allows good discrimination between the two and
reasonable defect depth estimates. To achieve 90" phase separation,
t h e test frequency is determined by

(derived from t / 6 = 1.1)

= 3 x 98
= 245 kHz
(1.11~
Therefore 245 kHz is the required frequency.
7.7.2 (b)
PROBLEM: Determine t h e approximate operating point on the impedance
diagram, for problem (a).

SOLUTION: Since ' 1- 1 this tube cannot be considered thick or thin

walled. Therefore, neither equation 7.2(b) nor 7.2(c) is strictly
valid. However, for t / 6 > 1, equation 7.2(c) for thick-wall tubing
will yield an approximate solution.
2
f / f g = fDi/5.07 P (7.3~)
2
= 245 x (10.2) 1 5 . 0 7 . ~98

This would place the operating point on t h e lower quadrant (much

lower than the knee location) of t h e thick-wall curve of Figure 7.10.

7.7.2 (c)
PROBLEM: Calculate a test frequency for t h e above tube suitable for
discriminating between ferromagnetic inclusions and defects, when
testing with an internal probe.
SOLUTION: The operating point should b e on t h e top quadrant of t h e impedance
diagram for thin-wall tubing, Figure 7.10. This point is located by
calculating t h e test frequency to make t h e ratio of Forster's
characteristic frequency equal t o or less than 0.5.
 = 0.5
therefore
f (0.5) (5.07p)/Dit

= 0.5 x 5.07 x 98/10.2 x 1.1 = 22 kHz

Therefore, at 22 kHz (9% o f f ) , it should be possible to
93
discriminate between defects an ferromagnetic indications.
 CHAPTER 8 - TUBE TESTING - SIGNAL ANALYSIS

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing and in-service inspection of tubes is one of t h e most important
applications of eddy current testing. For in-service inspection of small-bore tubing in
particular, eddy current is by f a r t h e most frequently used method. Access is usually
limited t o tube ends which makes other NDT techniques difficult or impossible t o
apply.
This chapter emphasizes in-service testing of tubes using internal probes. This
approach is taken because testing of solid cylinders and tubes with external coils
(manufacturing inspection) is generally less complicated. If t h e reader understands in-
service inspection he should encounter no problem applying similar principles t o other
t e s t situations.

Reasons for t h e appearance of impedance plane eddy current signals a r e presented

first. Repetition from previous chapters is intentional, i t was desired t o keep this
chapter a s independent a s possible without excessive cross-referencing. Discussion of
simple defect indications is followed by superimposed signals which a r e frequently
encountered during in-service inspection such a s defects a t baffle plates and
tubesheets. A section dealing with surface probe internal tube inspection is included,
difficult test situations have been resolved with this technique. Signals which could
be mistaken for real defects (anomalous indications) a r e t h e subject of another
section. The chapter concludes with a discussion of multifrequency testing, including
its advantages and limitations.

An a t t e m p t is made throughout this chapter t o illustrate discussion with real or

simulated eddy current defect signals.

8.2 EDDY CURRENT SIGNALS

8.2.1 Defect Signal Characteristics
A defect, which disrupts eddy current flow, changes test coil impedance a s t h e coil is
scanned past t h e defect. A non-rigorous derivation of this effect can be obtained
using Figure 8.1 which portrays eddy currents induced in a tube with either an
internal or external coil. Consider a unit length of tube a s being t h e secondary
winding of a transformer (similar t o treatment in Chapter 3). The resistance of a
conductor of length a ,cross-sectional area A and resistivity P is

R = P,p/A, ohms

Without a defect, resistance around this tube is

R~ = 2 n T p l t @.la)

Introduction of a long defect, of depth h, which constricts eddy current flow over t h e
distance (in radians), increases total resistance t o
 - 124-

or R = R, (defect f r e e resistance) + AR (due t o defect).

FIGURE 8.1
Schematic Illustration of Eddy Curr a t Distribution
A r o d a Defect in a Tube

A short d e f e c t will also increase resistance but by a smaller A R since current c a n

flow both under and around it. Note t h a t i t is width of a f f e c t e d zone, A8 ,r a t h e r
than a c t u a l d e f e c t width which determines e f f e c t of t h e d e f e c t on resistance. In
summary, t h e above argument illustrates t h a t d e f e c t length, d e p t h and width (to
some e x t e n t ) all increase resistance to current flow and hence d e f e c t signal
amplitude.
In t e r m s of t h e equivalent coil circuit of a resistor in parallel with a n inductor and i t s
associated semicircular impedance diagram (Chapter 3), a d e f e c t moves t h e operating
point up t h e impedance diagram. Increasing resistance in a specimen changes both
probe inductance and resistance.
T h e above discussion does not predict a d e f e c t signal in detail, only i t s approximate
amplitude and direction on t h e impedance diagram. A m o r e c o m p l e t e explanation
requires inclusion of phase lag. Consider a n absolute coil around a cylindrical sample
as in Figure 8.2(a). (The t r e a t m e n t for a differential coil would be similar but m o r e
complicated because t h e twin coil configuration g e n e r a t e s t w o mirror image signals
and cross-coupling between t h e t w o coils causes f u r t h e r complications). Figure 8.2(a)
shows t h e distribution of magnetic field amplitude and phase around a coil as derived
by Dodd (2). The solid lines a r e contours of constant m a g n e t i c field strength; t h e
dashed lines a r e constant phase. Since magnetic field a n d induced eddy currents have
about t h e s a m e phase, t h e dashed lines also represent t h e phase of t h e eddy
currents. Similar diagrams could b e derived f o r coils inside or around tubes.
Amplitude drops off exponentially with distance and eddy current flow increasingly
lags in phase (relative t o eddy currents adjacent t o t h e coil) both with depth and with
axial distance from t h e coil. Skin depth e f f e c t occurs in both radial and axial
directions.
Figure 8.2(a) permits derivation of eddy c u r r e n t signals f o r t h e surface, subsurface
and d e e p defects illustrated. One needs to establish a reference phase direction as
starting point, t h e fill-factor direction is convenient and can be defined as t h e signal
resulting from a very shallow s u r f a c e d e f e c t which only decreases coupling without
changing phase l a g distribution. H e n c e choosing t h e phase contour which just touches
t h e surface under t h e coil as t h e 0" contour fixes fill-factor direction as in Figure
8.2(b). T h e signal o r e f f e c t of d e f e c t s c a n b e imagined as t h e absence of eddy
currents which were flowing in t h e a r e a before t h e d e f e c t existed at this location. On
moving t h e coil (or defects past t h e coil) from positions 0 t o 5 in Figure 8.2(a), one
observes t h e change in amplitude and phase sketched in Figure 8.2(b). This procedure
is reasonably straight forward f o r t h e s u r f a c e and subsurface defects since they a r e
localized and only intersect one phase and amplitude contour at any given position.
For t h e d e e p d e f e c t , o n e has to divide t h e d e f e c t i n t o sections and determine
weighted average values f o r amplitude and phase at e a c h position.

T h e surface d e f e c t in Figure 8.2(b) has a l a r g e fill-factor component, primarily i t s

approach signal makes i t distinguishable from fill-factor. As d e f e c t depth increases,
signals r o t a t e clockwise due t o increasing phase angle.

0 -
The angle between fill-factor and d e f e c t signals in Figure 8.2(b) is about 2 0 , where
x / 6. Although probably not strictly true, o n e can imagine d e f e c t signal
phase angle as t h e sum of a lag of 8 f r o m t h e coil t o t h e d e f e c t and t h e s a m e lag back
t o t h e coil.

E f f e c t of T e s t Frequency
W e can now combine Figure 8.2 results with impedance diagrams from Chapter 7 t o
illustrate t h e e f f e c t of test frequency on d e f e c t signal appearance. Figure 8.3(a)
shows part of Figure 7.9, t h e impedance diagram for a t u b e with D I/ D o = 0.8
t e s t e d with a short internal coil. T h e d o t t e d lines t r a c e t h e impedance change with
decreasing Do. An external d e f e c t (OD d e f e c t ) i n a t u b e is essentially a decrease in
D, with D held constant, t h e r e f o r e t h e d o t t e d lines t r a c e t h e change in impedance
a s a coil is scanned past a n OD defect. N o t e the similarity between t h e subsurface
defect in Figure 8.2(b) and t h e O D d e f e c t at 2 f g o in Figure 8.3(a). The display is
normally r o t a t e d counter-clockwise to m a k e a signal from fill-factor approximately
horizontal. This is achieved by rotating t h e phase control knob on t h e eddy current
instrument.
 \ SUBSURFACE
DEFECT 1 1 2 1

FILL - t l C T O l . 1

FIGURE 8.2
Derivation of Eddy Current Signal Appearance f w Three Types of Defects

With this phase setting and at f gg a n OD d e f e c t shows wall loss (tY)in a tube
without a chan e in fill-factor as in Figure 8.3(b). An ID d e f e c t consists of wall loss
f
(+Y component as well as a large fill-factor (-X component) because of decreased
coil/tube coupling. The through-wall d e f e c t (hole) signal contains elements of both ID
and O D d e f e c t s and hence yields a signal which falls between t h e two. Note t h a t -
all
d e f e c t signals must fall between decreasing fill-factor and O D d e f e c t signals.
 IIWMPL IZED RESI SIIINCE

FIGURE 8.3(a)
Relation Between Impedance Diagram and Defect Signal Appearance

OD DEFECT
THROUGH-WALL \
DEFECT

I D DEFECT

-Y
DECREASING F I L L FACTOR
FIGURE 8.3 (b)
Defect Signal Appearance at f gg

Figures 8.3(a) and 8.4 show what happens t o d e f e c t signals with changing test
frequency. Reduced frequency results in rotation of d e f e c t signals towards t h e fill-
f a c t o r direction. At very low frequencies (less t h a n f g o 1 4 ) signals from
d i f f e r e n t types of d e f e c t s become difficult t o distinguish due t o small phase angle
separation.

Increasing t e s t frequency increases phase separation between ID and OD d e f e c t

signals as predicted by phase lag. A t f go the ID and OD defect signals a r e separated
by about 90" with low sensitivity t o t u b e supports and external deposits. At higher
t e s t frequencies, 2 fgo and above, higher sensitivity t o probe wobble and dents is
obtained and t h e increased angular separation of d e f e c t signals makes i t difficult t o
discriminate between OD d e f e c t s and probe wobble o r fill-factor variations, see
Figure 8.4k).
 PROBE
PROBE WOBBLE

PROBE
WOBBLE

FIGURE 8.4
Appearance of Calibration Defect Signals at D i f f e r e n t Test Frequencies

8.2.3 Calibration Tubes and Simple D e f e c t s

Both manufacturing and in-service inspection require calibration tubes with artificial
d e f e c t s for initial instrument set-up and subsequent signal analysis and
interpretation. These tubes should be identical in material and size t o tubes t o be
tested. Minimum calibration requirements include ID, OD and through-wall d e f e c t s
(see also t h e ASTM and ASME codes c i t e d in Section 7.4.2). For in-service inspection,
expected signal sources such as baffle plates, m a g n e t i t e deposits and dents a r e useful
and o f t e n essential for reliable signal analysis. Figure 8.5 shows typical signals, at
f g 0 ,from a calibration t u b e suitable for in-service h e a t exchanger inspection. Both
absolute and differential probe signals a r e shown. T h e 90" phase separation between
ID and OD d e f e c t s also exists f o r differential probes. N o t e t h e similarity with t h e
signals derived in t h e previous section.
 STEEL
SUPPORT P L A T E

, . . ...
OUTSIDE l NS l DE THROUGH MAGNETITE
GROOVE GROOVE HOLE
I I

OUTS l DE

HO!E OUTSIDE

IECREASING
F I L L FACTOR - MAGNETITE

SUPPORT
PLATE

DIFFERENTIAL

FIGURE 8.5
Eddy Current Signals from a Typical Calibration Tube.
Test Frequency fgo = 250 kHz.

