1074
3, July 1988
CALCULATION OF WINDING TEMPERATURES IN DISTRIBUTION
TRANSFORMERS SUBJECTED TO HARMONIC CURRENTS
M. Davis Hwang W. Mack Grady
Member Senior Member
ESCA Corporation University of Texas at Austin
Bellevue, WA 98005 Austin, TX 78712
-
Abstract Winding losses increase when a transformer sup-
plies nonsinusoidal load currents. The corresponding increase in
winding temperature is usually assumed to increase propor-
tionately with loss. Also, the position of the winding hot-spot is
generally presumed to be fixed, regardless of harmonic current
content. The purpose of this paper is to compare winding tem-
perature predictions from a finite element based method with
actual measured values for a 10 kVA oil-immersed wire-wound
single phase distribution transformer. The results confirm the
prediction algorithm and illustrate that the position of the hot-spot
remains basically unchanged when harmonics are present.
INTRODUCTION
The widespread use of solid state controlled loads has
increased harmonic levels significantly during the past several
years. Harmonics affect both power system operation and power
system components, thereby necessitating a better understanding
of their overall impact. Since distribution transformers are usu-
ally the interface between a power system and a harmonics pro-
ducing load, they are components of major interest in this regard.
Although analytical and numerical methods for analyzing har-
monic problems in transformers exist [l-41, an overall evaluation
of the effect of harmonics on transformer temperatures and loss
of life is needed.
Increases in power loss and temperature rise are the primary
harmonics-related concern in transformers. The presence of har-
monic currents requires transformer deration [ 5 ] . Usually, two
assumptions are made during this procedure:
. the increase in temperature is proportional to losses
the position of the winding hot-spot is fixed.
Using these, increased losses are calculated with the frequency
squared rule [5], and the transformer is derated to maintain con-
stant winding loss. In actuality, winding eddy-current losses are
inversely proportional to winding temperature rise [6]. Hence, it
is important to consider the interaction between winding losses
and temperature when making an evaluation of the overall impact
of harmonic currents on transformers.
For the purpose of this research, a specially-equipped 10
kVA, 72001240 volt single phase distribution transformer was
constructed and used to conduct thermal tests with harmonic
currents through the 25th multiple of 60 Hz. This wire-wound
unit contains 36 thermocouples implanted in the windings, in the
oil, and on the tank. Electrical impedance calculations and meas-
87 SM 536-6 A paper recommended and approved
by the I E E E Transformers Committee of the IEEE Power
Engineering Society for presentation at the I E E E /
PES 1987 Summer Meeting, San Francisco, California,
July 12 - 17, 1987. Manuscript submitted
January 27, 1987; made available for printing
April 17, 1987.
0885-8977/88/0700-1074$01.00@1988 IEEE
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Volume 3, No.
H. Walter Sanders, Jr.
Senior Member
Texas Electric Cooperatives, Inc.
Austin, TX 78766
urements for a similar unit have already been published by the
authors [7], and these were repeated for this unit. The calcula-
tions were performed using a finite element based numerical algo-
rithm. This technique is now expanded to combine electrical and
thermal models and to provide an overall evaluation of the impact
of harmonic currents on small distribution transformers.
The purpose of this paper is to compare winding tempera-
ture predictions from a finite element based iterative algorithm
with actual measurements for the test transformer at common
low-ordered harmonics. An iterative algorithm is used to solve
both electrical and thermal problems simultaneously, thereby
allowing complete interaction between temperature and winding
resistivity in every turn. The results compare favorably. In addi-
tion, it is observed that the position of the winding hot-spot
remains basically unchanged for typical harmonic levels.
APPLICATION OF THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
Use of the finite element method to calculate harmonic
impedances of transformers has been described in the authors
previous publication [7]. The procedure has been shown to pro-
duce very accurate results. Since this procedure has been
described in detail already, only the thermal finite element prob-
lem is presented here.
Let the temperature rise @(x,y) in the windings be defined
as
@(x,y) = T(x,y) - To,, 9 (1)
where T(x,y) is the temperature at winding position (x,y), and
To,, is the temperature at the bottom of the oil duct. The steady
state two-dimensional heat conduction equation [8-91 within the
winding cross section is
where
K,, K ~ : Thermal conductivities in the x and y directions for
the conductors or insulation materials
q: Heat source in the conductors, zero in the insulation
materials.
Note that the heat source, or power loss density, exists only in
the winding conductors, and not in the insulation materials or air
gaps. Applying the finite element method to (2) produces
KSO=Q, (3)
where
K: Thermal conductivity of the conductors and insulation
materials
S: Square matrix with elements defined by the finite ele-
ment method
0: Unknown column vector of temperature rises for the
winding finite elements
Q: Known column vector of heat loss per unit length in
each element.

