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Abstract
Nowadays, the turbocharger has become one of the key components for automotive spark-ignition engine improve-
ments (fed with both liquid and gaseous fuels), as a support for the boosting and downsizing concept to reduce fuel con-
sumption and exhaust emission. In gasoline engines, the usage of the waste-gate valve typically regulates the maximum
boost pressure in the turbocharger system, to protect the engine and the turbocharger at high engine speeds. To
improve the transient response at low engine speeds, two-stage turbocharger is widely used. Two-stage systems are
composed of several valves to regulate the flow to control the boosting of the system. Like a bypass valve between the
turbines, a check valve is present between the compressor and a waste-gate valve for the low-pressure turbines. This
article deals with a methodology for characterizing the discharge coefficient of an electronic waste-gate valve in the tur-
bocharger. To estimate the gas flow over the same in one-dimensional models, an empirical model is correlated and vali-
dated. For this, a constant-stream experimental work has been carried out on a test rig at different valve position
openings, with high turbine inlet temperatures. Finally, an optimal map of discharge coefficient has been drawn out
through interpolation method, which can integrate into the full one-dimensional turbocharged engine model system, to
calculate the actual mass flow through the waste-gate valve.
Keywords
Turbocharging, waste-gate, discharge coefficient, experimental, modeling
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2 Advances in Mechanical Engineering
the engine. However, at high engine speeds with high actuator canister under the premises which quantify
exhaust gas temperature and pressure, a bigger-size tur- accurately the bypass flow during full and partial valve
bine can be prevented from overspeed beyond its limit. head opening without any flaws. The waste-gate throat
Therefore, for certain speeds like low, medium, or high, prematurely chokes, and resolution of boost control is
a conventional non-adjustable turbine can only be modest, thus the fuel economy and engine performance
matched. Nowadays, achieving full engine speed with will suffer. Second, a turbine map with a closed waste-
an adjustable turbine is a process under consistent gate is supplied to automobile manufacturers, unlike
development.7 There are two types of adjustable tur- variable-geometry turbocharger maps which provide
bines, one is the fixed-geometry turbine equipped with mass flow parameters and efficiency characteristics at
a waste-gate and the other is variable-geometry turbine different nozzle positions. To anticipate the engine
(VGT). By controlling the waste-gate or the vane posi- operations with waste-gate open, the automobile manu-
tion, the turbine can keep its speeds unchanged above a facturers must depend upon discharge coefficients mea-
certain engine speed or adjust them in stages, to set the sured experimentally and applied within engine
boost pressure. However, most current gasoline engines simulation software,2,11 which estimates total turbine
use turbocharger turbines fitted with a waste-gate valve mass rate in a way that is similar to turbocharger
as a mass flow regulating device due to the low reliabil- makers.
ity of VGT at the extremely high temperatures of the Several proposals have been made in the literature
exhaust gases in the petrol engines. In current automo- to characterize the behavior of nozzles. A numerical
tive engines, during the harsh thermal environment of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and experimental
the exhaust manifold, the turbocharger controlled by approaches have been used by M Halder et al.12 to cal-
the waste-gate benefits from high durability and low culate a discharge coefficient of a spray solid cone pres-
cost.8 The waste-gate is divided into two types accord- sure nozzle with an incompressible flow. The author
ing to the actuation method, one is pneumatic and tested the nozzle at different operating conditions to
other is electric. The electric actuation can provide more observe the effects on the discharge coefficient. The
precise control and faster response for the waste-gate. influence of various flow conditions through nozzle
Although the cost is much higher and its complex struc- have a significant impact on the discharge coefficient
ture, due to the increasingly strict emission regulations values. A methodology to calculate the discharge coef-
nowadays, all the automotive companies are driving the ficient of a compressor bypass valve integrated with a
application of electric actuator. Different strategies are compressor housing was developed by JM Lujan
included in the engine control unit (ECU) when the tur- et al.,13 and to understand the possible difference
bocharger is attached to a naturally aspirated engine. between the turbocharger test bench and steady flow
These strategies are to monitor the performance of the test bench measurements. It observed that measure-
turbocharger for its safe and proper operation, thereby ments performed with the implemented methodology
optimizing the performance of the engine.9 on turbocharger test bench lead to a good agreement
Turbocharger manufacturers10 and one-dimensional with results obtained on the steady flow test bench. S
(1D) engine simulation software2,11 treat the rotor and Huang et al.14 showed experimentally that upstream
internal waste-gate as two nozzles operating side by flow disturbances and pressure drops have a substantial
side and having the same temperatures and pressures in impact on discharge coefficient values of a standard
both the upstream and downstream of the turbine. orifice in the incompressible flow. The same effects can
Altogether, for both the rotor and waste-gate, the con- appear in a compressible flow case too. For that rea-
trol volume has been obtained throughout the bound- son, it is necessary to have a proper estimation of the
aries of the physical turbine, and no addition has been discharge coefficient of turbocharger valves to consider
made for losses due to the flow dividing or combining the effects in real operation. This article presents an
at the inlet and outlet, respectively, within the turbine experimental method to characterize the discharge coef-
housing.8 The mass flow rate across the turbine upon ficient of the waste-gate valve because the mass flows
the opening of the waste-gate is taken as the sum of through this valve is impossible to measure with sen-
waste-gate mass flow rate, estimated by the discharge sors. Later, an empirical model is fitted as a part of the
coefficient (obtained with no flow through rotor) and procedure for being able to predict the discharge coeffi-
rotor mass flow rate (measured with waste-gate closed) cient of waste-gate. This can be used in 1D models2,11
along with expansion ratio throughout the turbine. of the whole turbocharged engine as actual mass flow
This act will be an exact representation of the claimed through the valve can be calculated with accuracy.