Qualitative reasons for t h e appearance of ID,OD and through-wall defects w e r e

presented in Section 8.2.2. The other signals in Figure 8.5 c a n be explained in a
similar fashion. Magnetite is ferromagnetic non-conductor, i t s signal is due t o i t s high
permeability. As indicated in Figure 7.1 1 increasing permeability of tube material
yields a signal which falls between OD and through-wall defects. The m a g n e t i t e
signal in Figure 8.5(b) is essentially such a signal r o t a t e d about 90" clockwise because
of phase lag across t h e tube wall. A d e n t places t u b e material in close proximity t o
t h e coil resulting in improved coupling (increased fill-factor) and hence yields a signal
opposite t o decreasing fill-factor. Probe wobble yields a signal very close t o t h e fill-
f a c t o r direction because radial displacernent of t h e coil reduces t h e coupling to t h e
tube. The reason for baffle plate signal appearance is d u e t o a combination of
factors. For carbon steel baffles, t h e e f f e c t s of high magnetic permeability and
intermediate resistivity partially cancel resulting in small signal amplitude. P h a s e lag
across t h e tube wall r o t a t e s this signal clockwise.
 S t 1 0 GROOVE 1 0 % 0 0 GROOVE 1 d nm 0.15 m
2.5 nm W I D E 2 , s IMI l l D E HOLE DENT
CARBON STEEL
SUPPORT

7
I
I
C
Y CHANNEL
' I t

FIGURE 8.6
Appearance of Quadrature Components on a Chart
R e a d i n g for a Calibration Tube

In eddy current tube testing o n e normally records t h e quadrature components

(vertical, Y; horizontal, X) of coil impedance on a two-channel s t r i p c h a r t recorder as
shown in Figure 8.6. With phase adjusted as shown, a n y real d e f e c t will exhibit a Y
component. T h e X-channel information is required f o r detailed signal analysis to
decide type and depth of d e f e c t s which c a n only b e performed reliably through phase
analysis. Accurate phase analysis c a n be done on-line by monitoring t h e signals on a n
eddy current instrument storage monitor. Alternatively a n X-Y recorder o r similar
device permits hard-copy s t o r a g e of quadrature signals.

A f l a w indication on a n X-Y monitor is normally a curved locus; i t does not have a

simple and unique phase angle. If a n absolute probe is used t h e significant angle t o
measure is t h e tangent angle at t h e d e f e c t signal tip, see Figure 8.7(b). If a
differential probe is used, t h e phase angle is t h e slope of t h e straight line joining t h e
end points of t h e "figure-8" signal, see Figure 8.7(c). Figure 8.7(a) illustrates t h e
change in phase angle with d e f e c t depth. This c u r v e should be used only as a guide
since d e f e c t signal phase angle c a n change with d e f e c t and probe geometry.
 0.0. DEFECT
l .D. 0 .D.
DEFECTS I DEFECTS THROUGH I

( b ) ABSOLUTE
THROUGH

S l GNAL PATTERN PHASE ANGLE ( 0 ), DEGREES

FIGURE 8.7
Eddy Current Phax AngIelDefect Depth Calibration Curve at fqo

When a n eddy current signal source is located i t is o f t e n useful t o r e t e s t at other

frequencies t o confirm a d e f e c t exists and/or to improve depth estimate. Defect
depth is estimated f r o m signal p a t t e r n recognition and verified by comparison with
calibration defect signals at various test frequencies. Normally, frequencies of one-
half and t w i c e f g o a r e sufficient. However, t o check f o r magnetic deposits or
inclusions a frequency of one-tenth f o r less may be required (see Sections 7.4.2
and 8.3.1). Figure 8.4 shows e f f e c t of changes in frequency on calibration signals.
Increasing t e s t frequency increases phase separation between ID and OD d e f e c t s a s
predicted by phase lag. It also increases sensitivity t o probe wobble and dents but
lowers sensitivity t o tube supports and external deposits. O n e might question t h e
validity of comparing machined holes and grooves in calibration tubes with real
d e f e c t s t o e s t i m a t e type and depth. The following examples justify this approach.
Figure 8.8 shows external corrosion in a copper tube. Attack is general but non-
uniform with localized severe pitting. An absolute internal probe was used t o obtain
signals from artificial defects and three of t h e localized pits. The phase angle of t h e
first two corrosion indications shows they a r e OD defects, comparison with t h e
calibration defect led t o a depth estimate of 25 t o 50%. Independent mechanical
measurement found deepest penetration t o be 50% for both defects. The third defect
has a noticeably different phase angle from t h e first two. I t approaches t h e angle for
a through-wall hole, hence its depth was estimated t o be 50 t o 75% (actual
measurement yielded 75%).

25% OD

"'4
ECCENTRIC
CALIBRATION
DEFECTS
10% ID
ECCENTRIC
GROOVE

CORROSION
DEFECTS

P
FIGURE 8.8
E a d Corrosion in a Copper Tube
(Do= 15.9 mrn, t = 1.0 mm, f90 = 5.3 kHz)

An example of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in Type 316 stainless steel, from a
heavy water plant heat exchanger, is shown in Figure 8.9. The crack extends nearly
half way around t h e tube. Phase angle of t h e crack signal shows i t extends through
t h e tube wall. Since t h e eddy currents flow parallel t o coil windings, circum-
ferentially, t h e large crack signal is due entirely t o t h e component of t h e crack along
t h e tube axis. The intergranular, branching nature of SCC generally permits their
detection. Since a defect must disrupt eddy current flow t o be detectable, if
circumferential cracks are suspected, fatigue cracks for example, special probes are
required, see Section 7.5 and 8.2.5.
 -
3 . 2 rnm
HOLE

HOLE
5 0 0 ~
CONCEPJTQ IC
GQOOVE

C A L I B R A T ION
DEFECTS

FIGURE 8.9
Stress Corrosion Cracking in Type 316 Stainless Steel Tubing

(Do= 19.1 mm, t = 1.8 mm, fgO= 68 kHz)

8.2.4 Vectorial Addition and Defects a t Baffle Plates

During in-service inspection of tubes in heat exchangers, tube supports (baffle plates)
a r e frequently defect prone regions. Inspection for defects at baffles is possible
because eddy current signals a r e often vectorially additive. This permits analysis of
superimposed signals; t h e signals can be (mentally,or graphically) subtracted from the
total indication with resultant separated signals appearing similar t o calibration
defects. Vectorial addition provides t h e basis for multifrequency eddy current testing
(Section 8.4).
Figure 8.10 illustrates how signals from a steel baffle plate and an external groove
a r e added t o obtain a superimposed indication. The difference between t h e end points
of the baffle plate and baffle and groove signals equals the indication obtained from
t h e groove by itself.
 I
OD GROOVE

FIGURE 8.10
Vectorial Addition of Eddy Current Signals

Figure 8.1 1(a) shows a section of stainless s t e e l t u b e removed from a power plant
w
h e a t exchanger with part of t h e carbon steel support p l a t e still in place. T h e support
shows considerable corrosion; originally t h e r e was about 0.25 mm clearance between
t h e tube and t h e hole in t h e plate. Corrosion products have completely filled t h e gap
leading t o crevice corrosion evident in Figure 8.1 1(b) which is a similar t u b e with t h e
plate removed. Calibration signals a r e presented in Figure 8. I l k ) . T h e eddy current
signal from t h e baffle plate region of Figure 8.1 l(a) is shown in Figure 8.1 l(d). This
seemingly simple signal is actually quite complex. T h e upward component is d u e t o
external pitting similar t o t h a t in Figure 8.1 1(b). T h e presence of a support plate
should result in -X, -Y signal components; in f a c t a + X deflection is observed. This is
t h e result of denting of t h e tube. Denting is circumferential constriction of tubes
d u e to compressive stresses e x e r t e d by baffle p l a t e corrosion products such as
magnetite. The presence of m a g n e t i t e c a n also contribute t o signal distortion
particularly at low test frequencies. Tube denting is of concern because, in addition
t o complicating eddy current signal analysis, i t c a n lead t o further t u b e damage such
as stress corrosion cracking o r thermal f a t i g u e because tubes a r e no longer f r e e t o
expand and c o n t r a c t during t h e r m a l cycling.
 FIGURE 8.1 1
Corrosion and Denting Under a Steel Baffle Plate

(Do = 15.9 mm, t = 1.25 mm, fm = 80 kHz)

Another example of defects near a carbon steel tube support is shown in Figure 8.12.
These were obtained from a brass, thermal power plant condenser tube which
suffered erosion/corrosion on either side of supports. This is t h e same tube as in
Figure 7.3. Defect signals from t h e baffle plate vicinity a r e so large t h e support
signal is obscured. The main point of this example is t h e advantage of using phase
angle, rather than amplitude, t o judge defect severity. Defect B with both
differential and absolute probes has a phase angle approaching t h a t of a through-wall
hole, i.e., i t probably extends at least 75% through t h e wall. Defect A on t h e other
hand is vertical and hence is probably no deeper than 50% even though i t exhibits
greater amplitude than B.
 DEFECT
SlCNlLS

1 . 6 *n
HOLE

l a 1 C P L I U R P I I O N DFFECT SIGNPLS

FIGURE 8.12
Quadrature Eddy Current Signals from the Brass Tube in figure 7.3

To this point we have only considered ferromagnetic tube supports, carbon steel is
t h e material used in most heat exchangers. With magnetic baffle plates vectorial
addition appears t o apply for all types of defects. Unfortunately deteriorating water
quality, denting problems and longer service life requirements have made i t necessary
t o construct some heat exchangers with non-ferromagnetic support plates. Vectorial
addition of eddy current signals involving nonmagnetic supports is generally not valid.
Several factors contribute t o this situation, nonmagnetic supports yield much larger
signals than magnetic supports. The larger signal from nonmagnetic baffle plates
effectively reduces signal-to-noise making small defects more difficult t o detect.

Possibly t h e most difficult defects t o detect under non-magnetic supports are those
of t h e same width as t h e plate, e.g., fretting wear from tube vibration.

Figure 8.13(a) illustrates such a situation, a brass baffle plate with a copper-nickel
tube containig simulated 50% deep fretting wear. The same defect with a magnetic
baffle plate is shown in figure 8.13(b) for comparison.

Problems in detecting defects at non-magnetic supports cannot be overcome by

employing a multifrequency eddy current technique. he-frequency approach
 relies on vectorial addition being valid (Section 8.4). Sensitivity can be improved by
employing special probes as will be shown in Section 8.2.6.

ir MAXIMUM GAP

OD GROOVE

BAFFLE WITH
nnxrnun GAP

BRASS B A F F L E
I N CONTACT

BRASS MAGNETIC
BAFFLE BAFFLE

FIGURE 8.13
Wear Under (a) Non-Ferromagnetic and (b) Ferromagnetic Baffle Plates

8.2.5 Tube Inspection a t Tubesheets

Heat exchanger tubesheets a r e usually made of carbon steel, eddy current response
should therefore appear similar t o a baffle signal. In addition, a large fill-factor (tube
expansion) signal is also obtained a s a result of tubes being rolled into tubesheets.
Rolling eliminates corrosion prone crevices and also helps hold tubes in t h e tubesheet.
With carbon steel tubesheets, expansion usually yields t h e largest signal coniponent,
t h e tubesheet only contributes appreciably a t test frequencies below f g g .
Figure 8.14 shows tube configuration a t a tubesheet and typical eddy current signals.