The discrete temperature rise in the windings is obtained by solv-
ing (3).
In order to solve (3), boundary conditions for the winding
surfaces must be determined using
K-
a0 + a
an E - e,] = 0, (4)
where n is the direction normal to the winding surface, a is the
heat transfer coefficient, and 0,is the oil duct temperature rise.
Since the winding surface is surrounded by insulating oil, a
represents the oil duct heat transfer coefficient. Complicated
thermal tests are required to find the true a,which is a nonlinear
function of temperature and oil duct height [lo]. However, for
long narrow oil ducts like those in the test transformer, this pro-
cedure can be simplified by assuming that the oil duct tempera-
ture varies linearly between the bottom-oil duct and top-oil duct.
In other words, a is assumed to be constant and is calculated
from the average oil duct and winding temperatures.
The bottom-oil duct, top-oil duct, and average winding tem-
perature rises are. calculated using a thermal analog circuit model
(described in the next section). Therefore, there are two steps
needed to calculate winding temperature distribution at any
specified power loss level:
1. Find the oil duct heat transfer coefficient and establish the
boundary conditions using the analog model
2. Solve the finite element conduction equation (3) using the
boundary conditions.
10.6 in.
Figure l(A): Cross Section of the 10 kVA Test Transformer
(Inside Window)
t
7.0 k
.._
1. LV Whdino
2. HV WhdhO
Figure l(E3): Cross Section of the 10 kVA Test Transformer
(Outside Window)
1075
The geometric configuration of the 10 kVA shell-type test
transformer is shown in Figures 1(A) and 1(B) (without tank and
insulating oil). Winding conductors in both cross sections are
arranged as N-parallel sets. The gaps between windings and
winding layers represent oil ducts. Insulating oil circulates
upward through these ducts, and heat created within the windings
passes through the conductors and insulating material to the cir-
culating oil.
Discretization of the thermal finite elements in the test
transformer is performed with linear rectangular elements. For
each winding set, boundary grid lines are established at winding
surfaces which contact insulating oil. The temperature of hor-
izontal boundary lines is assumed to be constant and equal to
either the top or bottom-oil duct temperature. Temperature in the
vertical oil ducts is assumed to vary linearly.
Due to device symmetry, only one-half of each cross section
shown in Figure 1 need be modeled. Likewise, since the wind-
ings are assumed to have the same temperature distribution
whether inside or outside the winding window, only one cross
section need be modeled. These assumptions have been verified
with thermal test results.
THERMAL ANALOG CIRCUIT MODEL
A fifth-order thermal'analog circuit model for the 10 kVA
test transformer with natural oil cooling is shown in Figure 2.
Nodes 1-5 represent high voltage windings, low voltage windings,
core, oil, and tank, respectively. T1 and T2 are the average tem-
perature rises in the high and low voltage windings. T3-T5
denote the temperature rises above ambient in the core, bottom-
oil duct, and tank. Heat inputs Q1, 4 2 , and 43 are the power
losses in the high voltage winding, low voltage winding, and
core. Power loss in the tank wall is neglected. Parameters G1-
G8 are the heat conductances between thermal nodes.
Parameters (3148 must be determined from thermal tests.
The procedure used is similar to that proposed by Lindsay [ 111.
First, several sets of temperature rises in nodes 1-5 are measured
by energizing heat source Q1 (using DC current injection into the
high voltage winding). Temperatures are measured, and the
results are shown in Figure 3, where a fitting function of the form
f(x) = is used to smooth and interpolate the results and to
reduce the number of required thermal tests (note - each thermal
test requires approximately one to three hours). Next, an AC
short circuit test is performed, which energizes heat sources Q1
and 42. Thus, the problem of injecting a very large DC current
into the low voltage winding is avoided. After performing each
test twice at different power loss levels, the results for source Q2
are obtained by subtracting the temperature contribution from
source Q1 (based on Figure 3) from the measurements. The
results shown in Figure 4 are obtained using the f(x) fitting func-
tion,
'6
1
I
Ql
-
Figure 2: Thermal Analog Circuit Model for the Test
Transformer
1076