real stream-rated flow with an open waste-gate. This Therefore, the turbocharger is tested in a test rig in
legitimacy is imperative for two fundamental motiva- steady flow conditions at several opening and closing
tions. First, the turbocharger manufacturer determines positions of the valve with high turbine inlet
the size of the waste-gate throat and also chooses the temperature.
Serrano et al. 3
m_ actual = m_ B m_ A 1
where m_ A is the measured turbine mass flow in test A. Figure 6. Mass flow in the waste-gate with expansion ratio
m_ B is the turbine mass flow measured in test B. The (legends refer to closed WG expansion ratio).
mass flow measured in test A represents the real turbine
mass flow as the valve is mechanically closed. As in the
case of test B, when the valve is opened, the measured where m_ is the measured turbine mass flow rate and T30
mass flow going through the turbine is false, as some of is the total temperature at the turbine inlet. The maps
the mass flow escapes through the waste-gate and exits were measured with two different turbine inlet tempera-
the turbine. Using equation (1) and by doing the two ture levels (high, filled points and moderate, non-filled
different tests, the air mass flows through the waste- points). In this way, more extended maps were mea-
gate can be measured experimentally with ease. Finally, sured, compared to the traditional procedure with only
the methodology was repeated for selected full load one turbine inlet temperature. Filled and non-filled
points from the engine at which the turbo was matched points are superimposed in Figure 5 showing that T30
for and at different waste-gate positions. does not affect the reduced mass flow characteristic
Figure 5 shows the turbine map measured in the tur- lines, as expected. This fact also confirms experimental
bocharger gas stand. The turbine reduced mass flow data coherence. The gray diamond points correspond
rate m_ is plotted against its total expansion ratio to to the total reduced mass flow measured in test B at
static expansion ratio p30 =p4 , where p30 is the total pres- high temperature levels at turbine inlet, and the gray
sure at the turbine upstream and p4 is the static pres- circled points represent the reduced mass flow mea-
sure measured at the downstream of the turbine. The sured in test A also at the engine like T3 levels.
reduced mass flow rate is computed as The difference between the gray diamonds and cir-
p cles is the mass flow through the waste-gate as shown
m_ T30 in Figure 6. In this way, we could measure the waste-
m_ = 2
p30 gate flow for a series of expansion ratios that
6 Advances in Mechanical Engineering
Figure 7. Mass flow in the waste-gate with WG opening Aeff = Cdmea Aref 3
(legends refer to closed WG expansion ratio).