Occasionally one may encounter a tubesheet clad with a corrosion resistant alloy such
as stainless steel or Inconel. If t h e dadding is non-magnetic t h e same complications
arise a s with non-magnetic baffle plates (Section 8.2.4). Fortunately, most tubesheets
a r e only d a d on t h e primary side (near tube ends) where service related defects
rarely occur.
 - -- LXPLNSION SIGNAL

FIGURE 8.14
Schematic of Tube Geometry a t Rolled Joint in Tubesheet
and Associated Eddy Current Signals

The end of t h e rolled joint at t h e inboard e d g e of a tubesheet is a d e f e c t prone a r e a

because of high residual a n d service stresses and also because deposits t e n d t o
accumulate at this location which can lead t o corrosion. Eddy current indications
with bobbin-type probes from d e f e c t s in this region c a n be difficult t o interpret
because of excessive signal distortion from t u b e expansion. Sensitivity may be
improved by employing a spring loaded s u r f a c e probe as discussed in next section.

5.2.6 Testing Tubes with Internal Surface Probes

During in-service inspection of tubes, situations a r i s e where conventional

circumferential probes (both differential a n d absolute) prove inadequate. T h e case of
circumferential cracks was t r e a t e d in Section 7.5. Surface probe designs have also
been found t o yield improved test results in t h e case of d e f e c t s at non-magnetic
baffle plates and at h e a t exchanger tubesheets.

Surface probes have several advantages over bobbin-type probes. They c a n be made
much smaller than tube diameter and hence s a m p l e a smaller volume of t u b e
periphery, this provides inherently g r e a t e r sensitivity to small defects. Spring loading
of a surface probe against t h e t u b e wall eliminates much of t h e fill-factor (lift-off)
distortion caused by t u b e expansion in tubesheets. T h e main drawback t o s u r f a c e
probe tube testing is t h a t a number of scans have t o b e made for complete
circumferential coverage. Conventional probes sample t h e e n t i r e tube in a single
scan.

TUBE SHEET

70% OD
70% OD
t ' DEFECT
DEFECT A

1 . 6 mm 1 . 6 mm
HOLE\

TUBESHEET

CONVENTIONAL
SURFACE
PROBE PROBE

FIGURE 8.15
Comparison of Eddy Current Test Results in Heat Exchanger Tubesheet
Region with Conventional and Surface Probes
(Do = 12.5 mm, t = 1.2 mm, fgo = 200 kHz)

Figure 8.15 illustrates surface probe testing at t h e tubesheet region of a power plant
s t e a m generator. I t compares signals, from what is believed t o be OD corrosion
damage at t h e end of t h e rolled joint, obtained with conventional and surface probes.
The reason for t h e characteristic A'B'C' s u r f a c e probe signal is as follows. As t h e
probe is withdrawn from t h e t u b e (direction of arrow) it encounters t h e s t a r t of t h e
expanded area. Failure of t h e probe to follow this contour exactly results in a n
increasing lift-off signal, A'R', superimposed on t h e impedance change, A'C', due t o
t h e presence of t h e tubesheet. Both d e f e c t signals were obtained f r o m t h e s a m e
tube, n o t e t h e considerable improvement in sensitivity obtained with t h e surface
probe. This t u b e was in f a c t leaking.
 50% OD
ECCENTRIC
GROOVE

GAP

CALI RR4TIOIJ
-

+
50% GROOVC
BAFFLE
(MAXIMUMGAP)

FIGURE 8.16
50% GROOVE
BAFFLE
(NO GAP)

Internal Surface Probe Testing for Fretting Wear mder a

Non-Magnetic Baffle Plate. (Compare with Figure 8.13 Results)

A second example of improved sensitivity with a n internal surface probe involves

f r e t t i n g wear under non-magnetic baffle plates. Figure 8.16 shows results. Compare
with Figure 8.13(a) which shows test results for t h e s a m e d e f e c t obtained with a n
internal circumferential probe. With no gap, t h e 50% groove was barely detectable
with a conventional probe, while Figure 8.16 shows this d e f e c t is easily d e t e c t e d with
a surface probe.

ANOMALOUS EDDY CURRENT SIGNALS

Some eddy current signals can b e mistaken f o r d e f e c t indications; t h e s e a r e called

false or anomalous signals. They a r i s e because of t h e high sensitivity of eddy currents
to many variables and d e m o n s t r a t e t h e need f o r thorough analysis before concluding
t h a t every eddy current signal represents a d e f e c t . T h e following examples illustrate
more common ones which have been encountered in practice.
8.3.1 Ferromagnetic Inclusions and Deposits
Materials with relative magnetic permeability g r e a t e r than 1.0 a f f e c t eddy current
response drastically. Skin depth and probe inductance a r e both a f f e c t e d by
permeability; permeability values of 50 to several hundred a r e typical.

Before citing specific examples consider t h e general approach t o identifying signals

f r o m magnetic materials. Such signals c a n b e distinguished f r o m real d e f e c t s by
reducing test frequency t o move t h e operating point near t h e t o p of t h e impedance
diagram. Figure 8.17 illustrates t h e procedure where 1, 2 and 3 represent
ferromagnetic material on t h e inside, in t h e t u b e wall and on t h e outside
respectively. I t may be difficult to achieve a sufficiently high operating point with
s o m e instruments and probes when testing low resistivity, large diameter tubes.
However, if a low enough frequency is achieved, real d e f e c t indications will fall
nearly parallel t o fill-factor whereas high permeability indications are nearly
perpendicular t o fill-factor. At 240 kHz ( f ) in Figure 8.17, 1 and 2 could easily
have been mistaken for ID defects. T h e r e is no confusion at 10 kHz since i t is known
t h a t all d e f e c t indications must fall between fill-factor and a n OD d e f e c t signal. The
following t w o examples demonstrate t h e procedure t o discriminate false d e f e c t
(ferromagnetic) indications.
FERROPAGNETI C
ANOMALIES

I.lmn
GROOYC GROOVE I I I

J@
1.0.

OECREASlNG F I L L FACTOR

OW
DECREASING F I L L FACTOR @

NORMAL 1ZED RESISTANCE. %

C,

FIGURE 8.17
Coil Impedance Display at Two Test Frequencies
 Ferromagnetic inclusions a r e occasionally encountered during eddy c u r r e n t testing of
non-magnetic materials. These arise f r o m chips o r filings from s t e e l tooling and
handling equipment which a r e embedded during manufacture. T h e s u r f a c e of
nominally non-magnetic stainless s t e e l s and nickel-base alloys c a n also become
magnetic as a result of cold working o r through alloy depletion from oxidation o r
corrosion.

0.0. DEFECT I.D. DEFECT m

-/
'
f
2 5 0 kHz FERROMAGNETIC
INCLUSION

\ FERROMAGNETIC
INCLUSION

50 kHz
INCLUSION

-
10 kHz

FIGURE 8.18
Defect and Magnetic Inclusion Signals Obtained from a New Inconel
600 Tube (Do= 13 mm, t = 1.1 mm) with an Absolute External Coil.
f go = 250 kHz

Though one might consider a magnetic inclusion a d e f e c t , t h e r e a r e several reasons

why it is important t o identify t h e origin of a n indication. Even very small, perhaps
insignificant, magnetic inclusions c a n yield sizeable eddy current signals because of
t h e e x t r e m e sensitivity t o magnetic permeability. A second reason t o determine
d e f e c t origin is s o measures can b e t a k e n t o minimize f u r t h e r damage; magnetic
inclusions a r e nearly always manufacturing defects. Figure 8.18 shows t h e signal from
a magnetic inclusion in new Inconel 600 tubing at various test frequencies. These
results were obtained with a n external encircling probe; this explains t h e reversal in
appearance of ID and OD d e f e c t s from previous examples. T h e magnetic inclusion
yields a signal whose angular separation f r o m t h e fill-factor direction increases as
test frequency is reduced. The response of real d e f e c t s is just opposite.
 I 0.0. DEFECT

T
1 . 0 . DEFECT

l NTERNAL
MAGNET l TE
/

250 k H z
MAGNETITE '

MAGNET l TE
50 kHz

10 k H z

FIGURE 8.19
Defect and Magnetite Signals from an Inconel 600 Tube
(Do = 13 mm, t = 1.1 mm) Obtained with an Absolute
Internal Probe. fgO = 250 kHz)

Figure 8.19 shows eddy current response t o magnetite ( F e O4 ) deposits inside a n

Inconel 600 t u b e at various test frequencies. As in t h e previous example, t h e
existence of ferromagnetic material is verified by lowering test frequency; magnetite
signals r o t a t e clockwise whereas d e f e c t signals r o t a t e counter-clockwise. O n e could
easily mistake t h e magnetite signals for r e a l d e f e c t s at 250 kHz and 50 kHz.
Reducing test frequency can also b e used t o verify t h e presence of magnetite on t h e
outside of a tube. This approach h a s been used to measure t h e height of sludge
deposits (containing magnetite) above tubesheets during in-service inspection of
vertical heat exchangers.
Figure 8.20 shows t h e eddy c u r r e n t signals from a Monel 400 s t e a m generator tube
with external wall thinning near a t u b e support. The tube was inspected with a n
absolute saturation probe and t h e signals recorded with wall thinning giving a
vertically upward signal. A t 5 0 kHz t h e vertical component of t h e complex signal is
from wall thinning and t h e horizontal signal is primarily from magnetic deposit. A t
200 kHz ( 2 f t h e vertical component is again from wall thinning but t h e
horizontal signal is primarily f r o m a n increase in t u b e magnetic permeability because
of incomplete magnetic saturation under t h e carbon s t e e l tube support. A t 400 k H z
eddy currents just barely penetrate through t h e wall. In this case t h e signal is
primarily from tube magnetic permeability variations.
 O.D. GROOVE

DENT

+A~ MAGNET l TE

BAFFLE f3 = 400 kHz

BAFFLE PLATE
BAFFLE
PLATE
f2 = 200 kHz BAFFLE
PLATE
f =; SO kHz
MAGNET l TE
CAL l BRAT l ON TUBE
SIGNALS

MAGNET l TE
f* = 200 kHz fj = 400 kHz
f , = s o kHz

ACTUAL DEFECT S l GNAL

FIGURE 8.20
Eddy Current Signals from Monel 000 Tube at Baffle Plate Location.
(f 90 = 100 kHz)

Conducting Deposits
T h e most probable conducting deposit which may b e encountered during in-service
t u b e testing is copper. Copper taken i n t o solution in o n e p a r t of a cooling circuit,
from brass tubes for example, c a n re-deposit at another location at t h e expense of a
less noble metal such as iron. An example is shown in Figure 8.21 which is a copper-
alloy t u b e from a n a i r conditioner h e a t exchanger. Copper deposits occur near tube
supports, maximum thickness was 0.05 mm. Even such a thin deposit yields a large
eddy current signal since copper is a good conductor. Figure 8.21 shows response from
both absolute and differential internal probes. T h e absolute probe gave eddy current
signals with no +Y component, clearly indicating t h e non-defect nature of t h e
anomaly.

The differential probe signal is not nearly a s d e a r and illustrates another limitation
of differential probes. Comparison of t h e deposit indication with calibration defects I
could easily lead one t o conclude t h e presence of an OD defect; particularly if t h e
eddy current results were compressed on X and Y channel recordings as is often t h e
case during in-service inspection. With a differential probe, one has t o observe defect
sense (arrows) t o distinguish between deposit signals and those from real defects.