Table 1: Experimentally Determined Coefficients of Thermal

Conductances for the Test Transformer

LV Winding

Core
Bottom Oil Duct G8 I 7.26704 I 0.11327
Tank
Gn(T4) = a, + alT4
T4 : Temperature of Bottom-Oil Duct

Table 1, is obtained by inverting the impedance matrix. A linear

regression formula of the form
G,(T4) = a, + alT4
High Voltage Winding Loss - Watts is employed, where T4 is the measured bottom-oil duct tempera-
ture.
Figure 3: Average Temperature Rise Versus High Voltage
Winding Loss The overall procedure is easily implemented. Actual tem-
peratures are taken at the top-oil ducts, bottom-oil ducts, and at
the core. Average winding temperatures are determined by the

50 I1 m=0.8 /
/ Lv Winding
resistance method.
The principal need for the thermal analog model is to deter-
mine heat transfer coefficient CL in the oil ducts as well as
boundary conditions for the thermal finite element solution.
Temperature rises Tl-TS in nodes 1-5 can be calculated using
this analog model for any given load current pattern. Fitting
function f(x), which is based on measured temperatures, is used
to predict top-oil duct temperatures at different power levels.
The average temperature of bottom and top-oil ducts, along with
the average high and low voltage winding temperatures, are used
to predict a,which is needed in the finite element solution.

ITERATIVE ALGORITHM FOR CALCULATING

LOSSES AND TEMPERATURE
Although higher temperatures increase DC copper losses,
winding eddy current losses tend to decrease with temperature.
An analytical formula describing this is [6]:
00 50 100 150 200
Low Voltage Winding Loss - Watts
250 300
[-+ ]
Pm = POc 234.5
[- T
234.5 +To +
234.5 + T o ]
234.5 + + pcc + POSL (-51
Figure 4: Average Temperature Rise Versus Low Voltage where
Winding Loss
PLL: Total transformer power loss at temperature T OC
P x : DC winding copper loss at To
A thermal test for heat source 4 3 is unnecessary because the PEC: Winding eddy current loss at To
core loss is very small during all measurements in this paper PCC: Core loss at To
(performed at low core flux densities). A single open circuited
POSL: Stray loss at To
thermal test at rated voltage is used to measure the core tempera-
ture only. The core temperature rise at other power levels is To: Reference temperature - 'C.
assumed to follow the function Clearly, DC copper losses are proportional to temperature, but
r .
. 10.8 winding eddy current losses are inversely proportional to tem-
perature. Thus, the electrical and thermal problems should be
solved simultaneously when investigating harmonic current
where 5 is the core temperature rise at rated core loss pr Then, effects on transformers.
the core temperature rise and the measured temperature rises, An iterative algorithm that combines both electrical and
shown in Figures 3 and 4, are used to build a temperature depen- thermal models to calculate losses and temperatures was
dent thermal impedance matrix. Finally, a temperature dependent developed by the authors and is shown functionally in Figure 5 .
conductance matrix, consisting of elements Gl-G8 shown in The functional blocks are:
 1077

I
I
I
I x34 I
HV AND LV POUER LOSSES

I I
I
I
I
I
t
Figure 6(A): Arrangement of Thermal Sensors in the 10 kVA
NO
> Test Transformer (Inside Right-Hand Window)
i
I
I . ELECTRICAL F I N I T E UODEL
I
POWER DISTRIBUTION I
I
I
I