The reference area, Aref, has been chosen to be the
waste-gate throat cross-sectional area that is
correspond to each engine load point. The first point of 2
each series expresses the difference between the flow pdWG
Aref = 4
outgoing from the turbine to the waste-gate closed with 4
the two methods. It is expected to be zero. We note in The geometrical area of the waste-gate valve was
Figure 6 that the series having a higher expansion ratio directly measured from the turbocharger unit for a
of 2.4 and greater will not be able to achieve the zero maximum opening of the valve. To compute the dis-
waste-gate mass flow, but only a value greater than charge coefficient, the ideal mass flow rate through the
zero. It means that, by sending the close signal to the waste-gate reference area must be determined, which
motor, the total flow rate of gas that is measured is assumes a perfect gas undergoing a steady isentropic
greater than the one acquired with waste-gate locked compressible flow in one dimension
with the mechanical stop. Evidently, the stepper motor,
despite the sent signal, does not close the valve per- g=g1
p0 T0
fectly. The cause of this phenomenon lies in the fact = 5
p T
that, for these points, the pressure values of gases were
relatively high and exerted an action that is opposed to
g1 2
closing of the valve. For avoiding these, a very high T0 = T 1 + M 6
2
density of current should be sent to the motor, with the
risk of burning the system (see Figure 3). This is not Using the isentropic relation equations (5) and (6),
likely to happen in real engine operation. Therefore, it the ratio of total and static pressure as a function of
is expected that at high pressure ratios (typically of a Mach number, M, may be expressed as
full load operation or rated power), the waste-gate will
show always a leakage that should be considered when
p0 g 1 2 g=g1
engine control is designed. = 1+ M 7
p 2
Figure 7 shows the mass flow through the waste-gate
as a function of the commanded waste-gate opening where Mach number is calculated by below equation
percentage. It is already found that for higher expan-
sion ratios, although the waste-gate corresponds to the u
M = p 8
closing (WG = 0%), but virtually the valve is still open, gRT
there is a leak of mass flow through the waste-gate. It
can also be observed that there are also points at the Next, the continuity equation is entreated along with
lowest expansion ratio, for which, despite the opening the perfect gas equation of state to solve for mass flow
of the waste-gate (WG . 0%), the mass flow does not rate according to
flow through it. This is because the pressure difference r
is too small to keep the mass flow in motion when the g
m_ ideal = rAref u = pAref M 9
waste-gate is opened. So, the flow through the waste- RT
Serrano et al. 7
Estimate p-value
Coefficients
a 0.0245 2.027e208
b 1.132 1.228e215
c 0.259 4.108e210
SSE 0.0528
R2 0.9837
Adjusted R2 0.9833
RMSE 0.0255
SSE: sum of the square due to error; RMSE: root mean square error.
Conclusion
An experimental methodology has been developed to
make possible a proper characterization of discharge
Figure 10. Modeled discharge coefficient against measured coefficient of a waste-gate valve integrated with a tur-
discharge coefficient.
bocharger. The turbocharger was tested in a turbochar-
ger gas stand with two different turbine inlet
temperatures. In order to estimate the mass flow
through the waste-gate for full engine load points, two
test campaigns were done. At first, the points were
measured by blocking the waste-gate valve mechani-
cally. After that, the stepper motor was mounted on
the turbocharger. With this system, it was possible to
study the behavior of the turbocharger with the waste-
gate valve partially opened. For each of those points,
waste-gate mass flow was calculated. Subsequently,
even the corresponding discharge coefficient was evalu-
ated. On the turbocharger gas stand, it is important to
ensure that turbine inlet temperature, turbocharger
speed, and turbine expansion ratio are same between
tests A and B. In the end, a procedure is used to fit the
discharge coefficient of the waste-gate valve to mathe-
matical expression in order to be used in 1D gas
dynamic codes. The error in mass flow prediction using
Figure 11. Modeled WG reduced mass flow against measured this procedure is small when compared with the rele-
WG reduced mass flow. vant magnitude of turbine power.
It was possible to discover that stepper motors do
not totally close the waste-gate valve at high turbine
m_ actual = Cdmod m_ ideal 13 pressure ratios. Proposed empirical model of Cdmod took
this fact into consideration. The possibility of including
In Figure 10, the modeled waste-gate discharge coef- it in an engine model is eventually helpful in engine-
ficient was compared with the discharge coefficient cal- turbo matching and control design at maximum torque
culated from the measured points. As shown, predicted and rated power operative points.
waste-gate discharge coefficient well agreed with the
measured one. A root means square error of 0.0253
was observed. This is about 3.6% of the maximum Declaration of conflicting interests
measured Cdmea (0.7) at 35% waste-gate, which is the The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
maximum practical waste-gate opening at tested turbo- respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
charger. The direct relation between the WG displace- article.
ment, the turbine pressure ratio, and the discharge
factor makes it possible to estimate the waste-gate flow Funding
using equation (13). The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
Figure 11 shows the modeled reduced mass flow port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
through the waste-gate valve, which is calculated from article: This work was partially funded by FEDER and
equation (13) and is compared to the experimental Government of Spain through Project TRA2016-79185-R.
Serrano et al. 9