Copper D e p o s i t s

Ill

AQSOLUTE DIFFERENTIAL

DEPOSIT SISNALS

P
FIGURE 8-21
Eddy Current Indications from Copper Deposits on a Copper Alloy Tube
(Do = 19 mm, t = 1.1 mm, fgo = 57 kHz)

Figure 8.22 shows simulated copper deposit signals at different test frequencies.
There is a noticeable change in phase angle with increasing deposit thickness as well
as test frequency. At frequencies above f there exists a possibility that deposits
could be mistaken for ID defects, even with an absolute probe. The procedure for in-
service inspection of nuclear power plant boilers specified by ASME (11)leads t o test
 frequencies between f and 2 f . This appears t o b e a weakness in t h e code
which may lead t o revision if copper deposits prove m o r e common as boilers age.
Inspection of Figure 8.22 reveals t h a t clearer discrimination between copper and
d e f e c t s is achieved at f .
/ 2 r a t h e r t h a n at f g 0 Optimum test frequency for
copper c o a t e d tubes appears t o be t h e frequency which just leaves signals below t h e
horizontal fill-factor direction.

4 - 7Q% OD ECCENTRIC L R O O Y T
B - 10%ID CONCENTRIC GROOVE
C - 0.13 rnm THICK COPPER AROIJUD 'Ij9::
D - 0.05 rnrn THICK COPPER AIIOUND TlJEC

1.0

FIGURE 8.22
Eddy Current Signals Obtained with an Internal Circumferential Probe
from Simulated Copper Deposits on Tubes

8.4 MULTIFREQUENCY EDDY CURRENT TESTING

Background

Successful in-service Eddy C u r r e n t inspection relies on eddy current probes t h a t can

sense d e f e c t s and a n analysis of eddy current signals. Both aspects a r e equally
important. While scanning e a c h tube, eddy c u r r e n t signals a r e obtained from baffle
plates, magnetite deposits, dents, tubesheets, t u b e expansion, etc. and maybe
defects. O n e must, therefore, discriminate between d e f e c t s and insignificant signals
and even m o r e important, e s t i m a t e d e f e c t severity when i t occurs together with
other signal sources. I t would b e much easier if t h e d a t a could be processed t o
contain only d e f e c t signals; Multifrequency ET c a n do this.

In multifrequency testing, t w o or m o r e sinusoidal signals of different frequencies a r e

fed simultaneously t o a single eddy c u r r e n t probe. Gain and phase of t h e output signal
from e a c h frequency can be separately controlled.
 THROUGH BAFFLE
WALL HOLE PLATE

MAGNET1 TE 1.3 mm

15.5 mm
I
CALIBRATION TUBE

f , =20 kHz f , =I00 kHz f , =500 kHz

FIGURE 8.23
Internal Probe Response to Various Test Parameters.
f g o = 130kHz.

f , = 2 0 kHz 1 , = 100 kHz

(a)

FIGURE 8.24
Eddy Current Signal at Baffle Plate Position in Tube of Figure 8.1 1
fg0 = 130 kHz.
These signals c a n then b e combined to eliminate unwanted signals and leave only t h e
d e f e c t signal. This method is only e f f e c t i v e if a d e f e c t signal differs
characteristically f r o m unwanted signals and if signals a r e vectorially additive. T h e J

first condition makes detection of internal defects, in t h e presence of internal

variations, impossible. T h e second requirement makes t h e method ineffective for
detection of f r e t t i n g wear under non-ferromagnetic baffle plates (Section 8.2.4). As a
consequence of combining signals from t h r e e different frequencies, d e f e c t signal
amplitude decreases and instrument noise increases.
Eddy current penetration and phase lag a r e a function of frequency; increasing test
frequency reduces penetration and increases phase lag. Since a n eddy current signal is
a function of c u r r e n t density and phase lag, i t is possible to change t h e response t o
various signal sources by changing test frequency.
If o n e simulates a h e a t exchanger t u b e with d e f e c t s , deposits, dents and support
plates, o n e obtains t h e following results:
(a) at high frequencies, only internal d e f e c t s a n d dents a r e detectable, Figure
8.23(c).
(b) at intermediate frequencies, all f e a t u r e s a r e d e t e c t a b l e and t h e r e is phase
discrimination between internal and external d e f e c t signals (because of phase
lag across t h e wall) and o t h e r signals, Figure 8.23(b).
(c) at low frequencies, baffle plates and m a g n e t i t e deposits yield predominant
signals with l i t t l e phase separation between internal and external d e f e c t
signals, Figure 8.23(a).
With this background in mind, o n e can decide which combination of frequencies
should be used t o eliminate extraneous (unwanted) signals. The following t w o
examples illustrate these effects.
F o r t h e dented t u b e example described in Section 8.2.3 (Figure 8.1 11, t h e extraneous
signals making up t h e composite signal at f = 100 kHz c a n be determined by re-
inspecting t h e t u b e at higher and lower t e s t frequencies. If t h e signals from t h e
actual d e f e c t in Figure 8.24 a r e compared with t h e corresponding calibration signals
in Figure 8.23, o n e c a n see at 500 kHz t h e signal is primarily from a d e n t while t h a t
at 20 kHz contains a large baffle p l a t e signal component.
Multifrequency Testing of Dented Tubes
With a single frequency eddy c u r r e n t inspection, t u b e supports and dents tend t o mask
signals from t u b e d a m a e under t u b e supports. This makes detection and estimation
d
of severity difficult a n time-consuming. In t h e remaining section w e show how
multifrequency simplifies t h e inspection of t h e dented t u b e described previously.
Figure 8.25 illustrates t h e t u b e stripping sequence; o n e o r more signals a r e removed
by e a c h mixing of t w o frequencies. By proper manipulation of t h e signals from t h e
t w o lower frequencies, baffle plate and m a g n e t i t e deposit signals c a n b e eliminated.
However, t h e resultant eddy c u r r e n t signal is still distorted by t h e 'denting' signal.
Again, by combining this resultant signal with t h e signal from a higher test
frequency, t h e dent signal c a n also be eliminated. T h e t u b e now looks bare. If a
d e f e c t existed under t h e baffle plate, it would b e very easy t o d e t e c t , t h e resultant
signal contains only information from t h e OD corrosion. This process of unwanted
signal elimination is like solving t h r e e simultaneous equations with t h r e e unknowns
 - 149 -

and solving for t h e parameter XI = defect .

f I 2 fa
20 kHz 100 kHz 500 kHz

FIGURE 8.25
Tube Stripping Sequence by Multif requency

As shown in Figure 8.23, the signal at each baffle plate is a composite signal
comprising a baffle plate, magnetite deposit (or baffle plate corrosion products), dent
and defect signal. Figure 8.26 illustrates elimination of baffle plate and magnetite
signals. The probe is moved back-and-forth under t h e baffle plate and t h e signal is
monitored on the storage scope in t h e chopping mode, where both frequency signals
a r e displayed simultaneously.
 BPFFLE
PLPTE

BPFFlE
PLPTE

1
% RESIOUPL B l F F L E PLATE SIGNPL

FIGURE 8.26
Suppression of Baffle Plate and Magnetite Signals

The f 2 signal is first r o t a t e d t o m a t c h t h e f 1 signal orientation. Then f 1

amplitude is changed t o match, as nearly as possible, t h e f lsignal size. In this case,
this method by itself doesn't work. However, by decreasing t h e vertical component of
t h e f 1 baffle p l a t e signal, o n e obtains a good match. On substracting t h e signal,
through a n electronic mixer ( C1 1 , t h e signals from t h e baffle plate and t h e
magnetite deposit both nearly disappear. A small residual signal remains due t o
different approach signals at t h e t w o test frequencies, indicated in Figure 8.26 by t h e
t w o open circles. Although t h e baffle plate signals a r e identical, t h e t w o points do
not coincide; t h e baffle plate is sensed earlier at t h e lower test frequency. This
residual signal is insignificant f o r this application though i t c a n become quite serious
when testing f o r small c r a c k s under non-ferromagnetic baffle plates.
 DENT

RESIDUAL DENT SIGNAL

FIGURE 8.27
Suppression of Dent Signal

Figure 8.27 illustrates how one c a n eliminate t h e 'denting' signal from t h e resultant
(c = f 2 -f 1) signal. This is achieved by f i r s t matching t h e phase and amplitude
of he cl and f 3 'dent' signals and then using a second mixing module ( C ) for
subtract~on.
Figure 8.28 t r a c e s t h e above sequence f o r two defective tubes, and shows t h e eddy
current signal becoming simpler t o analyze with e a c h step. On comparing d e f e c t i v e
t u b e signals with those from a calibration tube, o n e observes t h e f 2 d e f e c t signal is
distorted by t h e baffle plate, dent and/or m a g n e t i t e deposit. The C 1 signal is only
distorted from t h e dent signal, a n d C 2 is a clear signal indicating outside diameter
(OD) pits approximately 50% deep. Even a n inexperienced inspector could analyse
these results.
 FIGURE 8.28
Multif requency Eddy Current Signals from Defective Tube

When using multi-frequency t o eliminate "internal d i a m e t e r (ID) noise", such as

signals from cyclic internal diameter variations ("pilger noise or die chatter"), dents
and probe wobble, t h e signal amplitude f r o m internal d e f e c t s is drastically reduced.
However, signal amplitude from external d e f e c t s is not a l t e r e d significantly.
Multifrequency is m o r e e f f e c t i v e for external d e f e c t detection than for detection of
internal d e f e c t s in tubes.

8.5 SUMMARY

D e f e c t signal amplitude is a function of i t s axial and circumferential e x t e n t as well

a s depth. Defect signal phase is primarily a function of depth. For general purpose
volumetric inspection of h e a t exchanger tubes, a suitable test frequency is

fgO - 3 p / t 2 , kHz (7.4)

where p is electrical resistivity and t is wall thickness.

Inspection at f g o allows d e f e c t depth t o be e s t i m a t e d on t h e basis of signal phase.

T o discriminate between d e f e c t s and ferromagnetic deposits a lower test frequency
should be used; normally 10 o r 20% of f go.
Signal response from most significant service induced defects is usually comparable
in amplitude t o t h a t from a 1.6 m m diameter through hole. Stress corrosion cracking,
general corrosion and fretting wear give large signals whereas pitting corrosion and
fatigue cracks give small signals.
Testing for fretting wear under non-ferromagnetic support plates is difficult and
unreliable with bobbin type probes, because defect and support plate signals a r e not
vectorially additive. A surface type probe should be used.
Multifrequency equipment can be used t o eliminate unwanted components from
complex signals such as support plates and probe wobble. This greatly simplifies
signal analysis.
 -
CHAPTER 9 METALLURGICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTING
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION
O n e c a n find numerous r e f e r e n c e s in NDT publications dealing with eddy current
measurement of material properties, such as chemical composition, hardness,
strength, corrosion damage, d e g r e e of cold work a n d e x t e n t of both carburization and
decarburization. In f a c t , none of t h e s e properties and material conditions a r e
measured directly. Eddy c u r r e n t testing is sensitive t o material properties through
their e f f e c t of resistivity and magnetic permeability. As such, eddy currents only
provide indirect measurement of material properties and c a r e must be taken t o
ensure t h a t s o m e unforseen m a t e r i a l variation does n o t lead t o false conclusions. Two
precautions will help avoid f a l s e test results:

(a) a sound basic understanding of ET as outlined in previous chapters

(b) use of suitable standards for any particular test; t h e condition of such standards
should be verified by independent methods, e.g., hardness tests, tensile tests.
A c o m p l e t e t r e a t m e n t of materials property evaluation by eddy current t e s t i n g is
beyond t h e scope of this manual. T h e basics a r e covered and a f e w examples
presented.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
F a c t o r s Affecting Resistivity

All materials possess intrinsic resistance t o electron flow (current) which is t e r m e d

resistivity ( P , microhm-centimetres). T h e resistance of a conductor is given by

R = O ~ / A ohms

.
where 2 is length (cm) and A is cross-sectional a r e a ( cm2 ) Resistivity values for
various materials a r e listed in Table 9.1.