Figure 5 :
1 B . OUTPUT

Flow Chart for the Electrical-Thermal Iterative Algo-

I
I
I
I
I
I
rithm I
I
1. Specify the nonsinusoidal currents for the test I
I
transformer. Other input data, such as transformer I
geometry, electrical, and thermal characteristics, are also I
I
required. I
2. Use the electrical finite element method to build harmonic
winding resistance tables for both high and low voltage
L
windings. The tables are used to calculate loss in each Figure 6(B): Arrangement of Thermal Sensors in the 10 kVA
Test Transformer (Outside Right-Hand Window)
winding for each harmonic order h and each average
temperature. tage winding (approximately 0.92 inches from the edges), and
3. Build the thermal analog model using the procedure one inch from the top and bottom of the high voltage winding.
described previously. The other winding sensors are placed in the vertical middle.
4. Build the thermal finite element models for both high and Three sensors are used to measure oil temperatures at the top
low voltage windings. These models compute winding duct, bottom duct, and at the top-oil level. Another sensor meas-
temperature distributions. ures the temperature at the mid-point of the center core leg.
5 . Check the tolerance for discrete conductor temperature Finally, a sensor is attached to the mid-point of the outside tank
correction. The selected tolerance is 0.1" C. wall.
6. Check the maximum iteration number. In order to verify the thermal analog model, 60 Hz tests
were performed to find average temperature rise in the test
7. Build the electrical finite element models for both wind-
transformer. The results are shown in Table 2. The measured
ings. These models predict winding power density distri-
values shown are the result of short circuit tests with low core
butions.
loss. Average temperature rises of the windings were obtained
8. Print the desired output, such as winding temperature dis- indirectly using the resistance method. These compared favor-
tribution and the temperature and location of the hot-spot. ably to direct measurements.
Blocks 3 through 7 represent the iterative loop needed to include
loss-temperature dependence.
The core loss in ( 5 ) is used as input data in block 1 . It is Table 2: Comparison of Measured and Predicted Average
assumed constant and small for all tests, since the tests were Temperature Rise ("C) for the Test Transformer
made at low flux density levels. Stray losses are neglected. Due
to symmetry, each half of the split high voltage and low voltage
winding is assumed to have the same temperature distribution.

THERMAL TESTS AND RESULTS

Thermocouple placement in the windings of the 10 kVA
transformer is shown in Figures 6(A) and 6(B). A total of 36 K-
type thermocouples are inserted. The top and bottom sensors are
placed on the third tum from the top and bottom of the low vol-
1078

Using the same short circuit thermal tests at 60 Hz, a com-
parison of several measured and predicted actual winding tem-
perature rises is shown in Figures 7(A) and 7(B). The predicted
values are calculated using the iterative algorithm. For the 250
W case, the iterative algorithm with resistivity correction is
approximately 2" C more accurate than the thermal finite model
only (which ignores loss variation with temperature). Although
there is a 4.2' C maximum error between measured and predicted
temperatures at the hot-spot (position 11) for the rated power loss
case (250 W), this is considerably better than the 15'C error
found by applying standard calculation procedures [12]. This
serves to validate use of the iterative algorithm for determining
The iterative algorithm confirms that the position of the
hot-spot within each winding is relatively fixed, regardless of the
harmonic pattern. Under certam circumstances, however, it is
possible that the transformer hot-spot could move from one wind-
ing to the other. However, for low voltage wire-wound distribu-
tion transformers subjected to typical distorted loads, it is reason-
able to assume that the position of the transformer hot-spot is
fixed.
-----
- Predicted Temperature of High Voltage Winding

winding temperature distribution. ----- Predicted

Measured Temperature of High Voltage Winding
Temperature of Low Voltage Winding
................Measured Temperature of Low Voltage Winding
In order to determine the impact of harmonic currents, the
test cases were repeated using single harmonic currents with mag-
nitudes 0.551 amperes (0.397 pu). The results for fundamental,
15th harmonic, and 25th harmonic are shown in Figures 8(A),
8(B), and 8(C), respectively. These are obtained from short cir-
cuit tests, for which the core loss is negligible. For the same
current magnitude, the measured winding loss increases by 12.3
W for the 25th harmonic. Measured temperatures at various
winding locations increase uniformly with harmonic order.
According to the predicted results with single harmonic
currents, it appears that the temperature distribution patterns in
the windings are fairly independent of harmonic order. The posi-
tion of the hot-spot within each winding appears to be fixed. It is
possible, however, that for some harmonic load pattems, the
transformer hot-spot could shift from the high voltage winding to
the low voltage winding since the eddy current effect is greater in
larger conductors. However, the authors believe that for wire-
wound distribution transformers with current distortion levels less
than 25%, the position of the hot-spot will not shift. Therefore,
the assumption of constant hot-spot position in low voltage distri-
bution transformers is probably valid.
Simulation results using the thermal finite element method I I I I I I l
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
illustrate that the inverse temperature variation of eddy current Winding Height - Inches
loss shown in (5) is accurate. By employing this observation, the
calculation of electrical finite element models in block 7 of Fig- Figure 7(A): Comparison of Measured and Predicted Tempera-
ure 5 can be simplified. The winding power loss distribution at a ture Rise ("C) Inside the Window of the Test
given temperature can be updated directly from the stored loss Transformer
distribution at a reference temperature. Thus, numerical recalcu-
lations of loss distribution from the electrical finite element model
can be eliminated.
As a final step, the iterative algorithm is used to predict a
harmonic deration curve. The curve, shown in Figure 9, is
developed using the assumptions that only one harmonic is
present and that the maximum allowable temperature rise of the
hot-spot is 80' C. Although tape-wound transformers and
transformers with higher voltage ratings are affected more notice-
ably by harmonics [2], the authors believe that the iterative algo-
rithm applies equally well to all transformers.

