Soil composition

Brady and Weil, 2002

Soil solid phase minerals
● Silicates
– Quartz (SiO2)
– Feldspar, amphibole, mica (K-Al silicates)
– Clay minerals: Kaolinite, illite, smectite, vermiculite
Quarts - Sand dunes - De Panne, Belgium
Soil solid phase minerals
– Silicates
● Quartz (SiO2)
● Feldspar, amphibole, mica (K-Al silicates)
● Clay minerals: Kaolinite, illite, smectite, vermiculite

– Sesquioxides (oxides and hydroxides of Fe, Mn, Al)

● Goethite (FeO(OH)); hematite (Fe2O3)
Fe and Mn Oxides. Zabriski point, Dead Valley, California
Soil solid phase minerals
– Silicates
● Quartz (SiO2)
● Feldspar, amphibole, mica (K-Al silicates)
● Clay minerals: Kaolinite, illite, smectite, vermiculite

– Sesquioxides (oxides and hydroxides of Fe, Mn, Al)

● Goethite (FeO(OH)); hematite (Fe2O3)
– Carbonates
● Calcite (CaCO3)
– Sulphates
● Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
Calcareous soil ( Swan Coastal Plain, Western Australia)
Terra Rossa – Cause Méjan, France
Devils golf course, Death Valley, California
Peat soil - Estonia
Texture

Particle size classes (mm)

Class International system System USDAa
Gravel >2.0 >2.0
Very coarse sand – 1.0–2.0
Coarse sand 0.2–2.0 0.5–1.0
Medium sand – 0.1–0.5
Fine sand 0.02–0.2 0.05–0.1
Loam (Silt) 0.002–0.02 0.002–0.05
Clay <0.002 <0.002
a
US Department of agriculture.
USDA Texture triangle
Clay minerals

Kaolinite Montmorillonite

electron microscopy
http://soils1.cses.vt.edu/MJE/CSES3124/cec_demo/version1.1/cec.html
Chemical elements in soils

Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals Metalloids

Nonmetals

Noble gasses
Transition metals Metals
Halogens
Concentrations of chemical
elements in soils
Major elements Trace elements
% mg/kg
Si 30 Ba 800 Co 10
Fe 4 Zr 700 As 10
Ca 3.5 S 500 Cr 10
Al 3 Mn 500 Sn 7
K 3 Li 100 Be 5
Na 2 Zn 100 Cd 1
C 2 V 100 Se 1
Ti 0.5 Ga 50 I 1
Mg 0.5 Ge 50 Hg 0.1
N 0.2 Cu 50 Ag 0.1
P 0.1 Pb 50
Ni 50
Y 25
La 25
F 20
B 20
Organic matter in soils

Plants, animals,
microbes and their
waste products

Biopolymers Decay processes

Carbohydrates, proteins
and fragments, fats,
pigments
Geopolymers
Humic substances

Fulvic acid Humic acid Humine

Soluble in alkaline and Soluble in alkali; insoluble Not soluble in alkaline nor
acidic medium in acid and ethanol acidic medium

Saar & Weber, 1988

http://soils.usda.gov/sqi/concepts/soil_biology/sbclipart.html
The soil solution
● Dissolved minerals
– Cations: Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+
– Anions: NO3−, SO42−, Cl−, HCO3−
– Inorganic complexes
● Dissolved organic matter (DOM)
● Colloidal matter
● Suspended matter
Dissolved and suspended particles

Diameter (m)

10–10 10–9 10–8 10–7 10–6 10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2

1 nm 1 µm 1 mm
0.45 µm
Molecules

Colloids

eg. clays
FeOOH Suspended particles
SiO2
CaCO3 Bacteria
Algae
Virusses
Soil solution and ground water

water table
phreatic plane
vadose zone
groundwater
phreatic zone
saturated zone
Gas phase
● Atmosphere
– N2: 75%; O2: 21%; other: 4% including CO2: 0.03% = 10−3.5 atm
● Soil solution:
– Limited diffusion
– Biological consumption of O2 and production of CO2
– O2 up to 15%, CO2 up to 3%
Soil Sampling
Sampling

Time
Problem: what do we want to
Cost
know?
Practical limitations

Soil sampling

Sampling strategy Sampling technique

What, where, how much, when ? How ?

Sample preparation

Analysis
Sampling strategy
● Central issue: what do I want to know?
– Fertility assessment
– Pollution assessment
– Spatial distribution
– ....
● Design strategy to obtain samples that
– are representative for the field
– allow to answer the (research) question with the desired precision
Sampling strategy: W shape
Sampling strategy: W shape
Sampling techniques
Sample preparation and conservation
● Samples that arrive in the lab should still be representative !
● Sample may change because of
– Growth of algae
– Oxidation
– Precipitation
– Absorption of CO2
– Absorption on recipients
● Sample preparation and conservation = f(parameters to analyze)
Suitable materials for conservation

Plastics without metal containing plasticizers,

fillers, stabilizers, antioxidizing agents
PTFE
Heavy metals High pressure polyethylene
Polypropylene
Silicone rubber

Low molecular organic

compounds Risk of diffusion with organic polymers → Glass

Avoid contamination
Sample preparation
Sample Sample preparation Instrument

g g g
1
2 4
3 7
l 5 l l
6 8

s s s
9

1. Introduction of gas sample into instrument

2. Condensation or gas-phase extraction
3. Condensation

4. Evaporation
5. Direct introduction in instrument/liquid-liquid extraction
6. Precipitation, evaporation, freeze drying

7. Sublimation
8. Dissolve, digest (destruction)
9. Direct introduction into instrument
Analysis
● Accurate analysis using appropriate methods
● Quality control
– Replicates
– Procedurial blanks
– Certified Reference Materials (CRMs)