Conductivity ( 0, siemenslmetre)" is t h e ease with which electrons can move

through a material. I t is t h e reciprocal of resistivity. In eddy current testing,
conductivity is frequently given as a percentage of t h e International Annealed Copper
Standard (% IACS). In this system conductivity of pure, annealed copper at 20C is
s e t t o 100% and conductivity of other materials is given as a percentage of copper.
Conductivity of a material can b e calculated from i t s resistivity,

X IACS 1721
 Increasing t e m p e r a t u r e normally increases resistivity (decreases conductivity) a s
shown in Figure 9.1. Over a limited t e m p e r a t u r e range t h e variation is usually linear
according t o t h e relation

P = p0(1 + aAT)

TABLE 9.1
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF COMMON CONDUCTORS AT 20C

MATERIAL RESISTIVITY CONDUCTIVITY CONDUCTIVITY

( ~ .cm)
n (siemensjm) ( % IACS)

Silver
Copper
Cold
Aluminum
7075-T6 (A1 Alloy)
Zinc
Magnesium
Admiralty Brass
Iron
Phosphor Bronze
Lead
70 Cu-30 Ni
Monel
Zirconium
Ti taniurn
304 SST
Zircaloy-2
Inconel 600
Hastelloy X
W aspaloy
Ti-6A 1-4V

where P is resistivity at t e m p e r a t u r e T ( ' C ) , P o is resistivity at a reference

t e m p e r a t u r e To, a ( @
C ) is thermal coefficient of resistivity and AT is t h e
temperature difference ( T-T .For common m e t a l s and alloys values of a range
from less than 0.001 t o over 0.01, 0.004 is fairly typical.
Alloying normally increases resistivity. Figure 9.2 shows even small alloy additions t o
aluminum can increase resistivity appreciably. T h e conductivity of binary Cu-Ni
 COPPER

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

TEMPERATURE ('K )

FIGURE
- -- - 9.1
Effect of Temperture on the Resistivity of Copper, Platinum and Titanium

3L IMANGANESE

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

ALLOY CONTENT (mass %)

FIGURE 9.2
Effect of Alloying Elements on the Electrical Resistivity of Aluminum.
 alloys is shown in Figure 9.3. T h e dependence of conductivity on composition provides
one basis for eddy current sorting of mixed alloys. Oxygen impurity in zirconium and
titanium alloys changes resistivity considerably. Figure 5.19 showed a non-uniform
oxygen distribution in a zirconium-niobium d e t e c t e d by eddy current testing.

COPPER/NICKEL ALLOYS

0 20 40 60 80 100
MASS % COPPER
100 80 60 40 20 0
MASS % NICKEL

FIGURE 9.3
Variation in Electrical Conductivity of Nickel-Copper Alloys with Composition

Cold work increases resistivity through introduction of lattice d e f e c t s in metals. A t

normal temperatures, cold work has a relatively small e f f e c t on conductivity ( (10 % )
and can usually be ignored. The degree of cold work in some austenitic stainless
steels can be determined by ET, this is possible because cold work makes them
ferromagnetic, not because of a resistivity change.
9.2.2 Material Sorting by Resistivity
This is normally a n eddy current s u r f a c e probe method. Two instrument types are
commonly used. Impedance display instruments o f f e r a comparative method as
t r e a t e d in Section 5.8.2; t h e lift-off curves f o r unknown materials a r e compared with
those of known standards and t h e resistivity of t h e unknown is e s t i m a t e d by
interpolation. Meter readout instruments a r e also available with built-in "lift-off"
compensation which are calibrated directly in % IACS. Both types of instruments
require c a r e on t h e part of t h e operator t o insure meaningful results. E f f e c t s which
can contribute t o erroneous results follow (for more details see Section 5.8.2):
(a) t o o low a test frequency c a n m a k e material thickness appear similar to
resistivity changes.
(b) sample c u r v a t u r e affects coil coupling and hence i t s response (edge and other
geometry e f f e c t s have a similar response).
(c) too high a test frequency could sense alloy changes a t t h e s u r f a c e of oxidized or
corroded materials.
(d) conducting and nonconducting coatings a f f e c t test coil impedance.
(el a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e variations result in changes in sample resistivity and t e s t
coil resistance.
T h e above potential e r r o r sources c a n largely be overcome through use of suitable
standards which duplicate materials t o be tested.

--
I 10 100 1000
TIME AT TEMPERATURE (h)

FIGURE 9.4
Variation of Mechanical Properties and Conductivity in 7075-T6
Aluminum Exposed at 205OC

An example of eddy current testing t o determine h e a t t r e a t e m e n t state of a n

aluminum alloy is shown in Figure 9.4. These results a r e f r o m Pellegrini (10) who
indicates t h a t t h e technique c a n b e used t o judge t h e fitness of o v e r h e a t e ~ m a t e r i a l
f o r f u r t h e r service. A similar approach has been used to assess h e a t t r e a t condition of
titanium alloys.
 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
For eddy current purposes one can classify materials as ferromagnetic (magnetic) or
non-ferromagnetic (nonmagnetic). Diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials c a n be
considered nonmagnetic. Ferromagnetism has i t s origin in a quantum mechanics
e f f e c t , t h e "exchange interaction". I t occurs in t h e e l e m e n t s iron, cobalt, nickel and
s o m e of t h e r a r e e a r t h metals. These elements have partially filled d and f electron
shells. Alloying with elements which have a higher electron to atom r a t i o fills t h e s e
d and f shells and makes t h e resulting alloys less magnetic, e.g., copper added t o
nickel (Monel) and chromium added t o iron (stainless steel).
T h e main f e a t u r e separating magnetic from nonmagnetic materials is magnetic
permeability, P which is a measure of a material's intrinsic ability t o conduct
magnetic flux. I t is defined as t h e induced magnetic flux density, 0, divided by
external rnagnetic field intensity (magnetizing force), H,

For air and nonmagnetic materials P is a constant,

Po - 4n x lo-' weberrlampere-metre
when B is in teslas* (T) o r weberslmetre 2 and H i s in a m p e r e l m e t r e ( ~ / m ) .
Simplification results if one uses relative permeability, which is defined as

P, = pluo (dimensionless)
Relative permeability has t h e s a m e value in all magnetic systems of units. For
magnetic materials P, can be very large, whereas for nonmagnetic material
Pr = 1.0.

9.3.1 Magnetic Hysteresis

When a material is magnetized in a coil, t h e magnetic field intensity, H, is
proportional to coil current. If alternating current is applied t o a magnetizing coil a
a-H loop results as shown in Figure 9.5. As H increases from z e r o f o r t h e f i r s t time,
B increases along t h e DC curve, path No. 1. When H decreases, B also decreases but
along path No. 2. T h e difference between paths 1 a n d 2 is t e r m e d hysteresis. When H
has fallen to z e r o and residual flux density remains in t h e material, B, , called
retentivity or residual flux density. On decreasing H f u r t h e r (reverse or negative
current) flux density decreases t o zero at H c which is t h e coercive magnetic
intensity o r coercive force. Decreasing H still f u r t h e r drives t h e curve to point S 1.
Additional A C cycles will r e t r a c e t h e loop. A t point S 2 t h e material is s a t u r a t e d ,
.
from S 2 t o S 3 t h e B-H curve is linear with slope lJO Flux density at
saturation depends on material; carbon s t e e l s a t u r a t e s a t about B = 2 tesla whereas
Monel 400 s a t u r a t e s at about 0.3 tesla.

*Conversion: 1 t e s 1a - 1 o4 gauss; I A/m = 0.012566 oersted.

 FIGURE 9.5
Hysteresis (or B-H) Loop

9.3.2 Magnetic Permeability

F o r eddy c u r r e n t inspection of ferromagnetic materials several kinds of permeability
play a n important role. Normal permeability, U r , is a measure of a material's
ability to conduct magnetic flux; it is a n important f a c t o r when determining t h e ease
with which a magnetic material c a n b e saturated.
Another permeability of concern in ET is incremental o r recoil permeability, P A .It
is defined as
vA -
ABlAH

where A B is t h e change in flux density which accompanies a change in magnetizing

force, A H , c r e a t e d f o r example by a n eddy c u r r e n t coil's alternating current. An
incremental A H c a n b e superimposed at any point on a DC magnetization curve as
illustrated in Figure 9.6.
 MAGNETIZING FORCE I A l m l

FIGURE 9.6
DC Maptization Curve and Recoil Permeability for Iron

A t H=O w e have t h e relative initial permeability, Pi .

In a magnetic material
without a biasing DC magnetic field, t h e normal permeability is equal t o t h e
incremental p r m e a b i l i t y ,

In eddy current testing, test coil inductance and depth of penetration a r e influenced
by incremental permeability not normal permeability. However, throughout this
report i t is assumed t h a t t h e e d d y current test is performed without DC bias and with
a low magnetizing f o r c e (low alternating coil current). In this case, V, = V A ,and
f o r simplification purposes , is used in t h e skin depth and inductance equations
and impedance diagrams; ur is used throughout t h e manual t o d e n o t e incremental
permeability ( uA) unless otherwise stated. In addition, all permeabilities
described h e r e a f t e r in t h e t e x t of t h e manual a r e relative permeabilities and a r e
therefore dimensionless.
When a n increasing DC magnetizing field is applied, a nonlinear E H relationship

-
results as shown in Figure 9.7. The incremental permeability continuously decreases
until saturation is achieved. A t saturation U A 1.0. T h e normal permeability,
instead, first increases t o a maximum value and then decreases gradually, see
Figure 9.7; at saturation i t can still b e very large.
 FIGURE 9.7
Magnetization Curve, Incremental Permeability and Normal Permeability
f o r a 3Re60 T u b e Sample

9.3.3 F a c t o r s Affecting Magnetic Permeability

Ferromagnetic materials do not have unique magnetization curves but depend
strongly on f a c t o r s such as
- thermal processing history,
- mechanical processing history,
- chemical composition,
- internal stresses,
- t e m p e r a t u r e (if close t o C u r i e temperature).

The following examples illustrate t h e e f f e c t of some of t h e s e variables.

Figure 9.8 shows B-H curves, at room temperature, for t h r e e supposedly identical
Monel 400 t u b e samples. The differences a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o variations in nickellcopper
c o n t e n t within t h e normal alloy specification range.
Figure 9.9 shows variation of magnetic permeability with cold work in Type 300
series stainless steels (2). In t h e s e "nonmagnetic" austenitic steels a ferromagnetic
m a r t e n s i t e phase form;during cold working increasing t h e magnetic permeability. I n
contrast, most normally ferromagnetic materials exhibit a decrease in permeability
as a result of cold work. The 300 series stainless steels can also become
ferromagnetic as a result of welding, a magnetic delta ferrite phase forms during
solidification.