CONCLUSIONS
An algorithm which combines electrical and thermal finite
element models in an iterative loop is used to predict total wind-
ing loss and temperature distributions in a specially equipped
wire-wound 10 kVA distribution transformer which is subjected
to harmonic currents through the 25th order. The iterative algo-
rithm illustrates that the dependence between winding power loss
and temperature rise is important in evaluating the overall impact I I I I I I I
of harmonic currents on transformers. Since the winding eddy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
current loss is observed to be inversely proportional to tempera- Winding Height - Inches
ture, the overall temperature rise is not exactly proportional to
Figure 7(B): Comparison of Measured and Predicted Tempera-
total winding loss, as would be calculated by superimposing indi-
ture Rise ("C) Outside the Window of the Test
vidual harmonic losses.
Transformer
 1079

-----
-
-----
Predicted Temperature of High Voltage Winding
Measured Temperature of High Voltage Winding
Predicted Temperature of Low Voltage Winding
................ Measured Temperature of Low Voltage Winding

g:
=PI
~

12
1 Figure 8(A): Fundamental
Frequency

,-
1 .o
1 5 9 13 1 7 21 25
h - Harmonic Multiple of 60 Hz
Pu(l): Measured = 27.9W, Redicted = 28.6W
Figure 9: Deration Curve for the Test Transformer When Sub-
5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
jected to Individual Harmonic Currents

:$
Winding Height - Inches
REFERENCES
1. S . Crepaz, "Eddy Current Losses in Rectifier Transformers,"
Figure 8(B): 15th Harmonic
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol.
PAS-89, No. 7, pp. 1651-1656, September/October 1970.
13
2. A.E. Emanuel, Xiaoming Wang, "Estimation of Loss of Life
of Power Transformers Supplying Nonlinear Loads," IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-
104, NO. 3, pp. 628-636, March 1985.
3. E.F. Fuchs, D.J. Roesler, K.P. Kovacs, "Aging of Electrical
Appliances Due to Harmonics of the Power System's Vol-
tage," IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. PWRD-1,
No. 3, pp. 301-307, July 1986.
4. S.V. Preiningerova, V. Kahous, "Thermal Analysis of Large
Oil-Immersed Transformer Windings," Elecrric Machines
and Power Systems, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation,
Pu(15): Measured = 33.4W, Redicted = 32.6W
Washington, D.C., pp. 89-102, 1983.
5 5. IEEE-PES Transformer Committee, "Recommended Practice
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Winding Height - Inches for Establishing Transformer Capability When Supplying

:
Nonsinusoidal Load Currents," C57.110, 1986.
Figure 8(C): 25th Harmonic 6. S.A. Stigant, The J . and P. Transformer Book, Johnson and
Phillips LTD., London, 1941.
7. M.S. Hwang, W.M. Grady, H.W. Sanders, Jr., "Distribution
Transformer Winding Losses Due to Nonsinusoidal
Currents," IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol.
PWRD-12, NO. 1, pp. 140-146, January 1987.
8. J.P. Holman, Heat Transfer, Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill,
Inc., New York, 1981.
9. S.V. Preiningerova, M. Pivmec, "Temperature Distribution in
Coils of a Transformer Winding," Proceedings of the IEE,
Vol. 124, NO. 3, pp. 218-222, March 1977.
10. R.L. Grubb, M. Hudis, A.R. Traut, "A Transformer Thermal
Duct Study of Various Insulating Fluids," IEEE Transactions
P,(25): Measured = 40.2W, Predicted = 39.3W on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-100, No. 2, pp.
466-473, February 1981.
5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 11. J.F. Lindsay, "Temperature Rise Of An Oil-Filled
Winding Height - Inches Transformer With Varying Load," IEEE Transactions on
Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-103, No. 9, pp.
Figure 8: Comparison of Measured and Predicted Tempcrature 2530-2536, September 1984.
Rise (OC) in the Inner Low and High Voltage Wind- 12. American National Standards Institute, "Guide for Loading
ings with Constant Current Magnitude (0.551 A = Mineral-Oil Immersed Overhead and Pad-Mounted Distribu-
0.397 pu) tion Transformers," Standard C57.91, 1981.