I
I
I - - - - - - - - - - - -,,-,- - - 800-1200 ---------
_ _ _ - - -- .-400
_----=-I
---
_____-------
rust r . 2 3 ,
--'---

FIGURE 9.8
Magnetization Curves for Various M o d 400 Samples
 ---
--
l0OL I I I I

- A U S T E N I T I C STAINLESS STEEL -

I COLD WORK

FIGURE 9.9
Variation of Relative Permeability with Cold Reduction
for Various Austenitic Stainless Steels (2)

6 MPa NO S T R E S S

'24 MPa

AYNEALLEO 1RON

I
25 50 75 100
M A G N E T I Z I N G FORCE ( A ,m

FIGURE 9.10
Effect of Elastic Strain on the Magnetization of Iron (9)
 Figure 9.10 shows changes in B-H curves for iron with internal stress. Note t h a t t h e s e
stress levels a r e purely elastic, well below t h e yield strength. The changes in B-H
(and permeability) a r e d u e t o magnetostr iction.
The above examples illustrate t h e inherent variability of B-H and hence permeability
of ferromagnetic materials. Incremental permeability a f f e c t s a n eddy current coil's
inductance as well as depth of eddy current penetration i n t o a material. T h e large
variations in permeability shown above make conventional eddy current testing for
d e f e c t s in magnetic materials very difficult if not impossible.
T h e best solution t o eddy current testing of a magnetic material for d e f e c t s is t o
bring i t t o a condition where U A = 1.0 . A few slightly magnetic materials can b e
heated above their C u r i e temperature to make t h e m nonmagnetic. Monel 400 heated
t o between 50 and 70C has been tested in this manner. Most materials have t o o
high a Curie t e m p e r a t u r e t o b e t e s t e d by this approach. The only other way to
decrease P A t o unity is by magnetic saturation. This t o p i c is t r e a t e d in a
subsequent section.
9.4 TESTING MAGNETIC MATERIALS

9.4.1 Simplified Impedance Diagrams

A qualitative understanding of t h e e f f e c t of permeability on coil irnpedance c a n also
b e obtained by t h e equivalent circuit and i t s associated setnicircular impedance
diagram t r e a t m e n t of Section 3.5. Coil inductance is a function of magnetic flux
through it; flux increases in t h e presence of a magnetic material. F o r a cylinder
surrounded by a n encircling coil, coil inductance is proportional to both t h e cylinder's
permeability a n d i t s cross-sectional area,

where L is primary coil (probe) inductance, lJr U A is t h e cylinder's

incremental permeability and D, i t s diameter. An increase in permeability o r
diameter will increase coil inductance. By a similar t r e a t m e n t to t h a t presented in
Chapter 3, one can g e n e r a t e t h e impedance diagrams of Figure 9.11. Figure 9.1 1 (a) is
obtained by plotting t h e encircling coil impedance normalized to t h e inductive
r e a c t a n c e in air. It illustrates t h e e f f e c t of permeability a n d cylinder diameter. As
permeability or cylinder d i a m e t e r increases (with constant coil d i a m e t e r ) coil
impedance increases drastically. (This explains t h e good response to ferromagnetic
inclusions and deposits discussed in Sections 6.5.1 and 8.3.1). There is no phase
separation and hence no discrimination between variations in permeability and
cylinder diameter. However, t h e r e is about 90 phase separation a n d hence excellent
discrimination between variations in permeability and resistivity.
 ( a 1 CYLINDER ( b ) CYLINDER ( c ) PLATE

FIGURE 9.1 1
Simplified Impedance Diagrams for Ferromagnetic Cylinders and Plates

Figure 9.1 1(b) is obtained by plotting t h e encircling coil impedance normalized t o i t s

inductive r e a c t a n c e with t h e ferromagnetic cylinder inside t h e coil. This figure
indicates t h e e f f e c t of permeability and cylinder diameter on operation point
location. An increase in both permeability and cylinder diameter moves t h e operating
point DOWN t h e impedance c u r v e (for constant fill factor).
Surface probe inductance also depends on test sample permeability ( L is
.
proportional t o lJr ) An increase in permeability moves t h e operating point UP
t h e impedance locus as shown in Figure 9.1 1k). However, unlike curves for a cylinder
where t h e semicircle increases drastically in size, t h e c u r v e for a s u r f a c e probe
increases only a small amount as previously shown in Figure 5.10. This results from
much less efficient coupling with s u r f a c e probes as compared t o encircling coils. A
s u r f a c e probe with a f e r r i t e c o r e (or cup) coil permits b e t t e r magnetic coupling
(decreased magnetic reluctance) and hence yields a larger impedance diagram than a
similar a i r c o r e coil. An additional observation c a n be m a d e from Figure 9.11 (c);
magnetic permeability has t h e s a m e e f f e c t as electrical resistivity and hence t h e s e
t w o parameters cannot b e separated when using a s u r f a c e probe.
 70 1 I I I
329 STAINLESS STEEL

10 20 30 90

NORMALIZED RESISTANCE

FIGURE 9.12
Experimental Normalized Impedance Diagrams for Three Types 329
Stainless Steel Samples Tested with a Long Encircling Coil

9.4.2 Impedance Diagrams

Figure 9.12 shows experimental impedance curves f o r t h r e e different Type 329
stainless steel samples t e s t e d with long encircling coils. These curves differ markedly
from a semicircle at t h e lower section of t h e impedance diagram, w h e r e t h e curve
approaches t h e Y-axis at 4 5 O rather than 90'. These curves a r e nearly identical in
shape t o t h a t presented in Figure 7.6 f o r a nonmagnetic cylinder. But, while t h e
nonmagnetic curve intersects t h e r e a c t a n c e axis (Y-axis) at 1.0, t h e Figure 9.12
curves intersects this axis at their respective V r values. Magnetic saturation of
these samples would reduce t h e m t o a common curve intersecting t h e axis at 1.0.
This figure is another example of typical permeability variations which may be
encountered in supposedly "identical1' samples.
 INCREASING PROCE
CIAMETER

INCREASING
FREOUENCY
I

PERMEAEILITY

INCREASING
RESISTIVITY

NORMALIZED RESISTANCE

FIGURE 9.13
Impedance Diagram for Ferromagnetic Material Showing
Effect of Material and Test Parameters

Figure 9.13 shows a n a c t u a l surface probe impedance diagram for magnetic material.
T h e shape differs appreciably from a semicircle. Most test variables have a similar
e f f e c t on t h e impedance diagram as for surface probes on nonmagnetic material
(Section 5.5). To measure magnetic permeability in t h e presence of lift-off noise,
probe diameter and test frequency should be chosen to o p e r a t e in region A.

Eddy current inspection of magnetic materials for d e f e c t s is difficult or impossible

because of random permeability variation as discussed in Section 9.3.3. In addition
t h e r e a r e skin depth limitations. Without saturation, t h e initial permeability c a n
range from 50 t o over 500. Since depth of penetration is inversely proportional t o t h e
square root of permeability and test frequency,

t o obtain equal penetration requires a reduction in frequency by t h e s a m e f a c t o r of

50 t o over 500. Unfortunately, lowering frequency moves t h e operating point t o
Region B in Figure 9.13 where t h e r e is poor signal separation between lift-off,
permeability and resistivity as well as reduced sensitivity t o defects.
 Before leaving Figure 9.13 consider t h e characteristic parameter, r2WJr0
(Section 5.6). Figure 9.13 shows t h e parameter is n o t generally valid for
ferromagnetic materials. It indicates a n increase inlJrshould move t h e operating
point down t h e impedance curve like increasing frequency or probe diameter. In
practice exactly t h e opposite occurs. The characteristic parameter should only be
used f o r finding operating point of surface probes on nonmagnetic materials.
9.4.3 Material Sorting by Magnetic Permeability
Detailed t r e a t m e n t of this topic is beyond t h e scope of this manual. This section is
essentially a warning,
Many properties of magnetic materials a f f e c t permeability as discussed in Section
9.3.3. Eddy current testing has been used to s o r t mixed alloys as well a s measurement
of hardness, decarburization, carburization, degree of cold work, strength,
ductibility, etc. A standard, ASTM E566-76,o f f e r s broad guidelines on this eddy
current application.
Meaningful results with such testing requires at l e a s t t h e following:
- understanding of t h e variables affecting a material's electrical and magnetic
properties
- a sound knowledge of eddy current testing
- adequate standard samples verified by destructive examination or o t h e r
independent methods.
Testing f o r Defects in Magnetic Materials
Previous sections explained why saturation is required t o suppress e f f e c t s of usually
harmless permeability variations which could b e mistaken f o r , o r obscure, d e f e c t
signals. We only consider testing of cylindrical materials; similar techniques can, at
least in theory, be applied t o s u r f a c e probe testing.

Manufacturing inspection of rods, wires and tubes is accomplished fairly simply by

external, water cooled magnetizing coils through which t h e material is passed. ASTM
standard E309 covers such testing. In-service inspection again presents t h e most
difficult situation due t o access and space limitations.
Figure 9.14 compares Y-channel eddy current signals from a Monel 400 t u b e a t f g o
without and with magnetic saturation. Saturation results in good d e f e c t detection.
Permeability variation due to cold work and internal stresses at a slight bend in t h e
tube a r e completely suppressed by saturation. This t u b e was saturated by
superimposing t h e AC eddy current signal o n D C magnetization power. Saturation of
Monel 400 is also achieved by incorporating permanent magnets in t h e probe (8). -
 SUPPORT
0.D. FLAT PITS
DEFECT 1
CALIBRATION
I TUBE

-
SLIGHT BEND
I N TUBE
EDDY CURRENT
TEST WITHOUT
SATURATION

EDDY CURRENT

,,, TEST W lTH

MAGNETIC
SATURATION
(10 X ABOVE GAIN)

FIGURE 9.14
Eddy Current Signals from a High Magnetic Permeability Monel 400 Tube.
Test Frequency = 50 kHz
Saturation with DC magnetization is limited by coil heating. H e a t dissipation is
proportional to current squared and coil wire resistance ( P owe r = I R ) . To
increase magnetization (H is proportional t o I) pulse saturation is used. T h e saturation
current (DC) is switched on-and-off at regular intervals thereby reducing t h e heating
e f f e c t . T h e test current (AC) is superimposed on t h e saturation current and t h e eddy
current signal is sampled only at maximum saturation. O n e commercial instrument,
operating on this principle, is currently available. Testing speed is a function of pulse
r a t e , in general i t is much slower than conventional testing.
If magnetic saturation at defects is not complete, a n eddy current test becomes a
test for permeability, not eddy current testing as described in previous chapters. This
can b e understood f r o m F i g u r e 9.15 which illustrates t h e change in eddy current
signals from calibration defects in a magnetic stainless s t e e l tube as degree of
saturation is increased. T h e eddy current signals w e r e obtained with a n absolute
bobbin type probe. Since defect signal amplitude decreases as saturation is
approached, instrument gain was doubled f o r t h e 20 and 40 a m p e r e saturation results.
Magnetization was achieved with a n external, w a t e r cooled coil; 10 amperes produced
.
about 2 8 x 10 A 1m or 350 oersteds. Figure 9.15 shows o n e has t o be saturated
well past t h e knee in t h e magnetization curve (over 20 amperes) before eddy current
d e f e c t signals appear normal, like those from nonmagnetic materials.
The reason for t h e charateristic eddy current signals from partially saturated tubing
is more clearly apparent in t h e eddy current impedance display of Figure 9.16 which
includes impedance response as magnetization level increases. This figure shows, at
partial saturation (less than 10 amperes), d e f e c t signals consist nearly entirely of
increasing and decreasing permeability. The initial increasing permeability signal
component is attributed t o less saturation on either side of machined calibration
d e f e c t s while t h e decreasing permeability component is due t o m o r e intense
saturation in t h e reduced tube-wall region at defects.
Similar results a r e obtained with internal saturation using D C magnetization or
permanent magnets. A single rare-earth permanent magnet was found t o be
equivalent t o about 5 amperes of a n external magnetizing c u r r e n t for this tube size
material.
 EXTERNAL MAGNETIZING COIL
THROUGU noLE

/
-A--
A

C
D
PROBE WOBBLE

0 0 GROOVE
1.0 GROOVE
---- -/-- --- cC

\AIR

I I I 1 I I I
5 10 I5 20 25 30 35 40
MAGNETIZING CURRENT ( A1

FIGURE 9.15
Eddy Current Signals from E-&ite 26-1 Tube With Increasing Saturation,
(fgo = 100 kHz at Complete Saturation)

Eddy current testing at partial saturation may s e e m a t t r a c t i v e since d e f e c t

sensitivity is very high, i t may in f a c t develop i n t o a useful YDT technique. However,
t h e r e a r e drawbacks; M A is g r e a t e r than o n e and is variable. This means eddy
c u r r e n t penetration is not defined and conventional phase analysis is impossible.
Testing tubes for d e f e c t s at magnetic supports could b e a very questionable
procedure since large permeability signals would b e encountered which could be
mistaken for or obscure defects. Even t h e best available saturation methods still
encounter problems in detecting d e f e c t s at s t e e l baffle plates in some Monel 400
tubes which a r e only slightly magnetic.

Eddy current testing at partial saturation only measures permeability in a thin

surface layer adjacent t o t h e test coil. This classifies t h e technique with NDT
methods such as magnetic particle inspection and leakage flux testing. Leakage flux
testing responds t o t h e distortion of magnetic flux at d e f e c t s in a magnetized
material using pickup coils o r Hall e f f e c t sensors. Partial saturation ET with s u r f a c e
probes has an advantage over encircling (or internal) probes in the ability t o separate
permeability from lift-off variations (Figure 9.13).

PROBE

A - PROBE WOBBLE
B - THROUGH HOLE
C - 0. D. GROOVE
-
D I. 0. GROOVE

FIGURE 9.16
Eddy Current Signals from E-Brite 2 6 1 Tube with Increasing Saturation,
fgo = 100 kHz
An example of t h e dangers of ET ferromagnetic materials at partial saturation is
illustrated in Figure 9.17. I t shows eddy current signals from calibration d e f e c t s in a
3Re60 h e a t exchanger tube t e s t e d with a differential probe. (3Re60 requires a flux -
density of about 0.6T for complete saturation). Calibration d e f e c t s yield signals
which change in phase with increasing depth leading t o t h e conclusion one may have a
viable test technique. However, e l a s t i c deflection of t h e t u b e at a support p l a t e gives
change of permeability signals nearly identical t o serious (50% and 75%) defects. This
is due t o magnetostriction: changes in magnetic properties due t o e l a s t i c s t r e s s such
as shown in Figure 9.10.

- T
\ I I \
HOLE
\
3 R e 60

"i \
' 3 c r ss
TUBE

BAFFLE

PAFFLE PLATE
SIGNALS

ELISTIC
DEFLECTION 5 mn Y n m 3.m 2mm 0

FIGURE 9.17
Eddy Current Signals from 3Re60 Tube With Partial Saturation for Various
Levels of Elastic Stress. Test Frequency fgo = 230 kHz.
 T h e problem of Figure 9.17 was overcome with a multimagnet probe similar t o t h a t
developed for Monel 400 tubing (8). This eliminated t h e false d e f e c t signals at tube
supports and made these h e a t exchangers inspectable by conventional ET techniques.
It was fortunate these particular heat exchangers had nonmagnetic, Type 304
stainless steel, support plates. This permits t u b e saturation in t h e vicinity of
supports. If t h e supports had been magnetic they would have provided a low
reluctance alternative path t o t h e saturation field leaving t h e tube only partially
saturated. Nonmagnetic support materials improve inspectability of ferromagnetic
tubes even though fretting wear may be difficult t o d e t e c t with a conventional
bobbin-type probe as discussed in Section 8.2.4.

SUMMARY
Eddy current testing can b e used t o measure electrical resistivity and magnetic
permeability. This parameter, in some cases, c a n be correlated t o a material's
chemical composition, hardness, h e a t t r e a t m e n t , etc. and therefore provide a n
indirect measurement of material properties. Material sorting by electrical
resistivity can be done with general purpose eddy current instruments o r with special
instruments with m e t e r output calibrated in % IACS. C a r e must be taken t o obtain
reliable results. Material sorting by magnetic permeability is not simple. I t requires a
sound knowledge of magnetic properties and eddy current testing. Most of t h e
commercial equipment make use of hysteresis distortion and t h e method is empirical.
I t is more reliable t o use general purpose eddy c u r r e n t equipment t o roughly measure
magnetic permeability and then c o r r e l a t e t o material property.
Testing ferromagnetic materials for surface d e f e c t s is possible but often unreliable.
If material c a n be magnetically saturated, i t appears a s non-ferromagnetic material
t o t h e eddy currents. Testing at partial saturation results in good sensitivity t o
d e f e c t s and t o ferromagnetic anomaiies but can result in f a l s e indications. I t is
possible t o magnetically s a t u r a t e s o m e ferromagnetic t u b e alloys in unsupported t u b e
sections, but nearly impossible under ferromagnetic baffle plates.

Magnetic permeability a f f e c t s t h e following:

- depth of penetration
- probe inductance
- operating point on impedance diagram
- characteristic d e f e c t signal is no longer dependent on phase lag
- drastically decreases signal-to-noise ratio.

9.6 WORKED EXAMPLES

9.6.1 PROBLEM: Convert resistivity of 5.5 microhm-centimetres t o conductivity in 36
IACS.

SOLUTION: %IACS = 1 7 2 1 ~
PROBLEM: Pure annealed iron under a magnetizing force, H, of 40 A/m results
in a magnetic flux density, 8,of 0.028T. Determine magnetic
permeability and relative permeability.
SOLUTION:
ll = BIH - 0 . 0 2 8 1 4 0 = 7.0 x henrylm

-
NOTE: Tesla and ampere/metre a r e t h e preferred metric units for magnetic
flux density and magnetic field strength respectively but gauss and oersted
(nonmetric units) a r e still often used. To complete problem 9.6.2 in t h e gauss,
oersted system requires t h e following calculations:

B = 0.028 T x 104 gauss = 280 gauss

1T

H = 40 A/m x 0.012566 oersted = 0.503 oersted

I A/m

" r =
p / 11, = 557/1.0 = 557 (dimensionless)

PROBLEM: Calculate standard eddy current depth of penetration in carbon steel

at a test frequency of 10 kHz (a) without saturation and (b) with 4
complete saturation. P = 1 5 microhm-centimetres, u = 300

SOLUTION: PA - - Ur Pi

(a) From Equation 2.13(a)

- 1.0 a t saturation
p~ -
 - 177 -
-
CHAPTER 10 SUPPORTING INFORMATION

NOMENCLATURE

QUALITY UNIT
SYMBOL QUANTITY NAME SYMBOL

Cross-Sectional a r e a m e t r e2 In2
Radius metre m
Length metre rn
Thickness metre rn
Width metre rn
Diameter metre
Magnetic flux density weberlmetre 2 o r tesla In
Wb/m 2, T
Capacitance farad F
T e s t frequency hertz Hz
Optimum tube testing frequency hertz Hz
Characteristics o r Limit
frequency hertz Hz
Resonant frequency hertz Hz
Magnetic field intensity ampereslmetre or A/m
(Magnetizing force) lenze
Current ampere A
2
Current density amperestmetre ~/m*
Self Inductance henry H
Number of turns (Windings) dimensionless .
Characteristic P a r a m e t e r dimensionless -
Resistance ohm s-2
Resistive load ohm n
Electric potential volt v
Depth below t h e surf ace metre m
Inductive Reactance ohm 52
Capacitive R e a c t a n c e ohm n
Impedance ohm s-2
Standard Depth of Penetration metre rn
Permeability henrytmetre Htm
Resistivity microhm-centimetre p Recm
Conductivity siemenstmetre Slm
Magnetic flux weber Wb
Fill F a c t o r dimensionless -
Phase Lag radian rad
Angular frequency radianstsecond radls
Angle between Z & R degree 0
DEFINITIONS
This section lists t h e most common terms covered in t h e manual. For each term, t h e J

symbol, t h e SI units and t h e section where t h e topic is covered is given, followed by

t h e definition.
Absolute probe
- See Sections 5.2 and 7.2.
- A probe having a single sensing coil.

Alternating current

- I ~c , amperes; see Chapters 2 and 3.

- A current flow changing in amplitude and direction with time.
Anomaly
- See Sections 6.5 and 8.3.
- An unexpected, unclassified eddy current signal.
- A false defect indication.

Bridge
- SeeSection4.2.1.
- Electrical circuit incorporating four impedance arms.

Calibration standard
- A t e s t standard used t o estimate defect size and set-up instrument.

Capacitive reactance
-
-
X ,, ohms; see Section 3.2.
The opposition t o changes in alternating voltage.
Characteristic parameter
- -r2uop ,dimensionless, see Section 5.6.
- It allows t e s t coil operating point t o be specified in terms of a single quantity
rather than four independent variables.
Characteristic or limit frequency

- fg, hertz, s e e Section 7.3.3.

Characteristic frequency ratio
- f /f - dimensionless, s e e Section 7.3.3.
- I t allows t h e test coil operating point t o be specified in terms of a single
quantity rather than four independent variables.
Circumferential coil
- s e e encircling and internal probes.
Conductivity
- a (sigma), siemensfmetre; s e e Sections 2.4 and 9.2.
- Measure of the ability of a material t o conduct current (alternating or direct
current).
Conductor
- Material capable of carrying electrical current.

Coupling
- The coil's magnetic field couples t o the t e s t sample.
- The change in probe impedance is directly proportional t o probe-sample
coupling.
Current
- I, amperes, s e e Section 3.3.
- Flow of electrons.
Depth of penetration (standard)

- 6 (delta), millimetres; s e e Section 2.4.

- The depth a t which the eddy current density has decreased t o l/e or 36.8% of
the surface density.
- Also referred t o as skin depth.
Defect
- A flaw or discontinuity t h a t reduces a material's integrity or load carrying
capacity -may involve a loss of material.
Differential probe
- s e e Sections 5.2 and 7.2.
- A probe having two sensing coils located side-by-side.

Direct current
-
-
I DC ,amperes; see Section 3.3.
A current flow t h a t is constant in amplitude and direction with time.
Discontinuity
- A defect.
Eddy currents
- see Chapter 2 and Sections 5.2.2 and 7.2.3.
- A closed loop alternating current flow induced in a conductor by a varying
magnetic field.
Eddy c v r e n t method
- An electromagnetic NDT method based on t h e process of inducing electrical
currents into a conductive material and observing t h e interaction between t h e
currents and t h e material. In F r a n c e i t is known as t h e 'Foucault currents'
method.
Edge effect
- see Section 5.8.2.
- Signal obtained when a s u r f a c e probe approaches t h e sample's edge.

Effective depth of penetration

- see Section 2.4.
- Depth at which eddy current density drops off t o 5% of t h e s u r f a c e density.

End effect
- see Section 5.8.2.
- Signal obtained when a n internal o r encircling probe approaches t h e end of a
tube or rod (similar to edge effect).
Encircling probe (Coil)
- see Section 7.2.
- Also referred t o as a feed-through coil.
- A probe which completely surrounds test tnaterial; c a n be absolute or
differential.

- see encircling probe.

Ferrite
- Ferromagnetic oxide material.
- Used for cores in high frequency transformers.
Ferromagnetic
-- see Section 9.3.
A material with a relative magnetic permeability g r e a t e r than 1.0.

Fill-f actor
- 0 (eta), dimensionless; see Section 7.3.
- I t is a measure of coupling between t h e coil and t e s t object.
- Fraction of t h e test coil a r e a filled by t h e test specimen.
Flaw
- Adefect.
Foucault currents method
- In France t h e Eddy Current Method is known as t h e 'Foucault currents' method.

- f , hertz, see Section 2.4.

- Number of cycles of alternating current per second.
Frequency (angular)
-
-
w
Angular velocity, where w -
(omega), radianslsecond; see Section 3.2.
2 nf.

Hysteresis
- S e e Section 9.3.1.
- Magnetizationcurve.
I ACS
- International Annealed Copper Standard, see Section 9.2.
- a % IACS - Conductivity as a percentage of t h a t of pure copper.
IACS
Inductance
- L, henries, see Section 3.2.
- R a t i o of t h e total magnetic flux-linkage in a coil t o t h e current flowing through
t h e coil.

- 2 , ohms, see Section 3.2.

- T h e total opposition in a n electrical circuit t o flow of altenating current.
- Represents t h e combination of those electrical properties t h a t a f f e c t t h e flow
of current through t h e circuit.
Impedance method
- Eddy current method which monitors t h e change in probe impedance; both phase
and amplitude.
Inductive reactance
- X =, ohms, see Section 3.2.
- T h e opposition to a change in alternating current flow.
Inductor
- A coil.

Internal probe (Coil)

- see Chapters 7 and 8.
- A probe f o r testing tubes (or holes) f r o m t h e inside. T h e coil(s) is
circumferentially wound on a bobbin.

Lift-off
- L.O., mm, s e e Sections 5.5 and 5.8.4.
- Distance between t h e coil of a s u r f a c e probe and sample.
- I t is a measure of coupling between probe and sample.

Magnetic flux

- @ ,webers, see Section 9.3.

Magnetizing force
- H, amperesfmetre, see Section 9.3.2.
- Magnetic field intensity.

Magnetic flux density

- B, tesla, see Section 9.3.

Modulation analysis
- An instrumentation method which s e p a r a t e s desirable from undesirable
frequency signals from t h e modulating envelope of t h e carrier frequency signal.
- T e s t sample must move at constant speed.

Noise
- Any undesired signal t h a t obscures t h e signal of interest.
- I t might be electrical noise or a signal from specimen dimensional or property
variations.

Null balance
- see Section 4.2.1.
Ohm's law
- Electromotive f o r c e across a circuit is equal t o t h e current flowing through t h e
circuit multiplied by t h e t o t a l impedance of t h e circuit.

Operating point
- see Sections 3.5, 5.6 and 7.3.3.
- Point on t h e impedance diagram t h a t specifies t h e normalized inductive
r e a c t a n c e and resistance of a coil.
Oscillator
- The electronic unit in an eddy current instrument t h a t generates alternating
probe excitation current.
Parameter
- A material property or instrument variable.

Performance standard
- Also referred t o a s Reference Standard.
- A t e s t standard used t o qualify and calibrate a t e s t system for a particular test.

Permeability (Magnetic)
- (mu), henrylmetre; see Sections 2.4 and 9.3. or P , dimensionless, relative
magnetic permeability.
- Ratio between flux density, B, and magnetizing force, H. Permeability
describes the intrinsic willingness of a material t o conduct magnetic flux lines.
Phase lag
- B (beta), radians or degrees; see Section 2.4.
- A lag in phase (or time) between the sinusoidal currents flowing at t h e surface
and those below t h e surface.

- s e e Section 3.3.
- A vector describing sinusoidal signals; i t has both amplitude and phase.

Primary field
- The magnetic field surrounding t h e coil due t o t h e current flowing through it.
Probe
- Eddy current transducer.
Reference coil
- Coil which enables bridge balancing in absolute probes. Its impedance is close to
t e s t coil impedance but does not couple t o test material.

Resonance
- See Sections 4.3, 5.9 and 7.2.5.
- A circuit having an inductor and capacitor connected in series or parallel.
When inductive reactance equals capacitive reactance t h e circuit is tuned or in
resonance.
Resistance
- R, ohms, see Section 3.2.
- The opposition t o t h e flow of electrical current.
- Applies to DC and AC.
Resistivity
- p ,microhm-centimetre; see Sections 2.4 and 9.2.
- Reciprocal of conductivity (p -1 )"a ) .
Saturation (Magnetic)
- A condition where incremental magnetic permeability of a ferromagnetic
material becomes 1.O.
Secondary field
- The magnetic field produced by induced eddy currents.

- See Sections 3.4, 4.5 and 5.4.

- The variations in t h e test object which a f f e c t current flow within the test
object can be detected by observing their e f f e c t upon t h e voltage developed
across a secondary receive coil.
Signal
- A change in eddy current instrument output voltage; i t has amplitude and phase.

Signal-t~noiseratio
- Ratio between defect signal amplitude and t h a t from non-relevant indications.
Minimum acceptable ratio is 3: 1.
Skin depth
- See depth of penetration.
Skin effect
- S e e Section 2.4.
- A phenomenon where induced eddy currents a r e restricted t o t h e surface of a
test sample. Increasing test frequency reduces penetration.
Suface probe
- S e e Chapters 5 and 6.
- A probe for testing surfaces, which has a finite coverage. The coil is usually
pancake in shape.
Test coil
- Coil coupled t o test material. I t senses geometrid, electric and magnetic
changes in test material.
Voltage
- V, volts, s e e Section 3.3.
- Electric potential or driving f o r c e for current.
- Output signal from a n eddy current instrument.
Voltmeter
- The instrument used t o measure voltage.

- see Section 3.3.

- A quantity having amplitude (magnitude) and direction. Normally represented as
a line whose length represents t h e quantity's magnitude and whose angular
position, t h e phase (relative t o some reference).
ABBREVIATIONS FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING TERMS

The following abbreviations of nondestructive testing terms a r e used where required

in nondestructive testing standards published by CGSB:

Terminology Abbreviation

Nondestructive testing NDT

Eddy current testing ET

Hardness testing H

Leak testing LT
Magnetic particle testing MT

Penetrant testing PT

Radiographic testing RT

Ultrasonic testing UT

Visual testing VT

References:

Recommended Practice SNT-TC- IA: Personnel Qualification and Certification in

Nondestructive Testing
American Society for Nondestructive Testing - 1980 Edition
Symbols for Welding and Nondestructive Testing
American Welding Society
 10.4 REFERENCES
L I. H.S. Jackson, "Introduction t o Electric Circuits", 2nd edition, Prentice-Hall
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey (1965).
2. C.V. Dodd, "The Use of Computer-Modelling for Eddy Current Testing",
Research Techniques in NDT, Vol. 111, edited by R.S. Sharpe, Academic Press
Ltd., London, p. 429-479 (1977).
3. H.L. Libby, "Introduction t o Electromagnetic Nondestructive Test Methods",
Wiley-Interscience, New Y ork (197 1).

4. "Nondestructive Testing Handbook", Vol. 11, edited by R.C. McMaster, Ronald

Press, New York, p. 36.1-42.74 (1963).

5. "Eddy Current Testing, Classroom Training Handbook", General

Dynamics/Convair Division, San Diego, California (1979). CT-6-5 Second
Edition.

6. W.J. McConnagle, "Nondestructive Testing", 2nd edition, Gordon and Breach,

New York, p. 346-390 (1961).
7. F.R. Bareham, "Choice of Frequency f o r Eddy Current Tube Testing", British J.
Applied Physics, -
1 1, p. 21 8-222 (1960).

8. V.S. Cecco, "Design and Specifications of a High Saturation Absolute Eddy

Current Probe with Internal Reference", Materials Evaluation, -
37, p. 51-58
(1979).
9. J. Stanley, "Electrical and Mangnetic Properties of Metalsu, American Society
for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio (1963).
10. H.V. Pellegrini, "Assessing Heat Damage in Aluminum Alloys with an Eddy
Current Testing Technique", Metals Progress, E,
p. 60-63 (1980).
11. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V, Article 8, Appendix 1, "Eddy
Current Examination Method for Installed Non-Ferromagnetic Steam Generator
Heat Exchanger Tubing" (1 978).
12. "Nondestructive Inspection and Quality Control", Metals .Handbook, Vol. 1I, 8th
edition, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, p. 75-92 (1976).
13. R, Hochschild, llElectromagnetic Methods of Testing Metals", Progress in
Nondestructive Testing, Vol. 1, MacMillan Co., New York, p. 59- 109 (1959).
10.5 INDEX

Absolute Probe - 51, 98-102

-
Alternating Current 8, 16, 20-22
-
Anomaly 91, 140
-
Bridge 32-36
Bridge Balance 32-36 -
Calibration Standard - 94-96, 117
Capacitive Reactance - 19
Characteristic o r Limit Frequency 112-1 17, 120 -
Characteristic Frequency Ratio 112-1 17, 121 -
Characteristic Parameter - 51, 69-71, 81, 82, 112
Circumferential Coil 98, 102, 117 -
-
Conductivity 11, 154-157
Coupling - 23, 27, 51, 100, 106
Current - 5-10, 20-22
Defect - 51, 60,61, 73, 83-90, 94, 123-138, 169
Depth of Penetration (Standard) - 12-17, 74
Differential Probe - 53, 54, 98-102
Direct Current - 20, 21
Discontinuity - 179
Eddy Currents - 5-17, 55, 102, 103, 123
Eddy Current Method (Testing) - 1, 18, 51, 83, 9 1, 123, 154
Edge Effect - 76
Effective Depth of Penetration - 14
-
Encircling Probe (Coil) 98, 106, 109, 113, 142
End Effect - 180
Excitation Coil - 6, 11, 4 1, 62
-
Faraday's Law 8, 16, 45, 55, 64, 109
Faraday, M. - 2
-
Farad 19
Feed-Through Coil - 180
-
F e r r i t e 37, 180
Ferromagnetic - 10, 9 1, 159
-
Fill-Factor 27, 106-108, 141
-
Flaw 181
Forster - 2, 113
Foucault Currents Method 181 -
F r e q u e n c y - 5 , 8 , 12, 16,67, 113, 116, 120, 121
Frequency (Angular) - 8, 181
Frequency Response - 48
-
Hall Detector 6, 31, 42, 172
Henry - 18
Hysteresis (8-Hcurve) 159-1 63 -
-
IACS 154-157
Impedance - 8,9, 19,23, 30
Impedance Diagrams - 23-29
Impedance Method 23, 3 1 -
Inductance - 18, 57, 58, 103, 105
Inductive Reactance - 19,25,64, 167
Inductor 18 -
Internal Probe (Coil) - 99
Lenz's Law - 9, 22
 -
Lift-off 39-43, 78
Limit Frequency 1 12-117 -
Magnetic Field 6, 7 -
Magnetic Flux - 7-10
Magnetic Flux Density 7, 159 -
-
Magnetic Permeability 1 I, 12, 66, 67, 89, 91, 92, 141, 159-165
Magnetic Saturation - 159-161, 169-175
Magnetizing Force - 159, 161
Modulation Analysis 46 -
Noise - 32, 34, 37, 46, 81, 152, 182
Non-ferroma netic 10, 91, 142 -
f
Null Ralance Bridge Balance) 32, 33
Oersted - 6, 8
-
Ohm's law - 8, 16, 56, 1 10
-
Operating Point 25-29, 71, 92, 1 13-115, 124, 141
-
Oscillator 5, 31, 39
-
Parameter 60, 183
Performance Standard 183 -
-
Permeability (Magnetic) 11, 13, 66, 67, 89, 91, 92, 141, 159-165
Phase - 72. 73
-
Phase Lag 2, 14-17, 73, 85
-
Phasor 20
Primary Circuit 8, 24 -
Primary Field 183 -
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Probe 51-57, 98-106
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Receive Coil 6, 23, 62, 75
Reference Coil 32, 52, 53, 99-
Resistance - 18, 26-29, 123-125
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Resistivity 12, 16, 66, 67, 74, 93, 154-158
Resonance - 35, 36, 80, 105
Saturation (Magnetic) 159-161, 169-175 -
Secondary Field 10, 184 -
Secondary Voltage 73 -
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Send-Receive 6, 23, 31, 41-44, 75
Sensing Coil 6, 23 -
Signal - 184
Signal-to-Noise Ratio - 58, 184
Similarity Condition (Law) 71, 1 14 -
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Sinusoidal 5, 1 1
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Skin Depth 13, 14, 16, 117
Skin Effect 1 1 -
Speed of Response 48 -
Standard Depth of Penetration 12-17 -
Surface Probe 51-55 -
Test Coil - 52, 53
Vector - 20
Voltage - 8, 9, 20, 31
Voltrneter 6 -